IE 3371 :Automatic Control Systems

Chapter 2 :Sensors and Transducers

 Definition
• Measurement
– A method to obtain information regarding the physical
values .
• Instrumentation
– Devices used in measurement system
• Transducer: A device that converts one form of energy to
another.
• Sensor: Electronic transducer that converts physical quantity
into an electrical signal.
• receives a stimulus and responds with an electrical signal
Two basic categories:
1. Analog
2. Discrete
• Actuator: converts energy into physical quntity “mechanical 2
 Block diagram of Generalised
measuring system by using sensors

General Structure of Measuring System

 Stage 1: A detection-transducer or sensor-transducer, stage; e.g.

Bourdon tube
 Stage 2: A signal conditioning stage; e.g. gearing, filters, bridges
 Stage 3: A terminating or readout-recording stage; e.g. printers,
oscilloscope

3
 Transfer Function
S = f (s)

where S = output signal; s = stimulus; and f(s) = functional relationship

For binary sensors: S = 1 if s > 0 and S = 0 if s < 0.

The ideal functional form for an analogue measuring device is a simple

proportional relationship, such as:

S = C + ms
where C = output value at a stimulus value of zero
and m = constant of proportionality (sensitivity)
 Example
• The output voltage of a particular
thermocouple sensor is registered to be 42.3
mV at temperature 105C. It had previously
been set to emit a zero voltage at 0C. Since
an output/input relationship exists between
the two temperatures, determine (1) the
transfer function of the thermocouple, and (2)
the temperature corresponding to a voltage
output of 15.8 mV.
 Solution

S = C + ms 42.3 mV = 0 + m(105C) = m(105C)

orm = 0.4028571429

S = 0.4 (s)

15.8 mV = 0.4 (s)

15.8 / 0.4 = s
s = 39.22C
 Static Characteristics
Important Parameters
• Accuracy
• Precision
• Tolerance
• Range or span
• Linearity
• Sensitivity of measurement
• Threshold
• Resolution
• Sensitivity to disturbance
 Accuracy and Precision
• Accuracy – the degree of exactness
(closeness) of measured value compared to
the true value.
• Precision – a measure of consistency or
repeatability of measurement, i.e successive
reading do not differ.
 Tolerance
accuracy : the maximum error that is to be expected in some value
• Example 2.2
• A packet of resistors bought in an electronics component shop
gives the nominal resistance value as 1000 O and the
manufacturing tolerance as ± 5%. If one resistor
is chosen at random from the packet, what is the minimum and
maximum resistance value that this particular resistor is likely to
have?

• Solution
• The minimum likely value is 1000 O – 5% 950 O.
• The maximum likely value is 1000 O + 5% 1050 O.
 Range or span

• The range or span of an instrument defines the

minimum and maximum values of a quantity that
the instrument is designed to measure.
 Sensitivity of measurement

• ratio of change in the output (response) of

instrument to a change of input or measured
`
• Thus, sensitivity is the ratio:
 Sensitivity Example

• The following resistance values of a platinum

resistance thermometer were measured at a
range of temperatures. Determine the
measurement sensitivity of the instrument in
ohms/°C
 Solution

If these values are plotted on a graph, the

straight-line relationship between resistance
change and temperature change is obvious. For
a change in temperature of 30°C, the change in
resistance is 7. Hence the measurement
sensitivity = 7/30 = 0.233Ω/°C.
 Linearity
• It is normally desirable that the output
reading of an instrument is linearly
proportional to the quantity being measured.
 Threshold

• This minimum level of input is known as the

threshold of the instrument.
• If the input to an instrument is gradually
increased from zero, the input will have to
reach a certain minimum level before the
change in the instrument output reading is of
a large enough magnitude to be detectable.
This minimum level of input is known as the
threshold of the instrument.
 Resolution
the smallest change in a measurement variable to
which an instrument will respond
When an instrument is showing a particular
output reading, there is a lower limit on the
magnitude of the change in the input measured
quantity that produces an observable change in
the instrument output. Like threshold, resolution
is sometimes specified as an absolute value and
sometimes as a percentage of f.s deflection.
 Sensitivity to disturbance

•All calibrations and specifications of an

instrument are only valid under controlled
conditions of temperature, pressure etc.
•These standard ambient conditions are usually
defined in the instrument specification.
 Sensitivity to disturbance Types
• The sensitivity to disturbance is a measure of the
magnitude of this change.
•Such environmental changes affect instruments in two
main ways, known as zero drift and sensitivity drift.
•Zero drift or bias describes the effect where the zero
reading of an instrument is modified by a change in
ambient conditions.
•Sensitivity drift (also known as scale factor drift) defines
the amount by which an instrument’s sensitivity of
measurement varies as ambient conditions change.
Sensitivity to disturbance Types
Sensitivity example
Sensitivity example
 Industrial Sensors
• Tactile sensor
• Proximity
– Mechanical
– Optical
– Inductive
-Capacitive
• Position/Velocity
– Potentiometer
– LVDT
– Encoders
– TACHOMETERS
• Force/Pressure
• Vibration/acceleration
• Temperature
• Pressure
 Tactile sensor
• Tactile sensor: Measuring device that indicates
physical contact between two objects.
 Proximity sensors

• A Proximity Sensor Detects An Object

When The Object Approaches Within The
Detection Range And Boundary Of The
Sensor
• Types of proximity sensors
 INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SENSOR
➢ An Inductive proximity sensor is an electronic proximity
sensor , which detect metallic object without touching
them.

➢ Their operating principle is based on a coil and high

frequency oscillator that creates a field in the close
surrounding of the sensing surface .

➢ The operating distance of the sensor depends on the coil’s

size as well as the target ‘s shape, size and material
ADVANTAGES
➢they are very accurate compared to other
technologies.
• Have high switching rate.
• Can work in harsh environmental conditions.

DISADVANTAGES
➢It can detect only metallic target.
➢Operating range may be limited.
 Capacitive proximity sensors
➢ Capacitive Sensor Are Used For Non Contact
Detection Of Metallic Object And Non Metallic
Object(liquid, Plastic, Wooden Material Etc.)

➢Capacitive Proximity Sensors Use The

Variation Of Capacitance Between The
Sensor And Object Being Detected.

➢Capacitance Methods Are Very Sensitive ,

Distance Down To One Micro Inch Can Be
Measured.
 Construction and working
➢ The Main Components Of The Capacitive Proximity
Sensor Are Plate, Oscillator, Threshold Detector And The
Output Circuit.

• The Plate Inside The Sensor Acts As One Plate Of The

Capacitor And The Target Acts As Another Plate And The
Air Acts As The Dielectric Between The Plates.

 The Capacitive Sensor Can Detect Any Targets Whose

Dielectric Constant Is More Than Air
ADVANTAGES
➢ It can detect both metallic and non metallic targets.
• Good stability
• High Speed
• Capacitive sensors are good in terms of power usage
• Low cost
DISADVANTAGES
➢ They are affected by temperature and humidity
• Difficulties in designing
• Capacitive proximity sensors are not as accurate
compare to inductive sensors.
 OPTICAL SENSOR
➢The Light Emitted By The Transmitter Focuses
On The Object Which Reflects To Be Received
By The Receiver Photo Diode.
➢The Object Within The Range Of The Sensor
Can Detect The Presence.
 ADVANTAGES
• They Are Useful And Can Help Many Security
Problems.

DISADVANTGES
• They Can Easily Be Set Off And Cause Problems.
• They Are Expensive Than Inductive And Capacitive
Proximity Sensor

APPLICATION
• Optical proximity sensors mostly apply in
automobile/process eng. For distance measurement,
level sensing etc.
 Ultrasonic sensors
➢Ultrasonic Sensor Are Some Type Used In
Place Of Optical Sensors . Instead Of Using An
Light Beam , A High Frequency Sound Wave Is
Used.
➢This Sound Wave Is Above Normal Hearing
Frequencies And Are Called Ultrasonic
Frequencies Around 40 KHz Are Common.
ADVANTAGES
• Ultrasonic proximity sensors are not affected
by atmospheric dust, snow, rain..etc
• Can work in adverse conditions
• Sensing distance is more compared to
inductive or capacitive proximity sensors

DISADVANTAGES
➢Ultrasonic sensors Has More Difficulties
Reading Reflections From Soft, Curved, Thin
Or Small Objects.
 Position and Velocity Sensors
• Position and velocity measurement is often
required in feedback loops
• For positioning, and velocity control • Position
measurement:
• – Potentiometers
• – LVDT
• – Encoders
• Velocity Measurement: • Tachometer
 Potentiometer
• Potentiometer: Analog position sensor
consisting of resistor and contact slider.
Position of slider on resistor determines
measured resistance.
Advantages of LVDT
 Optical encoder
• Optical encoder: Digital device used to measure
position and/or speed, consisting of a slotted disk
separating a light source from a photocell.
• Consist of a glass or plastic disc that rotates
• between a light source (LED) and a pair of
• photo-detectors
• • Disk is encoded with alternate light and dark
• sectors so pulses are produced as disk rotates
 Incremental Optical Encoders
• Incremental Encoder:
light sensor
- direction
decode - resolution
light emitter circuitry

grating
• It generates pulses proportional to the rotation speed of the shaft.
• Direction can also be indicated with a two phase encoder:

B A leads B
 Absolute Optical Encoders
• Used when loss of reference is not possible.
• Gray codes: only one bit changes at a time ( less uncertainty).
• The information is transferred in parallel form (many wires are necessary).

Binary Gray Code

000 000

001 001

010 011

011 010

100 110

101 111

110 101

111 100
 TACHOMETERS
• There are two types, A.C. and D.C. The A.C.
type generates a sinusoidal output. The
frequency of the voltage represents the speed
of rotation. The frequency must be counted
and processed. The D.C. type generates a
voltage directly proportional to the speed.
Both types must be coupled to the rotating
body. very often the tachometer is built into
electric motors to measure their speed.
A force-measuring device based on
a compression spring and LDVT.
Definition of Strain Gauges Sensing
• A strain gauge is a device used to measure
how much a component distorts under
loading.
• The electrical resistance of a sensing material
changes as a result of applied strains.
• A strain gauge is a conductor or
semiconductor material that can be directly
fabricated on the sensor itself or bonded with
the sensor.
 Application
• Residual stress
• Vibration measurement
• Torque measurement
• Bending and deflection measurement
• Compression and tension measurement
• Strain measurement
Strain Gauge (in action)
 Basic Formula for Describing Strain
Gauge
• K is called Gauge Factor of a Gauge. It determines the amplification
factor between strain and resistance change.
R L
=K•
R L
R stress = E
R
K= R =
l R
l

Material Gauge factor

Metal foil 1-5
Semiconductor (crystal) 80-150
Diffused semiconductor 10-200

Why the big difference between materials?

Bending Beam Load Cell

Strain Gauge
In Tension

Strain Gauge
in compression
The copper-nickel alloy (Advance) provides a gage factor
around 2.
Bridge structures
Half bridge -2 gauge system
Full Bridge Strain Gauge

R
R

R R
Full Bridge - 4 gauge system