SCHOLARLY WRITINGS

PREPARED BY

FRANCIS O. NWAIGWE (MSc. Econs)

There are many forms a written work can take in academics. Each form is unique and
peculiar. Each form requires its own procedures and methods because it has to satisfy
specific requirements and possess certain features to fit into its own description. We
shall attempt to explain the features of some of these kinds of write-ups. These write-
ups have many things in common such that students sometimes are not very clear on
what is required on a particular kind of write-up vis-à-vis another. The various kinds of
write-up include the following: Seminar, Symposium, Public Lecture, Students’ Project/
Dissertation/Thesis, Monograph, Mimeograph, Journal Article, Book Article/Chapter,
Textbook, Workshop, Term Paper, Essay and Conference Papers.

This aspect is intended to guide students in particular and researchers in general on

various stages of writing their research. It is also intended that it will provide a guide on
how to present a research work in an acceptable form.

Seminar

a. Definition

This is a talk/study by a small group of scholars about a particular subject or

topic.

b. Nature of Topic

The topic is determined by the interest of the author. The author selects what he
considers appropriate or as a student, what is assigned to him/her.

c. The author (who can write/present a seminar)

A knowledgeable person in a particular discipline or subject area selects a topic in

that area and presents it in a seminar.
d. Purpose of a Seminar

A knowledgeable person presents what he knows or what he gathered about a

topic.

e. The Audience

Seminar is presented to group of person in the same subject area or closely

related area. The audience of a seminar is the general public. It is area limited by
discipline and specialization. Scholars of the same area are attracted together.

f. Feedback

Since the presenter and audience are of the same discipline or specialization or
closely related discipline or specialization, the audience can ask questions, make
contributions and in fact can improve on what is being presented.

g. How Presented

A seminar paper is not a book and so is not presented in chapters. It is rather a

paper presented in sections. Each section discusses a closely related aspect of the
topic. The introduction introduces the whole work and says what is done in each
section.

h. Content

It need not be a research endeavour but sometimes it could result from research.

i. Whether Published

Seminar papers are not usually published.

j. Binding

Seminar papers are not usually bound but they could be put together on a
temporary kind of binding.
 Symposium

a. Definition

This is a formal meeting in which people who know a lot about a particular
subject have a discussion about it.

b. Nature of Topic

A symposium topic is usually a topical or sensitive issue of general or common

interest; an on gong issue in contemporary times.

c. The Author/Presenter

An expert or well informed person in the area being discussed chooses a topic,
prepares and presents it.

d. Purpose

A knowledgeable person presents what he knows to educate and enlighten the

public in an ongoing or contemporary issue of interest to the public.

e. The Audience

It is presented to the general public. Anybody can be part of the audience of a

symposium.

f. Feedback

Since the symposium is presented by an expert to the general public, the nature
of the feedback is by inquiry and questions by the public to the expert to enable
the public get better informed and more enlightened. The public may not be
contributing to improve on what is presented because they are not
knowledgeable in the area being discussed.

g. How Presented

It is usually presented in sections. Each section discusses a closely related aspect

of the topic. A group of such articles on a particular subject may be together for
easy accessibility.
h. Content

It need not be a research endeavour.

i. Whether Published

Not usually published.

j. Binding

Not usually bound. But a group of such article on a particular subject may be
together for easy accessibility

Public lecture

a. Definition

A long talk given to a group of people on a particular subject.

b. Nature of Topic

The topic need not be a sensitive and topical, otherwise, it is the same as in
symposium.

c. Author/Presenter

An expert or well-informed person in an area chooses a topic that need not be

topical or sensitive which he prepares and presents.

d. Purpose of a Public Lecture

A knowledgeable person shares his knowledge with the public by presenting

what he knows to educate others.

e. The Audience

The audience is unrestricted. People can come from all works of life.
f. Feedback

The feedback from the audience is by inquiry and questions for clarification by
the expert presenting. The audience need not be knowledgeable in the topic and
so may not be contributing to improve on it.

g. How Presented

It is not a book and so not presented in chapters. It is usually presented in

sections. Each section discusses a closely related aspect of the topic.

h. Content

It may or may not originate from a research endeavor. It involves an expert

presenting and discussing his knowledge with the audience/public.

i. Whether published

A public lecture is not usually published.

j. Binding

Not usually bound together.

Mimeograph

a. Definition

This is a written discussion of more than one topic by a specialist in a field of

study.

b. Nature of Topic

This is determined by the interest of the author and the purpose for which he is
writing.

c. The Author/Presenter

A knowledgeable person prepares and writes on some topics perhaps that make
up a course of study or other purposes for use in teaching or for the purpose as
specified.
d. Purpose

Mimeographs can be used for various purposes according to why it was

prepared. The handouts we use in teaching are mimeographs for teaching.

e. The Audience

A mimeograph is presented to the relevant audience that is interested in the

mimeograph or for whom the mimeograph was made.

f. Feedback

The feedback in a mimeograph takes the nature of inquiry and question for
further clarification by the expert presenting.

g. How Presented

It is usually presented in topics or sub-headings. Each subheading or topic is

treated separately and exhaustively. After that, another subheading or topic is
then taken up.

Mimeographs are not usually bound together as in books, but they could be held
together in one form or the other for the purpose of keeping them together to
ensure that they satisfy the need for which they were produced.

h. Content

A mimeograph is not usually a research endeavour. It is rather a preparation for a

particular purpose. It is a discussion of different topics or subtopics and concepts
for a defined purpose like teaching.

i. Whether Published

It is not prepared for publication and so not usually published.

j. Binding

It is not bound with covers, but it could be held together in different ways.
 Journal Article

a. Definition

An article written by professional people or people in the same profession in a

particular interest area.

b. Nature of Topic

The broad topic area is determined by the journal. The specific topic is
determined by the interest of the author.

c. The Author/ Presenter

The author is a highly specialized person within the subject area covered by the
journal.

d. Purpose

As contribution to knowledge, it is used to report a research investigation carried

out by the author.

e. The Audience

A journal article is for professional colleagues who will appreciate and share the
opinion of the author in their profession with a view to criticizing it for
improvement.

f. Feedback

Professional colleagues read and report back to the journal. The praise, criticize,
suggest ways of improvement by suggesting, adding what is missing, excising
what is not relevant and other forms of improvement to the article in particular
and the subject area in general.

g. How Presented

It is presented in the format of the journal publishing the article. It is not written
in chapters. Journal articles are not usually published alone. A number of journal
articles are published together in one volume of the journal.
h. Content

Journal articles are research endeavours always. They are abridged project report
or report of a research endeavour.

i. Whether Published

Journal articles are usually published in the journal together with other journal
articles.

j. Binding

Journal articles are usually bound together to form a volume of the journal.

Workshop Paper

a. Definition/Description

A meeting at which people try to improve their skills by discussing their

experiences and doing some practical exercises. The experienced share their
experiences with others.

b. Nature of Topic

The topic varies according to situations. Workshops are organized for different
people and different purposes. The topics vary in the same way.

c. The Author/Presenter

An experienced and knowledgeable person in a field of life shares his knowledge

and experience with others to improve on the activities of the beneficiaries.

d. Purpose

To prepare and sharpen the skills of the beneficiaries and chart a course for them

e. The Audience

People in the same field of work as the presenter trying to benefit from the
experiences of someone who passed through the stages themselves are currently
or will rise to later.
f. Feedback

There is always an evaluation in a workshop after the discussion. The evaluation

is to confirm that the beneficiaries have understood and mastered what was
taught.

g. How Presented

Workshops are usually presented in the form of discussion.

h. Contents

A workshop is not usually a research endeavour. It is a discussion, demonstration

and presentation of how things are done.

i. Whether Published

Workshop papers are not usually published.

j. Binding

Workshop papers are not usually bound together like textbooks, but they could
be held together in one form or another for convenience.

Term Paper

a. Definition

A term paper is a long piece of written work by a student in a course of study that
constitutes part of work required of him for the discipline.

b. Nature of Topic

This varies according to the nature of the discipline.

c. The author/Presenter

A student undergoing a course of study in the area of the topic.

d. Purpose

It is part of training and evaluation in the discipline.

e. The Audience

It is presented to the discipline lecturer as part of the work in the discipline.

f. Feedback

Assessment by the discipline lecturer/department and award of marks as

considered appropriate.

g. How Presented

It is submitted to the discipline lecturer as part of final work for the discipline. It is
usually presented in sections and not chapters.

h. Content

It may or may not be a research endeavor. It is a study of a topic in a field of

work.

i. Whether Published

Term papers are not usually published.

j. Binding

Term papers are not usually bound together like textbooks but they could be
spiral banded for easy handling.

Essay

a. Definition

This is a short piece of writing giving someone’s ideas about a topic. It explains
the author’s understanding of the topic of interest. The topic can be anything.

b. Nature of Topic

The topic is according to the interest of the author. It can be anything. You could
write an essay on politics, society, a human being, an animal, a concept, etc.
c. The Author/ Presenter

An experienced and knowledgeable person documents his experience,

knowledge and findings on a topic for others to benefit from.

d. Purpose

Put on record for others to benefit from one’s experience and findings on an
issue or concept.

e. The Audience

Everyone interested in the topic or concept being discussed could benefit from
the essay.

f. Feedback

This is by way of responses and reactions to the ideas presented. It could take the
form of criticism, improvement or reshaping the ideas presented.

g. How Presented

It depends on the nature of the essay. An academic essay could be presented in

chapters. If it is very big, it could be presented in volumes. A minor essay could be
presented in sections.

h. Content

It may or may not be a research endeavor. It represents and explains the author’s
ideas and understanding of the topic being discussed.

i. Whether Published

Academic essays are usually published.

j. Binding

Such essays for publication are usually bound.

 Conference Papers

a. Description/Definition

A conference is a large formal meeting where many people discuss important

matters such as business/economics or politics for some days.

b. Nature of Topic

A conference has a general theme. Each conferee chooses or selects a topic

related to the general theme or from a list provided and writes on it.

c. The Author/Presenter

The conferee must be knowledgeable in the area of the topic he or she has
selected.

d. Purpose

To investigate and illuminate on the general theme of the conference, and to put
such findings down to guide the future.

e. Audience

The audience is made up of all conferees and others interested in the subject
area of the conference or topic.

f. Feedback

The feedback is by question to the presenter for clarification and comments by

other conferees.

g. How Presented

It is read to the conferees in a conference.

h. Content

Conference papers are usually research endeavours.

i. Whether Published

It is hoped that the papers will be published in a conference proceedings or

journal.
 j. Binding

Each paper is stapled together by the presenter. But when the proceedings are
published, the different papers are bound together.

Students' Project/Dissertation/Thesis

Submitting a research work is part of the requirement for the award of certificates,
diplomas and degrees to students of tertiary institutions. This is usually tasking for the
students. It is usually scheduled to take place at the end of the programme. This
corresponds to the last semester of the students’ stay in the institution most of the
time. Non-degree programmes usually write an original essay. The research work for
undergraduate who are working for first degree is usually referred to as project.
Postgraduate works that are below master’s degree are also referred to as projects.
Such postgraduate programmes will include the postgraduate diplomas and certificate
courses where these are required to include research work. The master’s degree
research works are referred to either as dissertation or as thesis. Thesis is usually
defended. The undefended master’s research work is referred to as dissertation. The
PhD research work is called thesis.

a. Definition

A long piece of work about a particular subject usually written by university

students as part of the requirements for the award of a university degree usually
presented towards the end of the programme. Students in other tertiary
institutions usually present this kind of work in one form or the other.

b. Nature of Topic

The topic is determined by the interest of the author. The topic must be a
researchable topic.

c. The Author/Presenter

The author is knowledgeable person researching or investigating an issue. They

are usually guided by a more knowledgeable person as supervisor.
d. Purpose

It is usually presented as part of the requirements for the award of a university

degree.

e. Audience

It is presented to a department as part of the requirements for the award of a

degree.

f. Feedback

The feedback is by assessment by the department and award of marks as

considered appropriate. In most cases it is defended before a panel of examiners.

g. How Presented

It is submitted to the department. They are usually bound with covers. It is

presented in chapters. The number of chapters and the format is as approved by
the department or a higher authority in the university awarding the degree.

h. Content

It is a research endeavor. It is an outcome of a supervised research in an

academic department. It is meant to contribute to an existing body of knowledge.

i. Whether Published

It is not prepared for publication and so not usually published.

j. Binding

It is usually bound together before submission.