Machining -- Surface, Cutting

Edge, and Shaping

• The principle used in all machining processes is
to create the surface required by providing
suitable relative motions between the cutting tool
and the workpiece.
• The cutting edge or edges on the cutting tool
remove a layer of work material; the removed
material is often called a chip.
• When a shaping tool is reciprocated back and
forth along a straight line and a workpiece is
incrementally fed beneath the tool in a direction
perpendicular to the motion of the tool, a flat
surface will be created on the workpiece.
 Turning
• A cylindrical surface can be generated by
spinning the workpiece and feeding the
tool parallel to the axis of workpiece spin
in turning.
• The internal or external cylindrical
surfaces using the lathe turning with a
pointed tool tip can also be categorized as
the single point cutting process.
 Primary and Secondary Motion
• The primary motion is the main motion provided
by a machine tool to cause the relative motion
between the tool and workpiece.
• The feed motion, or the secondary motion, is a
motion that may be provided to the tool or
workpiece by a machine tool which, when added
to the primary motion, leads to a repeated or
continuous chip removal.
• Usually, the primary motion absorbs most of the
total power required to perform a machining
operation.
Three Types of Metal Cutting Tools
• Single-point tools
• Multipoint tools
• Abrasive grits
 SINGLE POINT
CUTTING PROCESSES
Lathe Turning
Five Types of Lathe Operations
transient surface
primary motion machined primary motion
transient surface
surface ap
primary motion
work ap continuous
surface feed motion
dm dw κr
dw κr
dm dw
ap
κr tool
tool
work continuous (3-c)
surface feed motion
(3-a) (3-b) machined
surfaces
transient
surface

κr
dw
f
ap ap work
κr surface
continuous continuous
feed motion feed motion
(3-d) (3-e)
Single Point Cutting Configurations
-- Top view
tool shank

major cutting feed engagement cross section

edge angle κr of uncut chip
f
tool face
major cutting ap
edge back engagement
ac (depth of cut)
f undeformed
κr
ac chip thickness
minor cutting edge
minor cutting
edge angle κ’r
tool
corner
 Geometrical Relationships

ac = f sinκ r (1)
where
ac is the un-deformed chip thickness
f is feed

Ac = fa p (2)
where
Ac is the cross-sectional area
ap is depth of cut
 Machining Time
lw
t=
fnw
where
t is the machining time
lw is the length of cylindrical surface
nw is the rotational frequency of the
workpiece

Number of revolution of the workpiece is lw/f

 Cutting speed and MRR
πd m nw : cutting speed at the tool corner
πd wnw : maximum cutting speed
πnw ( d w + d m )
Average cutting speed vav = = πnw ( d m + a p )
2
Material removal rate Z w = Ac vav = (a p f )[πnw (d m + a p )]
Front view of the tube

dw dm
 Specific Cutting Energy, ps
• Energy required for a unit volume of work-
material
• ps -- unit of J/m3

• Power for primary motion (the main

workpiece spindle for the case of lathe):
Pm = Zwps
Approximate Value of ps

logps = 0.30− 0.46logac

log ps = 0.19 − 0.46 log a c
logps = 0.04− 0.46logac
logps = −0.26− 0.46logac
logps = −0.38− 0.46logac
 Surface Roughness: Ra and Rt
1
L 1 L 
Ra = ∫ y( x ) −  ∫ y( x )dx  dx : arithmetic average or
L0 L 
 0  centerline average
roughness

Rt = max [ y( x )] − min [ y( x )] : maximum (peak to

0≤ x ≤ L 0≤ x ≤ L
valley) height
roughness
 (a) (b)
f f/2 f
κ’r κ
r Rt κ’r Rt
κ’r
R
R t cot κr Rsin κ’r
R t cot κ’r

2
f
Rt =
f Rt ≈
cot κ r + cot κ' r 8R
  1  Rt  f  Rt
f2
Ra =
1
2    = =
f
 2 2 2  4 4(cot κ + cot κ' )
Ra ≈
f      r r 32 R
 Example
A 2024-T4 aluminum cylinder of 64 mm diameter
is turned on a lathe to reduce its diameter by 5
mm. The length to be machined on the cylinder is
105 mm. The lathe has 2 kW (2.68 HP, Note that
1 HP=745 W) available at the spindle and the HSS
cutter has a major cutting edge angle of 70o and a
minor cutting edge angle of 6o. Suppose the
operation is to be done in one pass while a smooth
surface with Ra less than 5 µm is desired, what
should be the spindle speed and how much
machining time would be needed.
Solution:
Using a safety factor of 1.5 on the desirable Ra, Eq. (10) gives:
5 × 10 −6 f
≥ ⇒ f ≤ 0.13 mm
1.5 ( o
4 cot 70 + cot 6 )
o

From Fig. 4, the specific cutting energy for aluminum alloy at an

undeformed chip thickness of ac = fsinκr = 0.13sin(70o) = 0.12 mm is
1.1 GJ/m3. Using a safety factor of 1.5 on the lathe power against
possible motor noise and vibration, Eqs. (5) and (6) give:

2000 9 5 × 10
−3
 5 ×10−3 
≥ (1.1×10 ) ( 0.13 ×10 ) πnw  0.064 −
−3
 ⇒ nw ≤ 19.3 Hz = 1158 rpm
1.5 2  2 
From Eq. (3), the required machining time is

105 × 10−3
t≥ = 42 s
0.13 × 10 (19.3)
−3

( )[ (
Z w = Ac vav = a p f πnw d m + a p )]
 Facing
dw
Machining time tm =
2 fnw

Maximum cutting speed vmax: vmax = πnw d w

Maximum metal removal rate Zw,max:

z w, max = πfa p nw d w
 Example -- Facing
The following figure shows the facing of a hollow cylinder with
inner diameter (di) of 20 mm and outer diameter (do) of 50 mm.
This operation is performed on a computer numerical controlled
(CNC) machine that reads the instantaneous tool position.
Based on the tool position, the tool infeed per revolution is varied
during the cut to maintain a constant material removal rate of
549 mm3/sec throughout the process. As ap of 1.5 mm is used,
what is the total machining time (in s)? If a constant infeed
process is exercised with a maximum material removal rate of
549 mm3/s at the beginning of cut, what is the total machining
time required?
ap

do
di
 Solution Typical Facing Computer Controlled Facing

infeed MRR
MR e d
R in f e

machining machining
time time

For constant Zw:

a pπ
(d 2
−d 2
) (1.5)π (50 2 − 20 2 )
volume of material removed o i
t= = 4 = 4 = 4. 5 s
zw zw 549
3
z
If a constant “f” is maintained with w,max = 549 mm /s
d o − di d o − di
zw,max = π fa p nw d o = π a p d o ⇒ tm = π a p d o
2tm 2 zw,max
50 − 20
⇒ tm = π (1.5 )( 50 ) = 6.44 s
2 ( 549 )
 Other Single Point Processes
• Shaping
• Boring
• Planing
 In turning a mild steel tube with 2.5 mm thick wall in an orthogonal
cutting configuration (0 deg lead angle) with 0.25 mm/rev feed, 0
deg rake angle and 200 m/min cutting speed, the average chip
thickness was 0.75 mm and the cutting and thrust force was 600 N
and 900 N, respectively. Calculate:
• (i) From the cutting geometry, find the cutting ratio, γc, and shear
angle, φ.
• (ii) From the Merchant force circle, find the force components normal
and parallel to the shear plane (Fn and Fs), normal and parallel to
the rake face (N and F), friction angle, β, and coefficient of friction, µ.
• (iii) Estimate the shear stress, τ, across the shear plane.
• (iv) Use the Merchant’s equation to estimate the shear angle and
compare to the measured shear angle.
• (v) From the velocity triangle, find the chip velocity and velocity
across shear plane.
• (vi) Estimate the specific cutting energy, specific shear energy and
specific friction energy.
 Concluding Remarks
• Single point machining is the most basic
machining process
• It is an important first step to understand
the machining processes
• Most of machining simulation is still based
on single point cutting
• Multipoint machining is next!