Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
British Administration:
· What in your opinion are the positive steps taken by the British to modernize India. (30 marks).
· Examine the policy of Subordinate Union towards Princely States. Account for the shift from the
policy of Subordinate Isolation (30 Marks).
· Discuss the major regulations enacted by the British Rulers to curb the freedom of Press in India (30
Marks).
· What administrative changes were introduced after 1858? What were the objectives of these changes?
(30 Marks).
Committees:
· Discuss the main findings of the Hartog Committee (15 Marks).
· What was the Butler Committee Report? Discuss the reactions on the report in India. (30 Marks).
Uprisings:
· Discuss the character of the major tribal uprisings in the British India in the 19th Century. (15 Marks).
· Discuss the aims and objects of the Khilafat Movement. To what extent was it successful? (15 Marks).
· Why did Gandhi launch the Salt Satyagraha in 1930 & with what results? (15 Marks).
· Trace the origin of Swadeshi Movement. How did it involve the masses? (30 Marks).
Revolutionaries
· Evaluate the contribution of revolutionary terrorism represented by Bhagat Singh to the cause of
India’s struggle for independence.
· Where did tettorist movement gather strength in countries other than India?
Cultural Terms
Ajivikas An ascetic sect that emerged in India about the same time as Buddhism and
Jainism. It was founded by Goshala Maskariputra (also called Gosala
Makkhaliputta), a friend of Mahavira, the 24th Tirthankara The Ajivikas believed
that transmigration of the human soul was determined by a precise and non-
personal cosmic principle called Niyati (destiny or fate) and was completely
independent of the person's actions. They are believed to have been strict fatalists,
who did not believe in karma or the possibility of free will.
Mahayana Cult The fourth Buddhist council in Kashmir under Kanishka marked the beginning of
Mahayana cult of Buddhism. The arising of the Mahayana school of Buddhism
went together with the adoption of new sutras, and introduced new philosophies
such as the Bodhisattva and having the intention of liberating all sentient beings.
Mahayana itself never groups itself with the previously existing schools, and
groups all the earlier schools together under the name Hinayana.
Pali Canon or The Pali Canon is the standard scripture collection of the Theravada Buddhist
Tipitaka tradition, as preserved in the Pali language. The Canon was written down from oral
tradition at the occasion of the Fourth Buddhist Council (in the usual Theravada
numbering). The Pali Canon falls into three general categories, called pitaka
(piṭaka, basket) in Pali. Because of this, the canon is traditionally known as the
Tipitaka (Tipiṭaka; three baskets).The three pitakas are as follows.
Vinaya Pitaka, dealing with rules for monks and nuns
Sutta Pitaka, discourses, mostly ascribed to the Buddha, but some to disciples
Abhidhamma Pitaka, variously described as philosophy, psychology, metaphysics
etc.
Dhammapada The Dhammapada (Pāli, sometimes translated as Path of the Dharma. Also Prakrit
Dhamapada, Sanskrit Dharmapada) is a Buddhist scripture, containing 423 verses
in 26 categories. According to tradition, these are verses spoken by the Buddha on
various occasions, most of which deal with ethics. A fourth or fifth century
commentary attributed to Buddhaghosa includes 305 stories which give context to
the verses.
The Dhammapada is a popular section of the Pāli Tipitaka and is considered one of
the most important pieces of Theravada literature.
Mahavamsa is a historical poem written in the Pāli language, of the kings of Sri Lanka.
Atthakatha Atthakatha] refers to Pali-language Theravadin Buddhist commentaries to the
canonical Theravadin Tipitaka. These commentaries give the traditional
interpretations of the scriptures.
Jataka Folk tale about 550 births of Buddha before he was finally born as Buddha. The
word most specifically refers to a text division of the Pali Canon of Theravada
Buddhism, included in the Khuddaka Nikaya of the Sutta Pitaka.
Theravada Theravada (literally means “The teaching of the Elders”) is the oldest surviving
Buddhist school and for many centuries has been the predominant religion of Sri
Lanka
Hinayana Literally means the low vehicle" or "the inferior vehicle”. It is a polemical term
coined by Mahāyāna Buddhists to denigrate their opponent. Hīnayāna is sometimes
said to be corresponding solely to the Early Buddhist Schools, and not to the
current Theravada school, while sometimes it is held to be also cognate with the
modern Theravada tradition. Many hold that the term was coined to be purposely
pejorative, while others do not. Hinayana professed Nirvana for the practitioner
while Mahayana believed in salvation of entire human beings.
Vajrayana Vajrayana Buddhism, also known as Tantric, Mantrayana and Esoteric Buddhism,
Buddhism is a school of Buddhism that flourished around the 4th century in Tibet. This new
sect is based on the ancient Vedic Tantric practices of India. The tradition of
Vajrayana started to evolve in eastern India in the 8th century and gained wider
recognition in Bihar and West Bengal. Nalanda University became a center for the
development of Vajrayana movement. At the end of the 13th century, this school
declined in India and merged with Hinduism
Triratna of Right Knowledge, right faith & right action.
Jainism
Digambar Jains under the leadership of Bhadrabahu went to south from protecting them from
Great Famine that lasted for 200 years. Senior Digambar monks wore no clothes,
following the practice of Lord Mahavira.
Shvetrambra Under the leadership of Sthalabahu who stayed back during the great famine.
Svetambara monks usually wear white clothes, maintaining that nudity is no longer
practicable. While there are some differences in some practices, the main principles
like Mahavratas, Anuvratas etc. are the same.
Bhagwati Sutra Sacred book of the Jains. It should be noted that in BHAGWATI SUTRA,
Bhagwaan Mahaveer responds to each question with the statement "subject to
qualification" in view of the Jain principle of relativism (SYAADAVAAD)
Advaita Advaita Philosophy, or Nondualism / Monism is the most popular spiritual path in
Philosophy Hinduism, propounded by most of the Indian sages. It is based on the Vedas, the
oldest and basic Indian scriptures. The core idea of Advaita is that 'God and living-
beings are not two different entities and they are one and the same. It is the actions
or Karma of individuals that unite or separate these two'. Advaita was revived by
Shankaracharya in the eighth century. Advaitic experience or nondualistic
perception is believed to be possible, only by rigorous and conscious sadhana.
Dvaita Dvaita Philosophy is an outshoot of the Vedanta Philosophy of ancient India.
alternate four 24-spoked Dharma wheels with four animals (an elephant, a bull, a
horse, a lion in this order), and four lions facing the four cardinal directions. The
four animals are believed to symbolize different steps of the Gautama Buddha's
life.
Single Lion There exists in Vaishali, Bihar a pillar with a single lion capital erected by Ashoka.
Capital The location of this pillar is contiguous to the site where a Buddhist monastery and
a sacred coronation tank stood.
Gomateshwara Monolithic statue of the Jain Saint, Gomteshwara, standing at 60 feet above a hill
in a place called Shravanabelagola in the Hassan district of Karnataka state, India.
The statue was built by the Ganga minister and commander Chamundaraya in the
honour of Lord Bahubali. This statue is regarded as one of the largest monolithic
statues in the world.
Dhamekh Stupa The oldest known stupa is the Dhamekh Stupa at Sarnath (13 km away from
Varanasi in the state of Uttar Pradesh). It was constructed by the great Mauryan
king, Ashoka.
Bhimbetka Rock Shelters in Madhya Pradesh situated in the Vindhyan Range has more than
500 painted rock shelters. The rock paintings extend from Paleolithic to the
Mesolithic period & in some series upto the recent time.
Gufkral A Neolithic site in the Kashmir province of India, Gufkral dates to between 2800-
1500 BC, and includes evidence for the domestication of cattle, sheep, and birds.
Razmnama Razmnama or The Book of War is the Persian translation of the great Hindu epic,
the Mahabharata. The Mughal Emperor Akbar undertook this project.
Statue of Libery Statue of Liberty is a large statue that was presented to the United States by France
in 1886. It stands at Liberty Island, New York in New York Harbor as a welcome
to all visitors, immigrants, and returning Americans.
Town Planning in The quality of municipal town planning in Indus Valley Civilization suggests
Indus Valley knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments which placed a
Civilization high priority on hygiene. The streets of major cities such as Mohenjo-daro or
Harappa were laid out in perfect grid patterns. As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro
and the recently discovered Rakhigarhi, this urban plan included the world's first
urban sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes
obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for
bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets.
Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. The advanced
architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries,
warehouses, brick platforms and protective walls. The massive citadels of Indus
cities, which protected the Harappans from floods and attackers, were larger than
most Mesopotamian ziggurats
Yakshagana Yakshagana is a classical folk art form of the state of Karnataka. A Yakshagana
performance begins at the twilight hours with the beating of drums for up to a
couple of hours before the 'actors' get on the stage. The actors wear resplendent
costumes, head-dresses, and painted faces which they paint themselves. A
performance usually depicts a story from the Hindu epics and puranas. It consists
of a narrator who narrates the story in a song-like fashion, backed by musicians
playing on traditional musical instruments as the actors dance to the tune, with
actions that portray the story as it is being narrated. The actors have a limited
dialog during the course of the performance
Indian Classical The origins of Indian classical music can be found from the oldest of scriptures,
Music part of the Hindu tradition, the Vedas. Samaveda, one of the four Vedas, describes
music at length. Indian classical music has its origins as a meditation tool for
attaining self realization. All different forms of these melodies (Ragas) are believed
to affect various "chakras" (energy centers, or "moods") in the path of the
"Kundalini". However, there is little mention of these esoteric beliefs in Bharat's
Natyashastra, the first treatise laying down the fundamental principles of drama,
dance and music. Indian classical music has 7 basic notes (Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha
Ni), with five interspersed half-notes, resulting in a 12-note scale.
The two main streams of Indian classical music are:
1. Hindustani classical music, originally from North India
2. Carnatic music (Karnataka Sangeeth), originally from South India
Hindustani Hindustani Classical Music is a North Indian classical music tradition that has been
Classical Music evolving from the 12th centuries AD onwards. Around the 12th century, Hindustani
classical music diverged from the principle which eventually came to be identified
as Carnatic classical music. The central notions in both these systems is that of a
melodic mode or raga, sung to a rhythmic cycle or tala.
The major vocal forms-cum-styles associated with Hindustani classical music are
dhrupad, khayal, and thumri.
Dhrupad is the Hindu sacred style of singing, traditionally performed by male
singers. Dhrupad music is primarily devotional in theme and content. It contains
recitals in praise of particular deities. Dhrupad compositions begin with a relatively
long and acyclic Alap, where the syllables of the mantra is recited.
Khayal is form of vocal music which is almost entirely improvised and emotive in
nature. A khyal consists of around 4-8 lines of lyrics set to a tune. The singer then
uses these few lines as the basis for improvisation
Thumri is a semiclassical vocal form said to have begun with the court of Nawab
Wajid Ali Shah (847-1856). There are three types of thumri: Punjabi, Lucknavi and
poorab ang thumri. The lyrics are typically in a proto-Hindi language called Braj
bhasha and are usually romantic
Carnatic Music Carnatic music, also known as karṇāṭaka sangītam is one of the two styles of
Indian classical music, the other being Hindustani music. Like Hindustani music,
Carnatic music rests on two main elements: rāga, the modes or melodic formulæ,
and tāḷa, the rhythmic cycles. In contrast to Hindustani Music of the northern part
of India, Carnatic music is taught and learned through compositions, which encode
many intricate musical details, also providing scope for free improvisation. The
most common two forms of composition are:
1. Varnam
2. Kriti
Natyashastra The Nātya Shastra of Bharata is the principal work of dramatic theory,
encompassing dance and music, in classical India. It is attributed to the muni (sage)
Bharata and is believed to have been written during the period between 200 BC and
200 AD).
The text contains a set of precepts on the writing and performance of dance, music
and theatre, and while it primarily deals with stagecraft, it has come to influence
music, dance, and literature as well. Thus, an argument can be made that the
Natyasastra is the foundation of the fine arts in India.
Neo Art Started by Abanindranath Tagore to regenerate the Indian Act, with the discovery
Movement of the best art of the ancient & medieval art. Nand Lal Bose was one of the
exponent of this movement.
Hellenistic Art A type of art introduced by the Greeks in the NW Frontier of India which in not
purely on Greek Pattern but it is the outcome of the Greek contact with non Greeks
after Alexander’s Death. Gandhara Art is the best example of this art.
Vedanta school separated into six sub-schools, each interpreting the texts in its own
way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries
Advaita
Advaita is probably the best-known of all Vedanta schools. Advaita literally means
"non duality." Its first great consolidator was Adi Shankaracharya. By analysing the
three states of experience—–waking, dreaming, and deep sleep—–he established the
singular reality of Brahman, in which the soul and Brahman are one and the same.
Ultimate reality ‘Brahma’ is one. Highest level of truth is that the whole world that
exists is Maya. Ramanuja (founder of Sri Vaishnavism) differed from Sankara on his
commentaries on Upanishads & Gita.
Visishtadvaita
Ramanujacharya was the foremost proponent of the concept of the Supreme Being
having a definite form, name, and attributes. He saw this form as that of Vishnu, and
taught that reality has three aspects: Vishnu, soul (jiva), and matter (prakrti). Vishnu
is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are dependent on Vishnu for
their existence. Thus, Ramanuja's system is known as qualified non-dualism.
Dvaita
Like Ramanuja, Madhvacharya identified Brahman with Vishnu, but his view of
reality was pluralistic.
Dvaitadvaita (Bhedabheda)
Dvaitadvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th century Vaishnava Philosopher
from the Andhra region.
Shuddhadvaita
Shuddhadvaita was proposed by Vallabhacharya (1479 - 1531), who came from the
Andhra region but eventually settled in Gujarat.
Acintya Bheda Abheda
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, a devotee of Krishna, proposed a synthesis between the
monist and dualist philosophies by stating that the soul is both distinct and non-
distinct from God, whom he identified as Krishna, and that this, although
unthinkable, may be experienced through a process of loving devotion (bhakti).
History 2 Markers
Sruti Śruti is a canon of Hindu sacred texts. They do not date to a particular period, but
rather stretch across the entire history of Hinduism, beginning with the some of the
earliest known Hindu texts, spanning into the modern period with the Upanishads.
Śruti has no author; rather, it is divine recording of the "cosmic sounds of truth",
heard by rishis (saints or sages).
The main classification of shruti literature is along the lines of the four Vedas:
1. Rig-Veda (hymns recited by the hotar)
2. Yajur-Veda (hymns recited by the adhvaryu)
3. Sama-Veda (hymns recited by the udgatr)
4. Atharva-Veda (a collection of spells and charms not directly related to
Vedic sacrifice)
Each of these mantra collections was increased by commentaries in various
scholastic branches (shakhas), the Brahmanas, and later by mystical treatises
known as Aranyakas and Upanishads. All these likewise belong to the set of works
labeled as śruti. In addition, the Mahabharata (an Itihasa, or History, also part of
the "friendly scripture" class) is considered by some to be śruti and is sometimes
called the 'fifth' Veda. Sometimes the Bhagavad Gita, a chapter within the
Mahabharata, is separately considered as worthy of the śruti status.
Samhitas The Samhita (Sanskrit saṃhitā, "collection"), are collections of metric texts
("mantras"). There are four "Vedic" Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-
Veda, and Atharva-Veda. ). In some contexts, the term Veda is used to refer to
these Samhitas. According to Hindu tradition, the Vedas are apauruṣeya "not
human compositions”.
Vedanga The Vedanga ( vedāṅga, "member of the Veda") are six auxiliary disciplines for
the understanding and tradition of the Vedas.
1. Shiksha (śikṣā): phonetics and phonology (sandhi)
2. Chandas (chandas): meter
3. Vyakarana (vyākaraṇa): grammar
4. Nirukta (nirukta): etymology
5. Jyotisha (jyotiṣa): astrology and astronomy, dealing particularly with the
auspicious days for performing sacrifices.
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"eight chapters"), the foundational text of the grammatical branch of the Vedanga,
the auxiliary scholarly disciplines of Vedic religion.
Manu Smriti The Manu Smriti is a work of Hindu law and ancient Indian society (manus is the
Sanskrit for "man" or "human"). It is also known as the Laws of Manu. It is one of
the nineteen Dharmasastra, which are part of the Smriti literature. It is considered
the oldest and one of the most important texts of this genre
Svapna- Svapna-Vasavadattam, a drama of six acts composed by Bhasa, is based on the
Vasavadattam Brihatakatha of Gunadhya and is referred to in the Mahabharata. Bhasa stands pre-
eminent for the boldness of his conception, insight into character and for his
homely sparkling style. He has written about thirteen plays of which the Svapna-
vasavadatta is reckoned as a master piece both in ancient Indian and modern
criticism. Based on the well-known love-tale of Udayana and Vasavadatta, Bhasa's
play abounds in dramatic excitement, suspense, surprise and humour
Ratnavali Ratnavali is a famous Sanskrit drama composed in four acts by Sri Harsha. The
play is a comedy of court life, centring round the light-hearted love-intrigue of
king Udayana with a lowly maiden of unknown descent and finally her acceptance
of the situation when the maiden is discovered to be her lost cousin
Geet Govinda depicts the divine love of the Hindu deity Krishna and his consort, Radha. Written
by Jayadeva
Arthashastra The Arthashastra (more precisely Arthaśāstra) is a treatise on statecraft, economic
policy and military strategy which identifies its author by the names Kautilya and
Vishnugupta, who are traditionally identified with Chanakya (c. 350-283 BCE),
who was a professor at Taxila University and later the prime minister of the
Maurya Empire
9. Muntakhab-al-tawarikh Badauni
10. Badshahnama/Padshahnama Abdul Hamid Lahori
11. Muntakhab-ul Lubab (Aurangzeb’s reign) Khafi Khan
12. Mirat-i-Ahmadi Ali Muhammad Khan
13. Padmavat (on Padmini – wife of Ratan Singh, King of Chittor) Malik Mohammad Jaisi
14. Tughluq Nama, Tarik-i-Alai, Nuh Sipihr, Ashiqa Amir Khusro
15. Marwar ra Pargani ri Vigat (Info on Rajasthan) Munhta Nainsi
16. Chandayan Maulana Daud
17. Himayun Nama Gulbadan Begum
18. Bhavartha Dipika Gyaneshwara
19. Safarnama or Rihla Ibn Batuta
20. Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri (Autobiography) Jehangir
21. Tarikh-i-Shershahi Abbas Sarwani
22. Tuzuk-i-Baburi/ Baburnama (in Turkish –Autobiography) Babur
23. Shahjahannama Inayat Khan
24. Dayabhaga Jimuta Vahna
th
25. Periya Puranam (12 book of Tamil Veda called Tirumurai) Shekkilar
26. Sur Sagar (Life of Krishna) Sur Das
Famous Books of Modern India
Bhawani Mandir Bhawani Mandir was written by Sri Aurobindo but it was more Barin's idea than
his. It was not meant to train people for assassination but for revolutionary
preparation of the country. The idea was soon dropped as far as Sri Aurobindo was
concerned, but something of the kind was attempted by Barin in the Manicktala
Garden
Anandamath Anandamath is a political novel by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay which depicts
a Sannyasi (Brahmin ascetic) army fighting Indian Muslims who are in the employ
of the East India Company. The book calls for the rise of Brahmin/Hindu
nationalism but, ironically, concludes with a character accepting British Empire as
a necessity. The novel was also the source of the song "Vande Mataram" (I
worship the Mother) which, set to music by Rabindranath Tagore, was taken up by
many secular nationalists. The novel is loosely based on the time of the Sannyasi
Rebellion, however in the actual rebellion, Hindus sannyasis and Muslim fakirs
both rebelled against the British East India Company.
Newspapers/Magazines/Weeklies
Harijan Bandhu, Harijan Sevak Mahatma Gandhi
Samvad Kaumudi, Mirat-al-Akhbar Raja Ram Mohun Roy
Tattvabodhini Patrika Maharishi Devendranath Tagore
Indian Mirror Maharishi Devendranath Tagore
Banga Darshan Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay
Maratha (English) & Kesari (Marathi) Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak
The Punjabi, ‘The Pupil’ (English) Lala Lajpat Rai
New India Bipin Chandra Pal
Bande Matram Bipin Chandra Pal (Editing by Aurobindo Ghosh)
Yugantar Barindra Kumar Ghose & Bhupendra Dutta (Anushilan Samiti)
Talwar Verendranath Chattopadhyay
New India Annie Besant (Demanding Home Rule)
Common Will Annie Besant (Demanding Home Rule)
Indian Sociologist (London) Shyamji Krishnaverma
Al-Hilal (UPSC Mains 1996) Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (during Khilafat)
The Comrade Mohammad Ali (during Khilafat movement)
Nation G.K. Gokhale
Karmyogi Aurobindo Ghosh
Prabudha Bharat, Udbodhava Vivekananda
Darpan Bal Shastri Jambekar
Socialist S.A. Dange.
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medicine developed in Ancient India. His most famous work is Charaka Samhita.
Vishakhadatta Vishakhadatta was a poet and playwright of ancient Indian and lived during the
Gupta period. The actual period of his life is not known, but he is believed to have
lived during the time of King Chandragupta-II, around the fifth century AD.
Vishakhadutta wrote two famous historical plays. They are ‘Mudra-Rakshasa’
and ‘Devi Chandra Gupta’. Mudra-Rakshasa, which is still quite popular, is the
story of King Chandragupta Maurya getting the throne of Magadha (set around
305 BC). Devi Chandra Gupta is a historical play dealing with the early life of
King Chandragupta II.
Meghasthenes Meghasthenes was a Greek traveller and geographer. He became an ambassador of
(UPSC 2007) Seleucus I of Syria to the court of Sandrocottus (Chandragupta Maurya) of India,
in Pataliputra. Wrote "Indica".
Amarsimha Amarasimha was one of the ‘Navaratnas' (nine gems) in the court of King
Vikramaditya. This distinguished scholar is renowned as the author of
Amarakosha, a Sanskrit thesaurus.
Aryabhatta Āryabhaṭa (b. 476 AD – 550) is the first in the line of great mathematician-
astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy.
His most famous works are the Aryabhatiya (499) and Arya-Siddhanta.
Asvaghosa Aśvaghoṣa was an Indian philosopher-poet. He is believed to have been the first
Sanskrit dramatist, and is considered the greatest Indian poet after Kālidāsa. He
was first a student of non-Buddhist teaching, but upon losing an argument with
Parshva converted to Buddhism. He became a religious adviser to the Kushan king
Kanishka. He is said to be the author of the influential Buddhist text Awakening of
Faith in the Mahayana. He also wrote an epic life of the Buddha called
Buddhacarita[1] (Acts of the Buddha) in Sanskrit and the Mahalankara (Book of
Glory). He also wrote Saundaranandakavya, a kavya poem with the theme of
conversion of Nanda, Buddha’s half-brother, so that he might reach salvation.
Brahmagupta Brahmagupta was born in 598 CE in Bhinmal city in the state of Rajasthan. He
was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, and during his tenure there
wrote four texts on mathematics and astronomy: the Cadamekela, the
Brahmasphutasiddhanta, the Khandakhadyaka, and Durkeamynarda. Undoubtedly,
the Brahmasphutasiddhanta (Corrected Treatise of Brahma) is his most famous
work.
Bhavbhuti Bhavabhuti, who ranks next to Kalidasa in Sanskrit literature, was a Brahmin of
Vidarbha and said to be a court poet of Yasovarman of Kanauj. He was also
famous as Srikantha or ‘throat of eloquence.’ This celebrated dramatist of the 8th
century composed three dramas namely 'Mahavir Charita', 'Uttara Rama Charita',
and 'Malati Madhava'.
Varahamihir
Bhaskara I Bhāskara (commonly called Bhāskara I to avoid confusion with the 12th century
mathematician Bhāskara II) (c. 600 - c. 680) was a 7th century Indian
mathematician, who was apparently the first to write numbers in the Hindu-Arabic
Ghanshyam Thori 21 Indian History & Culture
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decimal system with a circle for the zero, and who gave a unique and remarkable
rational approximation of the sine function in his commentary on Aryabhata's
work.
Bhaskara II or Bhaskara (1114 – 1185), also known as Bhaskara II and Bhaskara Achārya
Bhaskaracharya ("Bhaskara the teacher"), was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. He was
born near Bijjada Bida (in present day Bijapur district, Karnataka state, South
India) into the Deshastha Brahmin family and became head of the astronomical
observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Varahamihira and
Brahmagupta. In many ways, Bhaskara represents the peak of mathematical and
astronomical knowledge in the 12th century. He reached an understanding of
calculus, astronomy, the number systems, and solving equations, which were not
to be achieved anywhere else in the world for several centuries. His main works
were the Lilavati (dealing with arithmetic), Bijaganita (Algebra) and Siddhanta
Shiromani (written in 1150) which consists of two parts: Goladhyaya (sphere)
and Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets).
Nagarjunakonda Nagarjunakonda (meaning Nagarjuna Hill in Telugu) is a historical Buddhist
(UPSC – 2007) town, now an island located near Nagarjuna Sagar in Andhra Pradesh. It was
formed when a hill was submerged in the waters of the Nagarjuna Sagar Dam,
constructed in the 1960s. It is named after Nagarjuna, a southern Indian master of
Mahayana Buddhism who lived in the 2nd century AD.
music of the Indian Sufis) He is also credited with enriching the Hindustani
classical music by introducing Persian and Arabic elements in it, and was the
originator of the tarana style of music. The "classical music tradition in both India
and Pakistan traces its roots" to him, who "composed the earliest ragas, the
traditional rhythmic form." The invention of the Indian Tabla is also traditionally
attributed to Amīr Khusrow. He authored numerous works including
“Tughlaqnama”.
Kalhana Kalhana (c. 12th century) was the celebrated author of Rajatarangini, Kashmir's
history. Kalhana is regarded to be Kashmir's first historian. Rajatarangini is one of
the most valuable sources for Indian history. Kalhana opens his book by
mentioning his views on writing history.
Bana Bhatta Bana Bhatta was the court poet and also a close friend of Harsha. Bana Bhatta,
Harsha’s court poet who authored “Harsha Charita” (his patron’s biography) and
the famous romance “Kadambari”
Chandrabardai Author of Prithviraj Raso based on Prithviraj Chauhan.
Vikramaditya of The Vikram era, or Vikram samvat is an Indian calendar starting in 57 BCE. The date
Ujjain is supposed to mark the victory of king Vikramaditya over the Sakas, who had invaded
Ujjain.
Kanishka’s Court Kanishka's royal court was adorned by many scholars like Ashvaghosha, Vasumitra,
Nagarjuna and Charak & Sushruta.
Ashvaghosha was a great poet and a master of music. He wrote Buddhacharita, a
Ghanshyam Thori 24 Indian History & Culture
Ghanshyam Thori Indian History & Culture
Sufism
Silsilas Major Silsilas were: Suhrawadi, Chistiya, Firdausiya, Naqashbandi, Mahadawi,
Shattariyyas, Qadiriyya, Kubrawiyya, Shi’is, Qalandhars, Rudali, Rausaniya.
Abu Ishaq Shami The Chishti order was founded by Abu Ishaq Shami ("the Syrian") who brought
Sufism to the town of Chisht, now Afghanistan. The Chishti Order was first introduced
in India by Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti (1143-1223 AD) and is the oldest known order.
Suhravadi Shaikh Shibabuddin Suhrawadi founded this Silsila. However the main protagonist of
this silsila was Bahauddin Zakariyya
Bakhtiyar Kaki was a renowned Muslim Sufi mystic, saint and scholar in the Chishti Order from Delhi,
India. He was the disciple and khalifa (spiritual successor) of Moinuddin Chishti as
head of the Chishti Order. His most famous disciple and spiritual successor was Baba
Fareed.
Baba Fareed commonly known as Baba Farid was a 12-th century Sufi preacher and saint of Punjab.
He is recognized as the first acclaimed poet of Punjabi language. Baba Farid is
considered one of the most pivot saints in Sikhism. He has been honoured by the Gurus
of Sikhism by his verses being collected and compiled in the Sikh holy Guru Granth
Sahib under the chapter Farid's Sayings by Guru Nanak Dev Ji. He was the spiritual
master of Nizamuddin Auliya
Nizamuddin Hazrat Khawaja Nizamuddin Auliya (1238 - 1325 AD) also known as Hazrat
Auliya Nizamuddin, was a famous Sunni Sufi saint of the Chishti Order in India. He was born
in Badayun (east of Delhi), though he later settled in Delhi, where his shrine
(Nizamuddin Dargah) is still located. He was also the spiritual master of Amir Khusro
Naqshbandi Naqshbandi (Naqshbandiyya) is one of the major Sufi orders (tariqa) of Islam. Formed
Order in 1380, the order is considered by some to be a "sober" order known for its silent dhikr
(remembrance of God) rather than the vocalized forms of dhikr common in other
orders. The Naqshbandi order is also notable as it is the only Sufi order to trace its
spiritual lineage (silsilah) to Muhammad through Abu Bakr, the first caliph.
Religious/Bhakti Movement
Lingayatism Lingayatism or Veerashaivism. This religion represents a reform movement attributed
to Basavanna and others in the 12th century CE. Lingayats believe in a monotheistic
world where Shiva the supreme God and self are one and the same
Adi Shankara Born in a small village in Kerala he was the first philosopher to consolidate the
doctrine of Advaita Vedanta, a sub-school of Vedanta. His teachings are based on the
unity of the soul and Brahman, in which Brahman is viewed as without attributes. Adi
Shankara was disciple of Govinda Bhagvatapada. Adi Shankara founded four Maṭhas
to guide the Hindu religion. These are at Sringeri in Karnataka in the south, Dwaraka in
Gujarat in the west, Puri in Orissa in the east, and Jyotirmath (Joshimath) in
Uttarakhand in the north.
Madhva or He was the chief proponent of Tattvavāda (True Philosophy), popularly known as
Madhvacharya Dvaita or dualistic school of Hindu philosophy. It is one of the three most influential
Vedanta philosophies. Madhva was one of the important philosophers during the
Bhakti movement.
Nimbarka Hailed from present day Andhra Pradesh in South India. He is known for propagating
the Vaishnava Theology of Dvaitadvaita, duality in unity. For Nimbarka the highest
object of worship is Krishna and His consort Radha, attended by thousands of gopi's, or
cowherdesses, of the celestial Vrindavan. Devotion according to Nimbarka, consists in
prapatti, or self-surrender.
Vallabha Sri Vallabhacharya was a devotional philosopher, who founded the Pushti sect in India,
and the philosophy of Shuddha advaita (Pure Non-dualism). He is regarded as an
acharya and guru within the Vaishnava traditions. Within Indian Philosophy he is
known as the writer of sixteen 'stotras' (tracts) and produced several commentaries on
the Bhagavata Purana, which describes the many lilas (pastimes) of the avatar, Krishna.
holy city of Varanasi. Early in life he became a disciple of the celebrated Hindu
ascetic, Râmânanda, who brought to Northern India the religious revival which
Râmânuja, the great twelfth-century reformer of Hinduism had initiated in the South
Surdas Surdas was a Hindu devotional poet, singer, and a saint (sant), who lived during reign
(1479-1586) of king Akbar. He was one of the 8 main disciples of Vallabha. Surdas spent most of
his years in Vrindavan and created the epic literary work Sur Sagar, which originally
contained 100,000 poems. He was the most influential poet of Braj Bhasha and the
'Bhakti movement' after Tulsidas.
Raidasa or Raidasa or Ravidasa was a Bhakti saint hailing from lower caste (Chamar). Mira Bai
Ravidasa considered him to be her guru. Sant Ravidas and other saint-poets restored the right to
(1398-1448) worship by the lower classes, Shudras, artisans and peasants, which impressed Guru
Nanak, the founder of the Sikh tradition in a big way. To pay back Sikh sect has
enriched the nirguna bhakti cult by including their hymns, for recitation, prayers, in
the Adi Granth
Mira Bai (1503- Was married to Prince Bhoj Raj, the eldest son of Rana Sanga of Chittor. She was a
1573) Hindu mystical poetess whose compositions are popular throughout India. Mirabai is
held to have been a disciple of Ravidas (or Raidasa). Mirabai composed between 200
to 1300 prayerful songs called bhajans. These bhajans are in the bhakti tradition, and
most passionately praised Lord Krishna
Dadu Dayal Dadu Dayal was a sant from Rajasthan, India. "Dadu" means brother, and "Dayal"
(1544 - 1603) means "the compassionate one". Dadu Dayal ji Maharaj was found by an affluent
business man floating on the river Sabarmati. He later moved to Amber, the capital of
Rajasthan, where he preached his teachings. He gathered around himself a group of
followers, which became known as the Dadu-panth. His poems are known as Bani.
1904 2. The Governor control over the universities was further increased by vesting the
Government with powers to veto the regulations passed by the Senate of a
university
3. The Government could also make additions or alterations in the regulations framed
by the Senate
4. The Act increased University control over private colleges by laying down stricter
conditions of affilitations & periodical inspection by the Syndicate.
5. The approval of government was necessary for grant of affiliation or disaffiliation
of colleges.
6. The Governor General-in-Council was empowered to define the territorial limits of
a university.
The nationalists both inside & outside the legislative council opposed the measure.
Sadler In 1917, the government appointed a commission to study & report the problems fo
Commission Calcultta University. Dr. M.E. Sadler, Vice Chancellor of the University of Leeds was
appointed its Chairman. The Commisison included two Indian Members, named Sir
Ashutosh Mukherjee & Dr. Zia-ud-din-Ahmad. The Sadler commission reviewed the
entire field of school education to university education. Its main recommendations
were:
1. A twelve year school course was recommended
2. Duration of the degree course after the Intermediate State should be limited to 3
years. For the abler students, Honours course should be started as different from
Pass Course.
3. It recommended less rigidity in framing the regulations of universities.
4. Old type of Indian universities with its large number of affliated & widely scattered
colleges should be replace by centralized unitary residential teaching autonomous
bodies.
5. It stressed for the extension of facilities for female education.
Hartog The quanitative increase in education inevitably led to deterioration of quality &
Committee, 1929 lowering of standards. The Indian Statutory Commission appointed Hartog Committee
in 1929. . Its main recommendations were:
1. It emphasized national importance of primary education but condemned policy of
hasty expansion
2. The Commission pointed out the weakness of university education & criticized the
policy of indiscriminate admission which led to lowering of Standards.
3. It recommended that after the Middle Stage at students should be diverted to
diversified courses leading to Industrial & Commercial careers.
Wardha Scheme In 1937, Mahatma Gandhi published a series of articles in his paper, The Harijan &
of Basic proposed a scheme of basic education, better Known as Wardha Scheme. The main
Education, 1937 principle of basic education is “learning through Activity”. The Zakir Hussain
Committee worked out the details & prepared detailed syllabi. It envisaged a 7 year
course through the mother tongue of the students. The outbreak of war in 1939 & the
resignation of congress ministries led to the postponement of the scheme. It was left to
the National Government to take up the work after 1947.
Sargent Report, In 1944, the Central Advisory Board of Education drew up a national scheme of
1944 education generally known as the Sargeant Plan. This plan envisaged the establishment
of elementary schools & high schools & introduction of universal free & compulsory
education for children between ages of 6 & 11.
Radhakrishna In 1948, the government of India appointed a commission under the chairmanship of
Commission, 1948 Dr. Radhakrishnan to report on University Education & suggest improvements. Its
recommendations were
1. 12 years of pre-university educational course
2. Higher education should have 3 goals – General Education, Liberal Education &
Occupational Education.
3. A University Grants Commission should be setup to look after university education
Kothari Setup in 1964 to advise government on the National pattern of Education.
Commision, 1964
Commissions on Famine
Cambell The Orissa Famine of 1865 proved to be a turning point in the history of Indian
Committee Report Famines for it was followed by the appointment of Committee under the chairmanship
1867 of Sir Geroge Cambell to report on the matter. The Old doctrine that the public would
be responsible for the relief of the helpless was entirely abandoned. The government
was expected to borrow money in order to afford finance for building of railways &
canals. Further district officers were made responsible for saving all preventable
deaths.
Starchey The great famine of 1876-78 was perhaps the most grevious calamity experienced since
Commission 1880 the beginning of 19th century. It affected Madras, Bombay, Uttar Pradesh & Punjab. In
1880 the government appointed Commission under Sir Richard Starchey. The
commission recommended various measures to deal with famines. Appointed during
Lord Lyton’s tenure.
Lyall A commission under Sir James Lyall, ex Lt. Governor of Punjab was appointed. The
Commmission commission more or less attested to the Starchey Commission recommendation &
1897 added minor alterations to impart greater flexibility.
MacDonnell Curzon appointed a commission under the presidency of Sir Anthony MacDonnell. It
Commission 1901 submitted its report in 1901 in which it summarized accepted principles of relief,
suggesting variations wherever necessary.
Early Uprisings
Pabna Uprising Pabna Peasant Uprising, was a resistance movement against the oppression of the
1870-1880 zamindars. It originated in Pabna which currently lies in Bangladesh. The zamindars
routinely collected money from the peasants by the illegal means of forced levy,
abwabs (cesses), enhanced rent and so on. Peasants were often evicted from land on the
pretext of non-payment of rent. The leader was Ishan Chandra Roy.
Munda Uprising For over three decades the Munda sardars (in present Jharkhand State) had been
1874-1900 struggling against destruction of their system of common land holdings from the
intrusion of jagirdars, thekedars and money lenders. The rebellion (ulgulan) of the
Munda tribesman occurred during 1900 under the leadership of Birsa Munda who
mobilised his followers on religious and political grounds. In 1899, Birsa proclaimed a
rebellion to establish Munda rule in the land by killing thikadars, jagirdars, Rajas and
Hakims and Christians. For this he gathered a force of Mundas. He was, however,
captured in February 1900 & later died.
refusal, his estate was annexed. The Raja with the support of his people and his troops
rose in revolt and lost his life in a battle in 1794. Finally, the Company offered the
estate to the deceased Raja's son and also reduced the demand for presents.
Poligar’s Revolt The poligars of Dindigul and Malabar revolted against the evils of the English land
revenue system. During 1801-1805 the poligars of the ceded districts and North Arcot
revolted against the Company. Sporadic risings of the poligars in the Madras
Presidency continued up to 1856.
Diwan Velu Disgusted with the harsh terms imposed on the State of Travancore under the
Thampi's Revolt subsidiary alliance treaty of Wellesley in 1805, the ruler did not pay the subsidy
resulting into accumulation of arrears. The high-handed attitude of the Company
compelled Diwan Velu Thampi raise the banner of revolt with the support of the Nair
battalion. A large British force restored peace in the area.
Rampa Revolt The hill tribesman of Rampa in coastal Andhra Pradesh revolted in March, 1879
against the depredations of the government-supported mansabdar and the new
restrictive forest regulations. Only a large military operation could suppress the
rebellion in 1880.
postal communication. The British government started keeping strict vigil on Kukas.
Baba Ram Singh was sent to Andaman islands under Life imprisonment for treason &
he died in 1885.
Bijolia Movement In Bijolia city in Bundi district of Rajasthan from 1915-1927. Led by Vijay Singh
Pathik. It was against the feudal cesses.
Association, 1870 opinion against child marriage & for legalizing the Brahmo form of Civil marriage.
Promote the intellectual & social status of women was its another objective.
Arya Sama, 1875 By Swami Dayanand Saraswati in 1875 to reform Hindu Religion.
Theosophical Founded in New York by Madam H.P Blavatsky & Col H.S. Olcott to advocate the
Society, 1875 revival & strengthening of ancient religions of Hinduism, Zoroastrianism & Buddhism.
Deccan Started in 1884 by M.G Ranade among others, to contribute to the cause of education
Educational Soc. & culture in Western India. This society founded the Ferguson College, Pune in 1885.
Seva Sadan Founded in 1885 in Bombay by Behramji S Malabari. It campaigned against child
marriages & enforced widowhood & care for socially exploited women.
Ramakrishna In 1887 by Swami Vivekananda.
Mission
Indian National In 1887 by M.G. Ranade & Ragunath Rao. It was the social reform cell of Indian
Social Conference National Congress.
Deva Samaj, 1887 Founded in Lahore by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri in 1887. Its ideas were close to Brahmo
Samaj.
Sharada Sadan, Pandita Ramabai, the youngest daughter of Anant Shastri, was a social reformer, a
1889 champion for the emancipation of women, and a pioneer in education. Left totally
alone by the time she was 23, Ramabai acquired a great reputation as a Sanskrit
scholar. Deeply impressed by her prowess, the Sanskrit scholars of Calcutta University
conferred on her the titles of "Saraswati" and "Pandita". She rebelled against the caste
system and married a shudra advocate, but was widowed at 23, having a baby girl. In
1882, she establishsed the Arya Mahila Samaj for the cause of women’s education in
Pune and different parts of Western India. This led to the formation of the Sharada
Sadan in 1889, a school which blossomed into an umbrella organisation called Pandita
Ramabai Mukti Mission, 40 miles outside Pune.
Madras Hindu Founded in Madras in 1892 by Viresalingam Pantalu. The movment concerned the
Association 1892 plight of widows & combat Devdasi system.
Bharat Dharma Started by Pandit Madan Mohan Malvaviya & Pandit Din Dayal Sharma in 1902. This
Mahamandala mandal was also known as Sanatan Dhamis. In defence of the orthodox Hinduism &
1902 against the teachings of the Arya Samaj, the Rama Krishna Mission etc Orthodox
educated Hindus organized themselves. Among them were Dharma Maha Parishad in
South India, the Dharma Maha Mandali in Bengal etc.
Servants of India Founded in Bombay by Gopal Krishan Gokhale to train “national missionaries” for the
Society, 1905 service of India.
Poona Seva Sadan, Founded by G.K. Devadhar & Ramabai Ranade (Wife of M.G. Ranade) in Pune to
1909 establish institutions for the economic upliftment & useful employment of women
Bharat Stri Started by Sarla Devi Chaudhary in 1910. It was the first women organization which
Mahmandal 1910 promoted equal rights of women.
Social Service Founded in 1911 in Bombay by Narayan Malhar Joshi to improve the condition of the
League, 1911 social masses by opening schools, libraries & dispensaries.
Indian Women’s Founded in Madras in 1917 by Mrs. Annie Besant. It worked for the upliftment of
Association 1917 women.
Muslim Socio-Religious Movemetns & Organizations
Faraizi or Faraidi The Faraizis, followers of a Muslim sect founded by Haji Shariatullah of Faridpur in
Ghanshyam Thori 36 Indian History & Culture
Ghanshyam Thori Indian History & Culture
Movement, 1804 Eastern Bengal, advocated radical religious, social and political changes. Shariatullah's
son Dudhi Mian organised Farazais to expel the English intruders from Bengal. The
sect also supported the cause of the tenants against the exactions of zamindars. The
Faraizis disturbances continued in 1838 to 1857. Most of the Faraizis joined the ranks
of Wahabis.
Wahabi Movment The Wahabi movement, basically an Islamic revivalist movement, was founded by
1820 Syed Ahmad of Rae Bareli in 1820 at Rohilkhand. Syed Ahmad was influenced by
the teachings of Abdul Wahab of Arabia. Syed Ahmad condemned all accretions to
and innovations in Islam and advocated a return to the pure Islam and society of Arabia
of the Prophet’s times. In India, its important centre was at Patna though it had its
missions in Hyderabad, Madras, Uttar Pradesh and Bombay. Since Dar-ul-Harb (The
world of Kafirs) was to be converted to Dar-ul-Islam (The World of Islam), a Jihad was
declared against the Sikh Kingdom of the Punjab. Syed Ahmad lost his life in action.
After the overthrow of the Sikh ruler & the incorporation of the Punjab into the East
India Company, the sole target of Wahabis attack became the English dominion in
India. The Wahabis played a notable role in spreading Anti-British sentiments &
offering well planned challenge to British Supremacy during from 1830s to 1860s.
Tayyuni Started at Dacca in 1839. It opposed the Faraizi Movment & supported the British
Movement, 1839 Rule. The founder was Karamati Ali Jaunpur
Deoband Started in 1867 at Deoband in Saharanpur district, U.P. The founder of this movement
Movement, 1867 were Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi & Rashid Ahmed Gangohi. Its objective was to
improve the spiritual & moral conditions of Indian Muslim. It supported the INC &
was opposed to the pro-British Aligarh movment.
Aligarh Started by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan by established the Mohammedan Anglo Oriental
Movement, 1875 College in 1875 at Aligarh. This college developed later into Aligarh University. The
Aligarh movement aimed at spreading western education among muslims without
weakening their allegiance to Islam. Sir Syed propogated his ideas through his
magazine Tandhib-ul-Akhlagu (Improvement in manners & morals).
Ahmadiya Founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadiyan in 1889 was more or less on liberal
Movement, 1889 principles. The Ahmadiya movement opposed Jehad or the sacred war against non
muslims. The movement spread western liberal education among the Indian Muslims.
Nadwatal Ulema Started in 1894 in Lucknow by Maulana Shibli Numani to reform the traditional
1894 Islamic Society, to strengthen Hindu-Muslim unity & to arouse nationalism against
Indian Muslims.
Ahrar Movment Started by Riza Khan & Ali Brothers in 1910 against Aligarh Movement
Khudai Started in 1929 in NWFP by Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan. Its objective was the upliftment
Khidmatgar, 1929 of the people of Frontier & to prepare them for attainment of freedom.
Movment or leadership of Jatra Oraon, a twenty-five year old youth of Gumla, Ranchi, occurring
Oraon Movment during the late colonial period in the Chhotanagpur region. In April 1914 Jatra
proclaimed that he had received a message from Dharmesh, the supreme god of the
Oraons to revive the Oraon Raj. He advocated that Oraon religion should be freed of
evils like ghost hunts and exorcism, belief in bhuts or spirits, animal sacrifice and
liquor drinking and advocated vegetarianism, austerity and restraint. As the movement
progressed, agrarian issues came to the fore. The Tana Bhagat movement (in this name
the Oraon Movement was popularly called) continued to spread throughout 1918. In
1919 Tana activity acquired a new momentum under the leadership of Sibu Oraon and
Maya Oraon. From the 1920s the Tana Bhagat movement developed links with
Gandhian nationalism and lost much of its earlier radical colour. The Congress
propagated that Gandhi Raj would usher in the tribal millennium. The Tana movement
thus became integrated into the political mainstream and the Congress ideology.
Home Rule League Estd by Annie Besant at Madras in September 1916. She was the president & other
1916 members included Arundale, P.C. Ramaswamy Iyer, V.P. Wadia. Balgangadhar Tilak
had estd another Home Rule League in April 1916 at Pune.
Champaran European planters forced the farmers to cultivate Indigo on atleast 3/20 (Tinkathiya)
Satyagraha 1917 parts of their land. Rajendra Prasad, Mazhur-ul-Haq, J.B. Kriplani, Mahadev Desai
accompanied him. An enquiry was set up to alleviate miseries of which even Gandhi
was a member.
Kheda Satyagraha Kheda peasants refused to pay revenue due to failure of crops. After Satyagraha the
1918 government issued instructions to collect revenue only from those who could afford to
pay. Indulal Yagnik & Vallabh Bhai Patel supported Gandhi.
Ahmedabad Mill Mahatma Gandhi considered 35 % increase in salary as just. He undertook a fast unto
Problem 1918 death & the strike came to an end. Ambalal Sarabhai’s sister Anasuya Behn was main
lieutenant of Gandhi here. Ambalal Sarabhai was representing the Mill Owners.
Rowlatt Act In 1917, a committee was formed under the direction of Justice Rowlatt, the purpose of
which was to investigate the revolutionary movement in India. The findings &
recommendations of this committee were issued in the so called Rowlatt report. This
act authorized the Government to imprison any person without trial & conviction of the
court of law. The law also enabled the government to suspend the right of Habeas
Corpus, which had been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain. A nationwide
satyagraha was organized which involved arrest of Mahatma Gandhi, Dr Satyapal, Dr.
Saiffuddin Kitchlew & Arya Samaj leader Swami Shradhananda (shoot if you can
rally).
Jallianwala Bagh Demanded to know the whereabouts of Satyapal and Kitchlew throught the reciting of
Massacre 1919 the poem ‘Fariyad’ on the day of Baisakhi (13th April, 1919). Martial law was
proclaimed later at Lahore, Gujarat & Layal with curfew at Amritsar. An enquiry was
setup under Hunter which was described by Gandhiji as “White Wash”. Rabindranath
Tagore renounced his title.
Khilafat Sultan of Turkey was the Caliph. The allied powers were arrayed against Turkey.
Movement Mulana Abul Kalam Azad, M.A. Ansari, Saiffudin Kitchlew, Maulvi Abdulbari,
Hakim Ajmal Khan & the Ali brothers were prominent leaders. British signed the
Treaty of Tibers, partitioned Turkey & its Sultan was made a prisoner & sent to
Constantinople.
Non Cooperation Approval at Congress session in 1920. Leaders like Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie
1920-22 Besant & Bipin Chandra Pal not in agreement & left the congress. Students took their
names off school. Kashi Vidyapeeth, Bihar Vidyapeeth, Jamia Milia Islamia were set
up. No Congress leader contested for elections. Mass demonstrations before Duke of
Connaught & Prince of wales. Tilak Swarajya Fund was established. Moplah rebellion
was the ugly face. Chauri Chaura in Gorakhpur, UP incidence led to its recall.
Congress leaders like Motilal Nehru, Chittaranjan Das formed as separate group within
the congress known as Swarajya Party with a purpose not to let the movement lapse.
AITUC Formed in 1920 with Lotvala’s help. M.N Roy, Muzzafarabad Ahmad, S. A Dange &
1920 Shaukat Osmani led the trade unionist movements. The first All-India Trade Union
Congress was, however, inaugurated in Bombay in December 1920 by Swami
Shradhanand and was presided over by Lajpat Rai. The Congress continued to meet
annually and even representatives from abroad attended some of its sessions. The
Britishers leveled the kanpur/Meerut conspiracy against them.
Eka Movmenet In UP (United Province) had begun the Eka Movement of tenants who were fighting
1921-22 against the extortions and oppression of the landlords in 1921-22. Eka Movement
emphasized “Unity among the peasants”.
Moplah Uprsing The Moplah rebellion was a British-Muslim and Hindu-Muslim conflict in Kerala that
1921 occurred in 1921. During the early months of 1921, multiple events including the
Khilafat movement and the Karachi resolution fueled the fires of rebellion. A rumour
spread amongst the Moplahs that the British rule had ended and the Islamic Caliphate
had been re-established at Delhi. According to one view, the reasons for the Moplah
rebellion was religious revivalism among the Muslim Moplahs, and hostility towards
the landlord Hindu Nair community and the British administration that inevitably
supported the latter.
Akali Movement While the Non-Co-operation Movement was still progressing and Gandhiji was in
1921-25 prison, a new wave of discontent spread in the Punjab due to the Akali agitation
(another name of Gurudwara Reform Movment). The religio-political struggle of the
Akalis primarily directed against the priests and the mahants eventually turned against
the British and lasted for over 5 years (1920-1925). About 30,000 men and women
courted arrest, 400 of them died and about 2,000 were wounded. The Congress gave
active support to movement which led to political awakening in the Punjab and
henceforward the Sikhs played a notable role in the country’s struggle for freedom.
Though a martial race, the Sikhs too adopted the Congress creed of non-violent non-
co-operation. In fact, the Akali movement took a turn as a struggle for the liberation of
the country which brought all sections of the people, the Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims
together and it helped them to form a united front against the foreign rulers.
Babbar Akali In the wake of the Akali Movement came the Babbar Akali Movement, an
Movment underground terrorist movement in 1921 mostly in the Jullundur Doab, the territory
1921 between Satluj and the Beas. Its aim was to overthrow the British Government by a
campaign of murders and terrorism in the Punjab. They committed a number of acts of
violence and fought pitched battles against the police. Many of them were killed in
encounters. The movement of the Babbars was short-lived but because of its intensity,
Commission 1927 commission was labeled ‘White Men Commission’. Huge demonstration under Govind
Vallabh Pant at Lucknow & Lala Lajpat at Lahore. The report of Simon Commission
was published in May 1930. It stated the constitutional experiment with Dyarchy was
unsuccessful & in its place recommended the establishment of autonomous
government. It recommended special powers to governor general & governors to look
after the interest of minorities, strengthening the centre, increasing electorate base on
communal basis, Indianization of defence forces, delink Burma from India & Sindh
from Bombay. The Indians rejected the report as it gave no regard to Dominion Status.
It became a basis for the Govt of India Act 1935.
Bardoli Satyagraha The Bardoli Satyagraha of 1928, in the state of Gujarat, India during the period of the
1928 British Raj, was a major episode of civil disobedience and revolt in the Indian
Independence Movement. Its success gave rise to Vallabhbhai Patel as one of the
greatest leaders of the independence struggle.
Nehru Report, Secretary of State, Lord Birkenhead challenged the Indians to produce a constitution
1928 that would be acceptable to all. A meeting held at Bombay set up a 8 member
committee headed by Motilal Nehru & others included Bose, Tej Bahadur Sapru, Sir
Ali Imam, Shahib Qureshi, Sardar Mangal Singh, MS Anney & G.R Pradhan. The
report was placed before Congress Session in Calcutta in 1928 where it was adopted
unanimously. It recommended reservation for minorities instead of separate electorates.
Jinnah & President of Central Sikh league, Sardar Kharak Singh rejected it. Later
Jinnah convened an All India Conference of Muslims & drew up a list of 14 point.
Jawahar & Bose were not happy with the dominion status.
All Parties In reply to a challenge from the Secretary of State that India could not produce an
Conference 1928 agreed constitution, an All-Parties Conference under the Chairmanship of Pandit
Motilal Nehru, prepared a scheme according to which India should be given Dominion
Status by the end of 1929. The Congress accepted it but as there was no favourable
response from the Government, the Congress at its session held at Lahore in December
1929, under the Presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru declared that complete
independence was the goal. This led to the lunching of the Civil Disobedience
Movement by Gandhiji in March 1930. However, Gandhi-Irwin Pact led to suspension
of the Movement and Congress participation in the Round Table-Conference in
London.
All-India Muslim To counter the Muslim League programme against the Congress, the nationalist
Nationalist Party Muslims formed a party called the All-India Muslim Nationalist Party on 27 July 1929
1929 with Abul Kalam Azad as President, Dr. Ansari as treasurer and T.A.K. Sherwani as
Secretary. Its objective was to fight communalism and exhort Muslim to take their due
share in India’s struggle for freedom.
Dandi March Reached Dandi after marching with 78 handpicked followers & formally launched the
April 1930 Civil Disobedience Movement by breaking the Salt laws. Many muslims kept
themselves aloof but in the NWFP an organization of Khudai Khidmatgar (Servants of
Gods – Red Shirts) under Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan (Frontier Gandhi) participated in
full.
I Round table The first session of the Round Table Conference was called in London to discuss the
Conference Simon Commission Report. Congress refused to take part in the conference but
Nov 1930 representatives of the Liberals, the Muslim League & the representatives of princely
states assembled in London. Three basic principles were agreed & accepted by British
Government :
1. The form of new Government of India was to be a All India Federation
2. The Federal Government, subject to some reservations would be responsible to
federal legislature.
3. The Provinces were to enjoy their anatomy.
Held under the Chairmanship of Ramsay MacDonald. Failed to resolve any issues as it
was opposed by congress. A Conference on Indian Affairs without the Congress was a
meaningless exercise.
Gandhi Irwin Pact The Government now made attempts to negotiate an agreement with the Congress so
March 1931 that it would participate in the next round of deliberations. The Government madea
gesture of Goodwill by releasing the Congress Leaders including Gandhi. Finally the
Viceroy Lord Irwin & Gandhi neogitated a settlement popularly known as Gandhi-
Irwin Pact. As per it Gandhi agreed to suspend the Civil Disobedience Movement &
participate in the Second Round Table conference but most of the leaders did not like
this pact. The Government also conceded the right to make salt for consumption to
villages along the coast, as also the right to peaceful & non-aggressive picketing.
II Round Table In II Round Table Conference in London, Gandhi was the sole representative of
Conference 1931 Congress. Aga Khan stressed upon the stability of Communal Elections. Gandhi
opposed it & demanded Dominion Status for India. The Government hardly listened to
Gandhi’s demand for immediate & fully responsible government. Mahatma Gandhi
returned to India as no agreement could be reached. In India Lord Irwin had been
replaced with Lord Willingdon who was as rigid as his predecessor had been flexible &
did everything he could to prop up Britain’s tottering empire. In January 1932 the civil
disobedience movement was resumed.
McDonald The British PM Ramsay MacDonald made an announcement according to which the
Communal Award depressed classes were considered as separate community (on the basis of demand
1932 raised by B.R. Ambedkar, the foremost among depressed class leaders). Mahatma
Gandhi went on a fast unto death in Yeravada Jail. An agreement was reached with the
consent of Mahatma Gandhi & Ambedkar which came to be known as ‘Poona Act’.
The British government also approved it. Accordingly 148 seats were reserved in
different provincial legislatures in place of 71 as per communal award.
III Round Table The congress once more didn’t take part in it. From India only State Loyalist &
Conference 1932 Communalists took part in it. None the less the British Government issued a white
paper which became basis for Govt of India Act 1935. Individual Civil Disobedience
was launched in 1933
Ahrar Movement The nationalist Muslims started another organization called the All-India Majlis-i-
1931 Ahrar-i-Islam in 1931 to work for the attamment of independence through
constitutional means. Its followers supported the Congress and worked for the
economic, educational and political advancement of Muslims. The influence of the
Ahrars was, however, mostly confined to the province of Punjab.
Congress Socialist Founded in 1934 by Jai Praksh Narain & Acharya Narendra Deva within the Indian
Party, 1934 National Congress. Its members rejected what they saw as the Communist Party of
India's loyalty to the USSR as well as the anti-rational mysticism of Mohandas Gandhi.
Although a socialist, Jawaharlal Nehru did not join the CSP. After independence, the
CSP broke away from Congress, under the influence of JP Narayan and Basawon
Singh (Sinha), to form the Socialist Party of India.
All India Kisan The All India Kisan Sabha was formed in 1936 at Lucknow with Swami Sahajanand as
Sabha 1936 its President. The All India Kisan Sabha, mainly a peasants’ organization was subject
to the influence of Congress Socialist Party and the Communist Party of India. During
the World War II it followed its programme of no-tax campaign, occupation of Bakasht
land in Bihar; travel in railways without tickets and anti-recruitment drive in the rural
areas. It completely aligned itself with the Forward Bloc and stood for no compromise
with the imperialist British Government and complete independence.
Hindustan Mazdur Gulzarilal Nanda who looked after the Congress interests in the organization
Sevak Sangh announced the formation of the Hindustan Mazdur Sevak Sangh with the concurrence
of Gandhiji, Vallabhbhai Patel was to be the President. Every member was enjoined to
sign a pledge which forbade association with any party which countenanced the use of
violent means or aimed at the establishment of dictatorial or sectional control of the
political or economic life of the country. It clearly excluded the communists who might
have been the ordinary members of the Congress. Thus the Congress had clearly
marked its entry in the labour field. Its leaders now made full use of the pro-war
attitude of the Communists and won over considerable following in the labour circles.
Forward Bloc 1939 Soon after his resignation from the Presidentship of the Indian National Congress on 3
May 1939. Subhas Chandra Bose formed what is known as the Forward Bloc. Its main
objective was attainment of complete independence and establishment of a modern
socialist state. It became a party at its Nagpur session on 18 June, 1940 and attempted a
form a left consolidated front but the Communist Party of India and the Congress
Socialist Party did not join it. However, it collaborated with the All-India Kisan Sabha
and was against any compromise with the British Government. In the then prevailing
situation, it advocated collaboration with Italy, Germany and Japan to get rid of the
imperialists British rule.
Radical A brief reference may be made here to the Radical Democratic Party formed by M. N.
Democratic Party Roy in August 1940 after he left the Congress along with his followers. He believed
1940 that he would be able to convince the British Government to form coalition ministries
by combining the anti Congress elements in the various provinces.
Jatiya Sarkar of Parallel Government during Quit India Movement at Midnapore (West Bengal). It
Tamluk 1942 undertool relief work, sanctioned school, & supplied paddy to needy. Satish Samanta
was the leader & became the first Sarva Adhinayak.
August Offer 1940 The Indian Viceroy Lord Linlithgow in August 1940, issued from Simla a statement
that was intended to break the Constitutional deadlock. The important points were
1. An immediate expansion of Viceroy’s executive council by indicuitng into that
body a number of representative Indians
2. The Establishment of War Advisory Council
3. The promotion of practical steps to arrive at an agreement among Indians on the
form which the post war reprentative body would take.
4. Indian people would help British Government.
come under the command of a Naval Central Strike Committee headed by M.S. Khan.
In Bombay the Mutineers hoisted the tricolor on their shipmasts together with a portrait
of Subhash Chandra Bose & shouted Jai Hind on their Barracks. Their protested
against:
1. INA Trials
2. Racial discrimination (Demanding equal pay for the Indian & White soldiers).
3. Upalatable food.
4. Abuse by White superiors.
5. Arrest of a rating for scrawling “Quit India” on HMIS Talwar
6. Use of Indian troops in Indonesia demanding their withdrawal.
Vallabh Bhai Patel & Jinnah jointly persuaded the ratings to surrender in 1946.
British Response
The upsurge prompted the British to extend some concessions
1. Only those INA members accused of murder or brutal treatment of fellow
prisoners would be brought to trial
2. Imprisonment sentences passed against the first batch were remitted.
3. Indian soldiers withdrawn from Indo-China and Indonesia.
4. Finally the decision to send Cabinet Mission to India was taken.
Tebhaga The Tebhaga movement was a militant campaign initiated in Bengal by the Kisan
Movement 1946 Sabha (peasants front of Communist Party of India) in 1946. At that time share-
cropping peasants had to give half of their harvest to landlords, a feudal institution. The
demand of the Tebhaga (sharing by thirds) movement was to reduce the share given to
landlords to one third. In many areas the agitations turned violent, and landlords fled
villages leaving parts of the countryside in the hands of Kisan Sabha.
Mountbatten Plan Mountbatten came to India as Viceroy. He put forth the plan of partition of India in 3
June 1947. Punjab & Bengla would be divided into two parts with muslim & non
muslim majority. Baluchistan had the right to determine which side to join. The power
would be transferred on 15 August 1947. Referendum were to be held in NWFP,
Sylhet (to join Assam or East Bengal). Legislative assembly of Sindh was to decide
whether to join India or not.
Indian The British Parliament passed the Indian Independence act on 18th July 1947. Partition
Independece Act on 15th August. The act provided separate governor generals for the two dominions.
1947 Abolition of the post of secretary of state for India. Pending the adoption of new
constitution, the administration of the two dominions & the provinces would be carried
on in accordance with the provisions of the government of India act 1935 though
special powers of the Governor General & the Provincial governors would be ceased.
Jinnah became the first governor general of Pakistan.
Unification Drive On 5th July 1947, Vallabhbhai Patel appealed to the Indian provinces to handover. He
followed up his appeal with a hurricane tour of 40 days in which he invited all the
native princes to join the Indian union by 5th August. In Kashmir Hari Singh sent his
PM Meharchand Mahajan with the signed papers for the merger. In Hyderabad the
nawab wanted to continue his arbitary rule with the help of Rajakars. Finally after
military action, Rajakars were expelled & the instrument of accession signed.
revolutionary underground, which came under intense pressure for sometime. Rash
Behari successfully evaded capture for nearly three years, becoming actively involved
in the Ghadar conspiracy before it was uncovered, and fleeing to Japan in 1916. The
investigations in the aftermath of the assassination attempt led to the Delhi Conspiracy
trial. Although Basant Kumar Biswas was convicted of having thrown the bomb and
executed, along with Amir Chand and Avadh Behari for their roles in the conspiracy,
the true identity of the actual person who threw the bomb is not known to this day.
August After the Lucknow Pact, a British policy was announced which aimed at “increasing
Declaration 1917 association of Indians in every branch of the administration for progressive realization
of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British empire”. This came
to be called the August Declaration. In 1917, there was a great change in the policies of
British. It was declared in the month of August that year that Indians will be given the
right to self governance progressively. After 1917, any demand for self-governance
was not to be considered as seditious. This declaration is famous in Indian history as
“August Declaration”. During the same time, British Government appointed
commissions to review and look out possible ways of providing representation to
Indians.
The Liberals or 'The liberals' are those people who broke away from the Indian National Congress for
Liberal Politicians they were not prepared to participate in the Non-Cooperation Movement. This core
value guided him and his comrades who formed the Liberal Party. Prominent Leaders
were C.Y Chintamani, S.N. Banerjee.
Karachi Resolution In the All India Khilafat conference held at Karachi in August 1921, a resolution was
1921 adopted that "British service by any Muslim under the present circumstances is against
the religious edicts".
Select · The first political murder of a European was committed in 1897 at Poona by the
Revolutionary Chapekar brothers, Damodar and Balkishan. Their target was Mr.Rand, President
Activities of the Plague Commission, but Lt.Ayerst was accidentally shot.
· In 1907, Madam Bhikaiji Cama, a Parsi revolutionary unfurled the flag of India at
Stuttgart Congress (of Second international).
· In 1908, Khudiram Bose and Prafulla chaki threw a bomb on the carriage of
kingford, the unpopular judge of Muzaffapur. Khudiram, Kanhaiyalal Dutt and
Satyendranath Bose were hanged. (Alipur Case).
· In 1909, M L Dhingra shot dead Col.William Curzon Whyllie, the political advisor
of “India Office” in London.
· In 1912, Rasbihari Bose and Sachindra Nath Sanyal threw a bomb and Lord
Hardinge at Delhi. (Delhi Conspiracy Case).
· In Oct, 1924, a meeting of revolutionaries from all parts of India was called at
Kanpur. They setup Hindustan Socialist Republic Association/Army (HSRA).
· They carried out a dacoity on the Kakori bound train on the Saharanpur-Lucknow
railway line on Aug. 9, 1925.
· Bhagat Singh, with his colleagues, shot dead Saunders (Asst. S.P. of Lahore, who
ordered lathi charge on Lala Lajpat Rai) on Dec.17, 1928.
· Then Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb in the Central Assembly
Ghanshyam Thori 49 Indian History & Culture
Ghanshyam Thori Indian History & Culture
on Apr 8, 1929. Thus, he, Rajguru and Sukhdev were hanged on March. 23,1931 at
Lahore Jall (Lahore Conspiracy Case) and their bodies cremated at Hussainiwala
near Ferozepur.
· In 1929 only Jatin Das died in Lahore jail after 63 days fast to protest against
horrible conditions in jail.
· Surya Sen, a revolutionary of Bengal, formed the Indian Republic Army in Bengal.
In 1930, he masterminded the raid on Chittagong armoury. He was hanged in 1933.
· In 1931, Chandrashekhar Azad shot himself at Alfred Park in Allahabad.
Butler Committee In 1927, the government appointed the Indian State Committee, popularly known as
the Butler Committee (form the name of its chairma Sir Harcourt Butler) to investigate
the relationship between the Paramount Power (British Government) & the Indian
States. The Butler Committee made the following points:
1. Parmountcy must remain paramount.
2. The states were bound by treaties with the crown & it should not be handed
over without the rulers prior consent to an Indian Government in British India.
3. The Viceroy to be crown agent in dealing with the states.
Meerut Conspiracy 1929 Thirty-one Communist leaders arrested for sedition: Trial lasted 4 years
Chittagong Armoury Raid Under the leadership of Suryasen on government armouries at Chittagong,
1930-32 Mymen Singh & Barisal. Ambika Chakraborti, Loknath Bal & Ganesh
Ghose were prominent leaders involved. Among the girls, Kalpana Dutt,
Preetilata Waddekar were in the forefront. A fight took place in Jalalabad
hills where a number of revolutionaries were killed.
Important Governor Generals & Viceroys
Important Governor Generals
Viceroys after Curzon are mentioned only for reference & not for memorizing.
Lord William · Carried out the social reforms like Prohibition of Sati (1829) and elimination of
Bentinck thugs (1830).
(1828 – 1835) · Made English the Medium of higher education in the country (After the
recommendations of Macaulay).
· Suppressed female infanticide and child sacrifice.
· Charter Act of 1833 was passed; made him the first Governor General of India.
Before him, the designation was Governor General of Bengal.
Lord Dalhousie · Opened the first Indian Railway in 1853 (from Bombay to Thane).
(1848 – 1856) · Laid out the telegraph lines in 1853 (First was from Calcutta to Agra).
· Introduced the Doctrine of Lapse and captured Satara (1848), Jaipur and
Sambhalpur (1849), Udaipur (1852), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854).
· Established the postal system on the modern lines through the length and breadth of
the country, which made communication easier.
· Started the Public Works Department. Many bridges were constructed and the work
on Grand Trunk Road was started. The harbors of Karachi, Bombay and Calcutta
were also developed.
· Made Shimla the summer capital.
· Started Engineering College at Roorkee.
· In 1854, “Wood’s Dispatch’ was passed, which provided for the properly
articulated system of education from the primary school to the university.
· Due to Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar’s efforts, remarriage of widows was legalized
by Widow Remarriage Act, 1856).
Important Viceroys
Lord Canning · The last Governor General and the first Viceroy.
(1856 – 1862) · Mutiny took place in his time.
· On Nov, 1858, the rule passed on to the crown.
· Withdrew Doctrine of Lapse.
· The Universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established in 1857.
· Indian Councils Act was passed in 1861.
Lord Mayo · Started the process of financial decentralization in India.
(1869 – 1872) · Established the Rajkot college at Kathiarwar and Mayo College at Ajmer for the
Indian princes.
· For the first time in Indian history, a census was held in 1871.
· Organised the Statistical Survey of India.
Ghanshyam Thori 51 Indian History & Culture
Ghanshyam Thori Indian History & Culture
Madeliene Slade Madeleine Slade known as Mira Behn – the name given by Mahatma Gandhi was a
(Mira Behn) great believer in Gandhian philosophy & an active supporter of the Indian Freedom
Struggle. She was a prolific writer & regular contributor to Young India & Harijan.
She made intensive tours to all over India to promote Khadi & Satyagrah movement.
She left India in 1959 & settled in a village near Vienna. In 1981, she was honoured
with Padma Vibhushan.
Nalini Sen Gupta Nalini Sengupta was one of the few Britisher who pledged her support to the cause of
India’s freedom Born to English parents Naline received her education in England &
later married the great Indian Nationalist Jatindra Mohan Sengupta. She actively fought
for India’s freedom & was arrested many times. She remained member of Bengal
Legislative Assembly from 1940-46.
Anne Besant A strong votary of truth, she came to India in 1893 at the age of 46, impressed as she
was by its great religion and philosophy. As early as 1898 and later in 1902 she urged
Indians to were native dress, use and develop Indian manufacturers and also develop a
national language. Dr. Annie Besant entered active politics in 1914. She demanded
Home Rule for India and suffered internment for it from June to September 1917. By
then she had tried and achieved unification of the Congress and Hindus and Muslims in
1916. She had done ample work to formulate favourable opinion about the Indian
question in outside world. The August declaration of 1917 is attributed to her efforts.
She fittingly became the president of Indian National Congress in 1917.
Anasuya Behn In February 1918, Anasuya Sarabhai, leader of the Textile Union in Ahemdabad, asked
Gandhi to intervene in a labor dispute with the mill owners headed by Anasuya brother
-- Ambalal Sarabhai. Things went from bad to worse for labor, and a worker remarked
that he and his family were starving while Gandhi was eating. This prompted Gandhi to
fast and vow not to eat again until the strike was amicably settled. `The hearts of the
mill-owners were touched," he said. After a few days, the strike was settled. This was
his first and last interference in labor management disputes.
Swarup Rani The mother of Jawaharlal Nehru, Swarup Rani Nehru cheerfully gave her husband and
children to the country’s cause and herself, old and trail entered the pray at its thickest.
Kamla Nehru Jawaharlal’s brave wife, Kamala; kept smiling all through the long years of travail of
her brief life. When her husband joined the Non Cooperation movment she gladly
followed him. With Jawaharlal away in prison, Kamala took to social work to begin
with. She started a dispensary in her house in Allahabad and also started a movement
for women’s education and to get them out of purdah. She was aptly called the “Pride
of Allahabad”.
Sarojini Naidu Born in Family reputed for its scholarly background, Sarojini was educated in England.
She showed a marked flair for literature at an early age which alter found expression in
beautiful English verses & earned her the title “Nightingale of India”. She actively
particapted in the Home Rule League at the call of Mrs. Annie Besant. At the
beginning of Quit India Movement she was arrested & detained with Gandhiji at Aga
Khan Palace, Poona. She was the first lady to become governor of UP in free India.
Vijay Lakshmi Sister of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru also played a great role in the freedom movement.
Pandit She was elected to Uttar Pradesh Assembly in 1936 and in 1946. She was the first
woman in India to hold a ministerial rank. She was imprisoned thrice for taking part in
the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1932. 1941 and 1942. After Independence, she
continued to serve the country. She was the first woman to become president of the
United Nations General Assembly.
Miss Padmaja Sarojini’s daughter Miss Padmaja Naidu devoted herself to the cause of Nation like her
Naidu mother. At the age of 21, she entered the National scene and became the joint founder
of the Indian National Congress of Hyderabad. She spread the message of Khadi and
inspired people to boycott foreign goods. She was jailed for taking part in the “Quit
India” movement in 1942. After Independence, she became the Governor of West
Bengal.
Sucheta The contribution of Sucheta Kripalani in the struggle for freedom is also worthy of
Kripalani note. She courted imprisonment for taking part in freedom struggle. She was elected as
a member of Constituent Assembly in 1946. She was general secretary of Indian
National Congress from 1958 to 1960, and Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh from 1963
to 1967. Sucheta Kripalani was in the words of Shrimati Indira Gandhi, “a person of
rare courage and character who brought credit to Indian womanhood.”
Punjab was partitioned in 1946, creating the Muslim province of West Punjab, which
became the most populated province of Pakistan on August 14, 1947.
Ilbert Bill 1883 The Ilbert Bill was a bill introduced in 1883 for British India by Lord Ripon that
proposed an amendment for existing laws in the country at the time to allow Indian
judges and magistrates the jurisdiction to try British offenders in criminal cases at the
District level, something that was disallowed at the time. However, the introduction of
the bill led to intense opposition in Britain and from British settlers in India that
ultimately played on racial tensions before it was enacted in 1884 in a severely
compromised state. The bitter controversy deepened antagonism between the British
and Indians and was a prelude to the formation of the Indian National Congress the
following year.
Sharda Act 1929. Sarda Act is the popular name of the Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1929. It was
presented by Rai Sahib Harbilas Sarda to the Imperial Legislature. It raised the age of
consent from 14 for females & 18 for males.
Sabarmati Sabarmati Ashram also known as Gandhi Ashram, Harijan Ashram, or Satyagraha
Ashram Ashram) is located in the Ahmedabad suburb of Sabarmati and on the western banks of
the Sabarmati River. Sabarmati ashram was the scene of many events of the Indian
independence movement. Gandhi made it his home from 1917 to 1930. While at the
Ashram, Gandhi formed a school that focused on manual labour, agriculture, and
literacy to advance his efforts for self-sufficiency.. It was from there that he started the
Dandi March in 1930.
Darul Uloom The Darul Uloom is an Islamic school, where Deobandi Islamic movement was started.
It is located at Deoband, a town in Uttar Pradesh, India. It was founded in 1866 by
several prominent ulema, headed by Al Imam Mohammad Qasim Nanotwi. The other
prominent scholars were Maulana Rashid Ahmed Gangohi
Dickie Bird Plan Dickie bird plan is also known as Plan Balkan.This plan was mooted by Mountbatten
prior to his famous 3rd june plan. In dickie bird plan it was decided that instead of
giving sovereignity to a common center, all the existing states be rendered free.Thus
getting a large no. of sovereign territories in the country of present similar to the
Balkan peninsula where a large no of contries exist which were taken out of the
original countries.