Learning Strategies Resource Guide

region XIV
comprehensive center
Learning Strategies
Resource Guide
Disseminated by
Region XIV Comprehensive Center
Educational Testing Service
1979 Lakeside Parkway, Suite 400
Tucker, Georgia 30084-5865
1-800-241-3865
Educational
Testing Service
ESCORT
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Center for
Applied Tampa, Florida
Linguistics
Litton/PRC, Inc.
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DREAM, Inc. *****
David C. Anchin
Center,
Hato Rey, Puerto Rico
University of
South Florida 787-758-2326
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i
LEARNING STRATEGIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv
EXPLORING TEXT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
● Example — Directed Reading Thinking Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
● Example — Prediction Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
● Example — Rainbows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Brainstorming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Pre Reading Plan (PReP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
K-W-L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
● Example — K-W-L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Cloze .............................................................. 15
● Example — Variation of Cloze . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Questioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
● Example — ReQuest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
● Example — Question-Answer Relationship (QAR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
● Example — ERRQ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Think-Along . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
● Example — Think-Along in Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
● Example — Think-Along in Math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Big Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Wordless Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
● Bibliography of Wordless Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Schema Stories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
● Example — Schema Story Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
● Example — Math Schema Story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
EXPANDING MEANING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Semantic Mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
● Example — Semantic Mapping Before Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
● Example — Semantic Mapping After Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
● Example — Semantic Mapping for Vocabulary Development . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
● Example — Semantic Mapping as a Study Skill Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Page
Sketch to Stretch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
● Example — Problem-Solving Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Reciprocal Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Partner Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Say Something . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Written Conversation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Responding to Reading as Writers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Journals and Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

● Example — Ideas for Math Learning Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
● Example — Guiding Questions for Reading Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Authoring Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Spelling Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Literature Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
● Example — Suggestions for Literature Response Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Readers’ Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Text Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
● Example — Text Set Project Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Student Research Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

● Example — Planning Guide for Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
● Example — Ideas for Writing a Research Proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
● Example — Teaching Planning Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
● Example — Guidelines for Individual Research Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
● Example — Evaluation Form for Research Presentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Praise-Question-Polish (PQP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Exit Slips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
INTRODUCTION
WHAT ARE LEARNING STRATEGIES?
Strategies are ways for learners to solve problems encountered in constructing meaning in any
context. Unlike skills, strategies chosen by learners are modified to fit the demands of the
learning situation. Strategic learners know how and when to alter, modify, combine, and test
individual strategies against their prior knowledge, beliefs, and experiences.
Strategy teaching does not require commercial materials, nor does it need to be a separate part of
the curriculum; it does not consist of “tricks” or isolated activities.1 Rather, strategic instruction
is a process that involves teaching students to read using procedures used by good readers, to
write using approaches used by good writers, and to problem solve using techniques used by
good problem solvers.
WHY USE LEARNING STRATEGIES?

Both research and common sense provide a rationale for using learning strategies with students.
There has been a shift in focus for curriculum and instruction based on practical research that has
gained attention nationally. To address the implications of the GOALS 2000: Educate America
Act and to promote the implementation of the Improving America’s Schools Act (IASA), there is
a need to restructure and provide support for effective teaching and learning for all.
Using learning strategies supports the purpose of the Improving America’s School Act, as stated
in the introduction:
The purpose . . . [is] . . . ensuring access of children [from the earliest grades] to
effective instructional strategies and challenging academic content that includes intensive
complex thinking and problem-solving experiences (Section 1001, (d)(3)).
Research findings also indicate that the following actions particularly benefit low achieving
students:
● Emphasizing meaning and understanding. Teachers who give priority to understanding

and meaning help students to comprehend what written text says “between the lines,”
assist students to communicate in writing thoughts that an audience would care to know,
and demonstrate what mathematical procedures mean and how to tackle unfamiliar
problems.
● Embedding skills in context. In each subject area, the teacher presents skills within the
context of application. Comprehension skills are connected with the text being read,
writing skills are a part of the act of composing, and math problems are solved with
selected mathematical tools in context.
Pressley, M., Goodchild, F., Fleet, J., Zajchowski, R., & Evans, E. (1989). The challenges of classroom
strategy instruction. The Elementary School Journal, 89(3), 301-335.
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● Encouraging connections between subject areas and between school and life outside of
school. Teachers focus on making connections between subject areas and between what is
learned in school and the students’ home experiences.2
The materials included in this resource book were selected to emphasize effective teaching and
learning practices, to develop a shared meaning about educational jargon, and to provide
alternatives to programs that focus on basic skills for at-risk students.
HOW TO USE THE STRATEGIES
This resource book includes examples of strategies that assist learners in the construction of
meaning. For students to become genuinely strategic, they must participate in authentic learning
opportunities that reflect their needs and access their prior knowledge. The learning strategies
described here are not necessarily specific to any content area but emphasize communication and
problem solving throughout the curriculum.
Communication is the heart of language learning and reading and writing are tools for learning about
the world. Because there are multiple ways of knowing, there are multiple ways of communicating
and sharing understanding. Although problem solving is an organizational framework for
mathematics instruction, it is essential for understanding science, social studies, language, and other
content areas. Problem solving, according to the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, is
“a process by which students experience the power and usefulness of mathematics in the world
around them. It is a method of inquiry and application” (NCTM Standards, p. 23). When educators
view the problem-solving process as inquiry and application, it is logical for them to use it as a
foundation, complementary to communication, for curriculum planning.
Some of the ideas presented in this resource book are strategies, while others are demonstrations
and some are activities, but all are intended to be invitations for learning. An effective learning
strategy is applicable to a range of grade levels, students needs, and content areas.
Demonstrations, activities, or instructional experiences become strategies when the learners
assume ownership and adapt the experiences to meet their individual needs.
The format used in this resource book for introducing a strategy includes a definition (WHAT), a
rationale (WHY), and a procedure or method of operation (HOW). Examples are included with
some of the learning strategies. Although the learning strategies included are cross-categorical
because they include communication and problem solving, they seem to fit two general
categories: exploring text and expanding meaning. The section on exploring text includes ideas
that are connected to specific text selection, and the section on expanding meaning includes
extensions and applications for understanding text.
The learning strategies are organized to engage students in exploring written text, oral text,
and illustrations and to extend their understanding and help them expand meaning by
making personal connections and sharing learning. Some of the strategies are designed for
group work, some are suggested for partners, and some are for individual engagement. Many of
Knapp, M.S., Adelman, N.E., Marder, C., McCollum, H., Needels, M.C., Shields, P.M., Turnbull, B.J.,
& Zuker, A.A. (1993). Study of academic instruction for disadvantaged students: Academic challenge for the
children of poverty: Volume 1: Finding and conclusions (Contract No. LC88054001). Washington, DC: U.S.
Department of Education, Office of Planning, Budget and Evaluation.
ii
the strategies that focus on specific text include suggestions for group involvement before,
during, and after the reading of content area materials. Given the social nature of learning, the
strategies for expanding meaning include the sharing of personal interpretations through
collaborative inquiry.
The long-term goal of strategic teaching is to help students construct meaning through self-
regulated use and adaptation of a wide repertoire of strategies. Teachers are encouraged to
reflect and adapt these learning strategies to meet their students’ needs as they become strategic
learners. All of the experiences described are appropriate for assessment and evaluation
purposes.
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Learning Strategies
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LEARNING STRATEGIES DESCRIPTIONS
The following descriptions provide an overview of the strategies discussed in this resourse book.
A. Exploring Text
1. Prediction. This is a basic strategy for using prior knowledge to understand text. The
learner generates a hypothesis about the type, purpose, or scope of a text to provide a
framework for transacting with the text to confirm comprehension. Examples of teaching
reading as thinking include prediction, directed reading, and confirming.
2. Brainstorming. Brainstorming is a way to value prior knowledge and prior experience by

inviting students to associate concepts with a selected topic. All contributions are accepted
and recorded. Group members review and discuss the related ideas and determine how to
organize and use the information.
3. Pre Reading Plan (PReP). The Pre Reading Plan is a three-step demonstration for teachers
to use before assigning reading to their students. It includes accessing prior knowledge,
reflecting on associations, and reformulating knowledge.
4. K-W-L. K-W-L is a strategy that models the active thinking needed when reading expository
text. The letters K, W, L stand for three activities students engage in when reading to learn:
recalling that they KNOW, determining what they WANT to learn, and identifying what they
LEARN as they read.
5. Cloze. Cloze refers to the procedure of using reading material from which words or partial
words have been systematically deleted. This procedure has been adapted to serve different
purposes. Selected deletion is a way to assess the learner’s sense of language and to support
prediction and confirmation strategies.
6. Questioning. Questions are tools for engaging attention, investigating ideas, assessing
knowledge, and encouraging deeper understanding. Appropriate questions help students
develop metacognition and assist them in problem-solving strategies. Teachers use questions
to gain information about students’ understanding.
7. Think-Along. A think-along is a teaching demonstration that makes the invisible thinking

process of reading visible. It is an attempt on the part of the teacher to model the thinking
process that any good reader engages in when reading. Students observe as the teacher thinks
aloud while reading a text.
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8. Big Books. These enlarged texts are designed for shared reading time so that students can
be aware of print and how it works. Although the primary purpose is to share the enjoyment
of stories or poetry, big books may be used to provide a linguistic framework for language
learning within the context of a story or connected text. Predicting and confirming strategies
may be used with big books that have predictable patterns and interesting plots.
9. Wordless Books. These are books that tell a story in pictures without words, or sometimes
with minimal print. They are valuable resources to encourage language knowledge and usage
and also to assess oral and written language development. Student responses may include
writing a narrative with or without dialogue or creating a script for a play, a puppet show, a
radio dramatization, or a video production.
10. Schema Stories. Prior experience with text is helpful in developing a schema for identifying,
thinking about, and talking about story structure to encourage comprehension. The experience
of arranging parts of a story into a logical sequence assists students in making predictions
and confirming language knowledge. The teacher selects short, well structured stories or
informational pieces, divides them into sections, and places the parts in an envelope. Groups
of students work together to determine the sense or schema of the piece.
B. Expanding Meaning
1. Semantic Mapping. Visual representations of connected ideas may be labeled as semantic

maps, semantic webs, concept maps, clusters, schema diagrams, or structured overviews.
After brainstorming and discussing associations on particular topics, students can use semantic
mapping to organize the information in categories.
2. Sketch to Stretch. Representing ideas through drawing provides students an alternative

way of responding to text. Students may do a listening activity and draw what they visualize,
or they may read a text and represent their understanding through illustrations. Sketching
may be used to assess students’ knowledge of sequential order or main idea and details.
Semantic webbing may be used to follow a sketch to stretch activity.
v
3. Problem Solving. Problem solving is a method of inquiry and is essential as an approach
to finding solutions to problems. Development of student capacities for problem solving in
all areas of learning is necessary to achieve the goal of helping students become more effective
critical thinkers about what they read and hear. The basics of the 21st century include problem
solving and communication.
4. Reciprocal Teaching. Reciprocal teaching is an instructional activity that takes place in

the form of a dialogue between teachers and students regarding segments of text. The dialogue
is structured by the use of four strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and
predicting. The teacher and students take turns assuming the role of teacher in leading this
dialogue.
5. Partner Reading. Partner reading encourages the sharing of ideas. Sometimes partners
take turns reading aloud, sometimes they each read silently, but they talk about their
perceptions, questions, and insights. Partners of different ages and abilities work well together.
The teacher may be a student’s partner to assess individual needs and strengths.
6. Say Something. This is a reading activity that invites conversation and discussion by
partners or small groups of students. Each person receives a text for reading and responding.
The participants decide cooperatively how far to read before stopping to talk about the author’s
ideas. Someone is designated to speak first, or to say something related to the text. Each
person listens and responds with comments, reactions, or questions. They may reread the
text to clarify understanding or answer questions.
7. Written Conversation. One sheet of paper is shared by partners as they carry on a silent
conversation in writing. Young children can participate by drawing pictures, using invented
spelling, or doing both. One person starts the conversation and often asks a question before
handing the paper to the writing partner. This conversation continues as the writers respond
to each other’s comments and questions.
8. Responding to Reading as Writers. This strategy gives readers and writers a sense of
authorship by involving students in sharing their writing with peers. The collaboration assists
both readers and writers in the composing process as they listen and respond to the written work.
9. Journals and Logs.
a. Personal Journals. These journals are like diaries that record personal thoughts, feelings,
ideas for exploration, and perplexing questions. The writer and reader are the same person
and the contents are not necessarily shared with anyone else.
b. Dialogue Journals. Dialogue journals are another form of written conversation, or

two-way responding that may focus on specific needs or issues. The interactive format
extends the discussion between a teacher and a student, or between two students, over a
period of time to explore understanding and inquiry related to reading, writing, or problem
solving.
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c. Traveling Journals. When groups of students are working together on a project, book,
story, topic, question, or common theme, the individuals write to one another. This strategy
is similar to written conversation. The journal may travel from person to person or remain
in a central location for individuals to make regular entries. The teacher reads and responds
to the group communication.
d. Reading Logs. General reading logs provide opportunities for students to record their
thoughts and questions about anything they are reading, including content area or research
material. Reading response logs are important components of reading discussion groups
in which students share their written responses to initiate and continue discussion about
specific text.
e. Learning Logs. These logs are an example of using writing as a way of knowing. They
may include responses to a variety of content materials and concepts, or theme cycles, or
they may focus on one particular lesson or idea. Students keep track of what they have
learned about a particular topic in the learning log and use it for reflection and self-
evaluation. Entries may include summaries, insights, and questions to extend learning.
10. Letters. Students need to know that letter writing is an important ability that serves a
number of purposes. There are pen pal letters, letters to the editor, letters of application,
consumer awareness letters, and friendly letters, notes, invitations, and messages that students
may write to real people for real reasons.
11. Authoring Cycle. This is a framework for using the processes of reading and writing
throughout the curriculum. Students are engaged in thinking, writing, reading, revising,
sharing, editing, and presenting their written work. After choosing a topic, students think
about what they want to say and begin a first draft of those ideas. They share, get suggestions
from other students, and revise their work. Self-editing is encouraged before an outside
editor reviews the work. Multiple drafts are kept in writing folders to monitor progress.
12. Spelling Strategies. Spelling strategies are ways that students focus on the conventions of
written language.
13. Literature Study. Literature discussion groups give students a chance to talk about their
perceptions and interpretations of a selected text. After reading the selection and responding
in a literature log, they meet to discuss ideas and insights. After discussion, group members
decide how far they will read and what they will consider for the next discussion time.
Different students serve as discussion leaders.
14. Readers’ Theatre. Reading aloud for a collective purpose is a variation of shared reading
experiences. Readers’ theatre is a group project that gives students the opportunity to work
together to present a collaborative oral interpretation of a written text. Rehearsal demonstrates
the importance of listening to others and of feeling the rhythm of blended voices. Scripts
may be adapted from predictable language stories or those with distinctive dialogue.
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15. Text Sets. The text sets used in literature study circles are usually multiple copies of the
same text to provide a focus for shared meaning. However, text sets may be a collection of
different books on a related topic. Using sets of different texts encourages students to compare,
contrast, and make connections in a reading discussion group. Related poetry may be included
as text sets as well as different versions of particular fairy tales or collections of books by the
same author.
16. Student Research. Reading and writing are important tools in content area learning.
Self-selected research promotes active engagement of students in focused study. Many of
the questions that students want to research cut across disciplines. A curriculum based on
inquiry includes the examination of various perspectives. Students need the opportunity to
explore and share their discoveries by presenting their knowledge through various media.
17. Praise-Question-Polish (PQP). PQP is a framework used to assess understanding and

evaluate learning. It has three columns for student responses to specific lessons, texts, topics,
or focus studies. The praise column is for positive comments, the question column is for
recording ideas that are not clear, and the polish column is for suggested changes to improve
understanding.
18. Exit Slips. Exit slips are self-evaluations that prompt students to review their learning.
They may be used at the end of a class session, the end of a day, the end of a week, or the end
of a focused study, a presentation, or a theme unit. Students reflect on what they learned and
request further assistance if needed.
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Exploring
Text
The learning strategies and experiences that are included in this section begin with the
assumption that reading is a thinking process that connects prior knowledge with pre-
dicting and confirming strategies when dealing with text. All of the ideas are related to
gaining meaning from specific texts or topics related to texts. Students explore text
through predicting, brainstorming, and confirming in a variety of situations; using cloze
procedures for specific and general purposes; questioning as a framework for reading
and understanding; and analyzing and appreciating text.
1
PREDICTION
WHAT: Prediction is a process used by readers to combine their knowledge with textual infor-
mation to generate a hypothesis about what will happen next.
WHY: Prediction is a way of focusing interest and establishing a purpose for reading a par-
ticular text — to confirm or expand understanding.
HOW: 1. Sample text.
2. Determine author’s purpose.
a. Inform (give facts)

b. Persuade (attempt to influence reader’s opinion)
c. Entertain (amuse)
3. Make prediction based on prior knowledge and textual information.
4. Resample text.
5. Confirm or adjust prediction.
6. Repeat the steps, stopping at logical places.
7. Prove, confirm, or reject.
8. Guide students to apply strategy in all content areas.
Further information:
Palinscar, A.S., & Brown, A.L. (1985). Reciprocal teaching: Activities to promote reading with your mind. In
T.L. Harris & E.J. Cogen (Eds.), Reading, thinking, and concept development: Strategies for the classroom.
New York: The College Board.
Tierney, R.J., Readence, J.E., & Dishner, E.K. (1990). Reading strategies and practices — A compendium
(3rd ed.). Boston: Allyn Bacon.
2
Example
DIRECTED READING THINKING ACTIVITY
Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) is a useful strategy to get students to make inferences
while reading. The role of the teacher is to guide students through a selection in order for them to
formulate questions for themselves, make predictions, and validate or reject the predictions. The
strategy should be done over a period of time during which the teacher models and gradually reduces
guidance until students begin to use the strategy independently. The final instructional objective is
that the students be able to independently apply the DRTA strategy to all their reading selections.
STEPS
Activate background knowledge. “Look at the picture and the title on the first page of the
selection. Think about what you already know about the topic of the selection. Let’s share
our ideas.”
Predict. “What do you think the selection will be about? What do you think will happen next?”
Support the prediction. “Why do you think so?”
Read silently. The students read a section of the text such as an episode or episodes in a story.
Confirm or reject the predictions. “What predictions can you prove? Why or Why not?”
Repeat the cycle. Use with the next section of the selection.
Many teachers find it useful to write predictions and modifications on the board to focus the discus-
sion as they progress through the selection.
3
Gill, J.T., & Bear, D.R. (1988). No book, whole book, and chapter DR-TAs. Journal of Reading, 31, 444-451.
Haggard, M.R. (1988). Developing critical thinking with the Directed Reading-Thinking Activity. The Reading Teacher,
41, 526-535.
Stauffer, R.G. (1969). Directing reading maturity as a cognitive process. New York: Harper & Row.
Tierney, R.J., Readence, J.E., & Dishner, E.K. (1990). Reading strategies and practices—A compendium (3rd ed.).
Boston: Allyn Bacon.
4
Example
PREDICTION GUIDE
The Prediction Guide is a preparatory activity that focuses students’ interests and helps them establish
purposes for reading a particular section of a text. The Prediction Guide makes use of students’
prior knowledge about a topic.
PROCEDURE:
Teacher compiles statements (some true, some false) from the selection to be read.
Students read the statements and sort them into YES/NO columns PRIOR to reading.
Students read selection.
Students check their predictions and confirm or reject.
YES NO
Adapted from:
Handout developed by the North Kansas City School District Chapter 1 Program.
5
Example
RAINBOWS
DIRECTIONS:
BEFORE reading the selection about rainbows, read each statement and place a check in the
first column for each statement with which you agree. Be prepared to defend your decision.
THEN share your decision with group members and make a group decision.
AFTER reading the selection, place a check on the third line beside the statements the author
would support. Be ready to cite evidence from the text to support your arguments.
Personal Group Author

1. A rainbow forms in the part of the sky opposite the sun.
2. A rainbow can be formed by the light of the moon.
3. There are seven colors in each rainbow.
4. Each color in the rainbow takes up the same amount
of space.
Developed by:
Seltzer, D. (1994). Overland Park, KS: Research & Training Associates, Inc.
6
RAINBOWS
“RAINBOW is an arch of brilliant colors that appears in the sky when the sun shines after a shower
of rain. It forms in that part of the sky opposite the sun. If the rain has been heavy, the bow may
spread all the way across the sky, and its two ends seem to rest on the earth. The reflection and
refraction of the sun’s rays as they fall on drops of rain cause this interesting natural phenomenon.
‘All the colors of the rainbow’ is an expression that means a brilliant display color. The seven colors
that appear in each rainbow are violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. But these colors
blend into each other so that the observer rarely sees more than four or five clearly. The amount of
space each color takes up varies, and depends chiefly on the size of the raindrops in which a rainbow
forms. LUNAR RAINBOW — occasionally, the light of the moon forms a rainbow. The feebleness
of the light creates faint colors, which are difficult to observe. This rainbow differs from the sun’s
only in intensity of color.”
Reprinted from:
Saucier, W.J. (1984). Rainbow. In The World Book Encyclopedia, (Vol. 16, pp. 125-126). Chicago: World Book, Inc.
7
BRAINSTORMING
WHAT: Brainstorming is an exercise that involves groups of students in free association of

concepts. All responses are accepted.
WHY: Brainstorming is a way to assess and value prior knowledge and experience. Also, it
may be used to review and evaluate learning. Group members work together to explore
concepts and relationships.
HOW: 1. Choose a topic or concept to brainstorm. Topics for brainstorming may include
symbols, words, phrases, questions, or statements. Ideas may be generated by these
questions:
● What does this mean?

● What do you know about ?
2. Group members call out concepts that they associate with the topic. All associations
and terms are accepted and recorded on paper or a transparency.
3. Members of the group review the display of written responses and think about how
they might fit into categories or groups that have similarities. The leader asks how
terms are similar or different.
4. The leader may summarize or add some concepts or suggest names for categories.
5. This experience is related to semantic webbing and the individuals or group mem-
bers may draw a semantic web to organize ideas for further study.
Adams, J.L. (1986). Conceptual block busting. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.
Southeastern Educational Improvement Laboratory. (1990). Teacher’s aspirations for school improvement.
Research Triangle Park, NC: Author.
8
Pre Reading Plan (PReP)
WHAT: The Pre Reading Plan is a three-step demonstration for teachers to use before assigning
textbook reading to their students. It includes accessing prior knowledge, reflecting on
associations, and reformulating knowledge.
WHY: PReP helps teachers and students assess what students already know about a concept
and encourages student to refine predictions about concepts in the text. Readers have an
opportunity to access their prior knowledge and to elaborate and evaluate their ideas.
Teachers are assisted in making instructional decisions by assessing students’ prior
knowledge about a given topic, assessing language use in expressing ideas, and
determining the need for additional background information to assist students in under-
standing the text.
HOW: The instruction given reminds students of what they already know about a topic, elicits
group elaboration of shared language and concepts, and refines predictions to assist
individuals in confirming and comprehending text.
GROUP DISCUSSION
The PReP calls for a group discussion before students read the text. The teacher reviews
the assigned text to select a word, phrase, or picture to initiate group discussion about a
key concept in the text. In a brief introduction, the teacher puts the prereading activity in
context by introducing the topic to be studied. There are three phases to the PReP.
1. Initial associations with the concept. In this first phase, the teacher says, “Tell me
anything that comes to mind when . . . (you hear this word, see this picture, etc.).”
As each student freely associates and tells what ideas initially came to mind, the
teacher writes these responses on the board. During this phase, students have their
first opportunity to make associations between the key concept and what they already
know.
2. Reflections on initial associations. During the second phase, the students are asked,
“What made you think of . . . (the response given by each of the students during
phase 1)?” This phase encourages students to think about the associations they have
made, to listen to one another’s responses, and to become aware of their changing
ideas. Through this procedure, they gain the insight that permits them to evaluate the
usefulness of these ideas in the reading experience.
3. Reformulation of knowledge. After all students have had an opportunity to think and
tell about what triggered their ideas, the teachers asks, “Based on our discussion,
have you any new ideas about . . . (the word, the picture, etc.)?” This phase allows
students to tell about associations that have been expanded, deleted, or changed as a
result of the discussion. Because they have had a chance to probe their memories and
9
evaluate their ideas in terms of the text, they will read and reformulate their ideas in
light of the reading task. The responses elicited during phase 3 are often more refined
than those elicited during phase 1.
LEVELS OF RESPONSE
There seem to be three levels of response during phase 1 and phase 3, based on the
amount and organization of students’ prior knowledge. Categorization of knowledge into
levels provides teachers with diagnostic information in planning for instruction. Previous
studies have shown these levels to be more important than IQ or standardized reading test
scores in predicting student recall of a particular passage (Langer & Smith-Burke, 1982;
Langer & Nicolich, 1981).
If the student has much prior knowledge about the concept being discussed, responses
to “Tell me anything that comes to mind when . . .” generally take the form of
superordinate concepts, definitions, or analogies. They may also link the concept with
another concept, evidencing high integration of ideas.
If the student has some knowledge about the concept being discussed, responses generally
take the form of examples, attributes, or defining characteristics. If the student has little
prior information about the concept, responses generally focus on low-level associations
with morphemes (prefixes, suffixes, or root words), words that sound like the stimulus
word, or firsthand (but not quite revelant) experiences. (A more complete description of
the levels or organization of knowledge can be found in Langer & Nicolich, 1981.)
Taken from:
Farr, B., Peterson, S., Strickler, D., & Cripe, R. (1990). Understanding reading (Workshop leader’s guide). Indianapo-
lis, IN: PRC, Inc. (formerly Advanced Technology, Inc.).
References:
Langer, J.A., & Smith-Burke, M.T. (1982). Reader meets author/bridging the gap (pp. 153-156). Newark, DE: Interna-
tional Reading Association.
Langer, J.A., & Nicolich, M. (1981). Prior knowledge and its effect on comprehension. Journal of Reading Behavior,
13(4).
10
K-W-L
WHAT: K-W-L is a strategy that models the active thinking needed when reading expository
text. The letters K, W, L stand for three activities students engage in when reading to
learn: recalling what they KNOW, determining what they WANT to learn, and identify-
ing what they LEARN as they read.
WHY: This strategy is designed to help students develop a more active approach to reading
expository material. Teachers first model and stimulate the kinds of thinking needed for
learning and then give students individual opportunities to list what they know, what
questions they want answered, and what they have learned from reading the text. In this
way, the benefits of group instruction are combined with individual student commit-
ment and responsibility.
The strategy was developed to translate current research findings about the active,
constructive nature of reading into an instructional lesson format. In classroom testing,
K-W-L has been shown to be an effective tool to help students become more active
thinkers and to help them remember better what they read (Ogle, 1986). It has also been
useful in helping teachers better communicate the active nature of reading in group
settings.
HOW: The strategy is designed for group instruction and can be used with either whole classes
or smaller groups. It can be used in all curricular areas and at all grades in which
students are reading expository material.
1. Group instruction. The initial group portion of this strategy involves three basic
components.
a. First, the teacher engages students in a discussion of what they as a group already
know about the concept the teacher or the students have selected to introduce the
lesson. The teacher lists this information on the chalkboard or overhead projector.
When disagreements and questions emerge, the teacher notes them and suggests
that students may want to include them on the center column as questions they
want to have answered.
b. Second, after students have volunteered all that they can think of about the concept,
they should be asked to categorize the information they have generated. The
teacher may need to identify one general category that incorporates two or more
pieces of information on the board to model the building of chunks or categories.
c. Third, after the students are somewhat familiar with this process, they should be
asked to anticipate the categories of information they would expect to have included
in an article on the topic. The categories of information identified will be useful
in processing the information they read and in future reading of a similar nature.
11
2. Individual reflection. After the group introduction to the topic, students should be
asked individually to list what they feel confident they KNOW about the concept.
They can also write down the categories they think are most likely to be included. At
this time, the teacher should help students raise those questions that have emerged
during the discussion or that come from thinking of the major categories of informa-
tion they expect to find.
3. Reading. Students should be directed to read the text once they have focused both on
what they know and what they want to find out from reading. Depending on the
length and difficulty of the text and the class composition, the text can either be read
as a unit or be broken into sections for reading and discussion. As they read, students
should jot down information they learn as well as new questions that emerge.
4. Assessment of learning. The final step in the process is to engage the students in
a discussion of what they have learned from reading. Their questions should be
reviewed to determine how they were resolved. If some have not been answered
satisfactorily, students should be encouraged to continue their search for information.
Taken from:
Godt, P.T., Jensen, D., & Ehlmann, M. (1991). Reading assessment: How do we measure understanding? (Workshop
leader’s guide). Indianapolis, IN: PRC, Inc. (formerly Advanced Technology, Inc.).
Reference:
Ogle, D.M. (1986). K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text. The Reading
Teacher, 39(6), 564-570.
Anderson, R.C. (1977). The notion of schemata and the educational enterprise. In R.C. Anderson, R.J.
Spiro, & W.E. Montague (Eds.), Schooling and the acquisition of knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Anderson, C.W., & Smith, E.L. (1984). Children’s preconceptions and content-area textbooks. In G. Duffy,
L. Roehler, & J. Mason (Eds.), Comprehension instruction: Perspectives and suggestions. New York: Longman.
12
WHAT SO WHAT? NOW WHAT?
K W L
(What we think
What we know we know) What we want to learn What we learned
Adapted from:
Ogle, D.M. (1986). K-W-L: A teaching model that develops active reading of expository text. The Reading Teacher,
39(6), 564-570.
13
Example
K-W-L
K-W-L worksheet for a science selection on toads
K W L
What we know What we want to What we learned and
find out still need to learn
Toads Are toads the same

as frogs?
1. small animals If not, how are they

different?
1. gray
Where do toads live in the
1. has a long tongue winter? In the summer?
3. jumps What do toads eat?
3. spits poison How do toads protect

themselves?
2. eats bugs
How far can they jump?
2. eats spiders
Categories
1. description
2. food
3. what toads do
Reprinted from:
Olson, M.W., & Gee, T.C. (1991). Content reading instruction in the primary grades: Perceptions and strategies.
The Reading Teacher, 45(4), 303.
14
CLOZE
WHAT: Cloze refers to the procedure of using reading material from which words or partial
words have been systematically deleted. The student completes the cloze passage by
using context clues to predict the missing words. Since its introduction by Wilson
Taylor in 1953, the cloze procedure has taken many forms, including random deletion
(every __nth word), limited cloze (deleted words are randomly listed in the margin),
selected deletion (deleting selected words or parts of words such as verbs or nouns),
word length clues, macrocloze (deleting an entire story part), and oral cloze (the teacher
reads aloud a selection that contains deleted content words — students supply possible
words).
WHY: The cloze procedure has various instructional uses such as developing reading
comprehension and use of context clues, assessing comprehension in a contextual set-
ting, and evaluating the readability of texts to select appropriate instructional materials.
HOW: 1. The teacher introduces the students to the prediction procedure used in completing
cloze passages by using an oral cloze with the students. The oral cloze procedure
involves deleting selected content words from a high interest selection. For
example, the book Alexander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day
(Viorst, 1972) is a good choice for an oral cloze because it is humorous, relates to
children’s experiences, provides many alternatives for discussion, and builds
enthusiasm for the prediction process. As the teacher reads aloud, the children
supply possible words for each of the words in brackets:
I went to sleep with gum in my [mouth] and now there’s gum in my [hair] and
when I got out of [bed] in the morning I tripped on the [skateboard] and by mis-
take I dropped my [sweater] in the sink while the [water] was running and I could
tell it was going to be a terrible, horrible, no good, very [bad] day.
During the completion of the oral cloze, the teacher should stress “taking risks” in
making predictions by emphasizing that there are many correct answers.
2. As students supply possible answers for the words in brackets, the teacher lists them
on the board. The students give reasons why their answers make sense. Students may
want to tape-record different versions to keep oral records of “Alexander’s Different
Terrible Days.”
3. The teacher distributes a cloze paragraph to each student. The paragraph each
student receives should be on his or her independent reading level. Students read
15
their paragraph silently to predict as many possible answers that make sense in each
of the blanks in the paragraph. Students share their predictions and justify their choices.
The teacher emphasizes that there are many correct answers.
4. Using materials on the students’ independent reading level from content areas,
newspapers, magazines, or lyrics to popular songs, the teacher distributes copies of
selected paragraphs that contain underlined words. Working in teams of two or three,
the students read the paragraphs together and record possible synonym substitutions
above each of the underlined words.
Reference:
Viorst, J. (1972). Alexander and the terrible, horrible, no good, very bad day. New York: Macmillan.
Blachowicz, C.L.Z. (1977, December). Cloze activities for primary readers. The Reading Teacher, 300-302.
Jongsma, E.A. (1980). Cloze instruction research. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Rye, J. (1982). Cloze procedure and the teaching of reading. Exeter, NH: Heinemann Educational Books.
Schoenfeld, F.G. (1980). Instructional uses of the cloze procedure. The Reading Teacher, 34(2), 147-151.
Searfoss, L.W., & Readence, J.E. (1989). Helping children learn to read (pp. 218-220). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice
Hall.
16
Example
VARIATIONS OF CLOZE
Sample Text
Once upon a time there was a little girl named Sherry who loved to visit her grandparents’ farm
because there were so many interesting things to do. There were trees to climb and ponds to explore.
There were horses to ride and cows to milk. There were sheep, pigs, ducks, geese, chickens, cats,
and dogs to feed and care for. There were fruits and vegetables to pick and eggs to gather. There was
cream to churn into butter and other food to prepare for cooking and eating. After supper, there was
always time to tell stories by the light of the coal oil lamp.
Random Deletion
Once upon a time was a little girl Sherry who loved to and churn
food gather
visit her grandparents’ farm because were so many interesting geese named
to do. There were to climb and ponds explore. of ride
tell there
There were horses to and cows to milk. were sheep, there there
there things
pigs, ducks, , chickens, cats, and dogs feed and care for. to to
were fruits and vegetables pick and eggs to . There to trees
visit was
was cream to into butter and other to prepare for
cooking eating. After supper, there always time to
stories by the light the coal oil lamp.
Limited Cloze
Once upon a time was a little girl Sherry who loved to visit her grandparents’ farm
because were so many interesting to do. There were to climb and ponds
explore. There were horses to and cows to milk. were sheep, pigs, ducks, ,
chickens, cats, and dogs feed and care for. were fruits and vegetables pick and
eggs to . There was cream to into butter and other to prepare for
cooking eating. After supper, there always time to stories by the light
the coal oil lamp.
17
Selected Deletions
Particular verbs: was and were
Once upon a time there a little girl named Sherry who loved to visit her grandparents’ farm
because there so many interesting things to do. There trees to climb and ponds to
explore. There horses to ride and cows to milk. There sheep, pigs, ducks, geese,
chickens, cats, and dogs to feed and care for. There fruits and vegetables to pick and eggs to
gather. There cream to churn into butter and other food to prepare for cooking and eating.
After supper, there always time to tell stories by the light of the coal oil lamp.
Initial consonant clues
Once upon a time t was a little girl n Sherry who loved to v her grandparents’
farm because t were so many interesting t to do. There were t to climb and ponds
t explore. There were horses to r and cows to milk. T were sheep, pigs, ducks,
g , chickens, cats, and dogs t feed and care for. T were fruits and vegetables
t pick and eggs to g . There was cream to c into butter and other f to
prepare for cooking a eating. After supper, there w always time to t stories by the
light o the coal oil lamp.
Initial consonant clues
Once p n t m th r w s l ttl g rl n m d Sh rry wh l v d t v s t h r

gr ndp r nts’ f rm b c s th r w r s m ny nt r st ng th ngs t d . Th r
w r tr s t cl mb nd p nds t xpl r . Th r w r h rs s t r d nd c ws
t m lk. Th r w r sh p, p gs, d cks, g se, ch ck ns, c ts, nd d gs t
f d nd c re f r. Th r w r fr ts nd v g t bl s t p ck nd ggs t
g th r. Th r w s cr m t ch rn nt b tt r nd th r f d t pr p r f r
c k ng nd t ng. ft r s pp r, th r w s lw ys t m t t ll st r s by
th l ght f th c l l l mp.
18
QUESTIONING
WHAT: If inquiry reflects the natural curiosity of children and adults, then questioning is an
important part of exploring text. A good question can give direction to learners to exam-
ine their thinking, their reading, and their writing. Teachers create appropriate questions
as instructional cues and students ask questions to gain knowledge. Questioning as a
strategy requires demonstration and use of questions that focus on meaning.
WHY: Questioning is used to involve students in experiencing, interpreting, and using text and
in solving problems. Questions are tools for engaging attention, investigating ideas,
assessing knowledge, and encouraging deeper understanding. Appropriate questions help
students develop metacognition and assist them in problem-solving strategies. Teachers
use questions to gain information about students’ understanding.
HOW: The effective questioner demonstrates and uses questions that serve different purposes.
Questions may range from those that focus on recall of information to those that empha-
size critical, creative thinking.
1. If the focus is on gaining factual information from text, the following questions may
help students before, during, and after reading.
Before reading:
● What is the topic?

● What do I already know about this?
● How is the text organized?
● What do the illustrations tell me?
During reading:
● What kind of information am I learning?

● Which of these details are important?
● How does this information fit with what I already know?
After reading:
● What are the main points?

● What does the author want me to know?
● What do I do with this information?
● What else do I want or need to find out?
19
2. If the focus is on literary text, then the following questions may help students to
think about what they are reading:
● What does the title mean?

● What is the author trying to tell me?
● What do I think this story or poem means?
For additional questions, refer to the section on literature response logs.
3. The challenge for teachers is to move students from literal recall questioning (What
do I know?) to self-generated questioning that values thinking (What do I think or
what do I want to know and why?). Some of the following prompts may be useful:
● What do you think . . . ?

● How do you know that . . . ?
● How did you decide . . . ?
● Why did you . . . ?
● What else could you do . . . ?
● What if . . . ?
Reference:
Christenbury, L., & Kelly, P.P. (1983). Questioning, a path to critical thinking. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers
of English.
Munkins, F.D. (1995). Teaching thinking through effective questioning (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Christopher-Gordon
Publishers, Inc.
20
Example
ReQuest
The ReQuest (Reciprocal Questioning) Procedure guides a student through as many sentences as
necessary to enable the student to comprehend the rest of the passage successfully. The ReQuest
Procedure (Manzo, 1969) is designed to improve the student’s reading comprehension by provid-
ing an active learning situation for the development of questioning behaviors. The teacher encour-
ages the student to ask questions about the text material and to set his or her own purposes for
reading. The ReQuest Procedure was originally devised as a remedial procedure involving an indi-
vidual student and the teacher, but it can also be used with pairs, teams, and small groups.
The procedure is indirectly diagnostic; by noting the kinds of questions the student asks for each
kind of text structure, the teacher can determine whether the student is comprehending. Through
teacher modeling of good questioning behavior, the student gains insight into how good readers ask
themselves questions as they are reading. In addition, the procedure encourages the exchange of
content information and ideas.
The Request Procedure consists of the following steps:
1. Both the student and the teacher silently read a common selection from the text. The selection
can be read one sentence at a time or a paragraph at a time.
2. After they have both read the passage, the student asks as many questions as he or she can.
The teacher answers the questions clearly and completely.
3. Then it is the teacher’s turn to ask the questions about the same sentence or paragraph, and the
student answers as fully as possible. By forming questions that call upon the student’s grasp
of text structures, the teacher models good questioning strategies.
4. When the student has finished answering, the teacher and student read the next sentence or
paragraph and proceed as before.
5. When the student has processed enough information to make predictions about the rest of the
selection, the exchange of questions stops. The teacher then asks directed questions: “What
do you think the rest of the assignment is about?” “Why do you think so?” The student reads
the rest of the assignment.
6. The teacher facilitates follow-up discussion of the material.
The teacher chooses a story or passage to be read by the student and the teacher; content area texts
and prose materials work equally well. Both the student and the teacher need copies of the reading
materials. This procedure can be done with an individual student and the teacher or with pairs,
teams, and/or small groups. Students are told they will read a story and take turns asking each other
questions over a specified section to improve their understanding of what they read.
21
Taken from:
Godt, P.T., Jensen, D., & Ehlmann, M. (1991). Reading assignment: How do we measure understanding? (Workshop
Reference:
Manzo, A.V. (1969). ReQuest: A method for improving reading comprehension through reciprocal questioning. Jour-
nal of Reading, 13, 123-126.
22
Example
QUESTION-ANSWER RELATIONSHIP (QAR)

To follow up on the development of questioning behaviors, the teacher may introduce students to
the Question-Answer Relationship (QAR). The QAR strategy helps students clarify the different
sources of information available to answer questions during the ReQuest Procedure. The teacher
helps the student decide if the questions they asked can be answered from IN-THE-BOOK or IN-
MY-HEAD.
The IN-THE-BOOK category can be expanded to include:
1. Answers that are stated in the text (RIGHT THERE).
2. Answers that require the reader to put together material from the text (THINK AND SEARCH).
The IN-MY-HEAD category can include answers that require:
1. Students to think about what they already know and how that information fits in with the
information the author provides in the text (AUTHOR AND ME).
2. Questions that can be answered without reading the text (ON MY OWN).
QAR
➞
➞
IN IN
THE MY
BOOK HEAD
➞ ➞
➞ ➞
Right Think & Search Author On My
There (Putting it and Me Own
together)
References:
Farr, B., Stephenson, S., Strickler, D., & Cripe, R. (1990). Understanding reading (Workshop leader’s guide). India-
napolis, IN: PRC, Inc. (formerly Advanced Technology, Inc.).
Raphael, T.E. (1982). Question-answering strategies for children. The Reading Teacher, 36.
Raphael, T.E. (1985). QARS revisited. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
23
Example
ERRQ
ERRQ (Estimate, Read, Respond, and Question) is a reading strategy that involves students’ ques-
tioning of text to gain meaning. Students estimate how far they can read with understanding and
then read that portion. They respond to the information by reacting to it and forming a question
about it.
Readers who are given choices about a text are more willing to make a commitment to explore
meaning. ERRQ is designed to help students link new information to their own experiences. When
students formulate questions, they have to think about what they know in a different context. The
questions help to organize information and give the teacher a way to understand the reader’s com-
prehension. The teacher may need to demonstrate different types of questions and discuss the
appropriateness of each in accessing information.
1. The teacher explains that ERRQ stands for estimate, read, respond, and question. After a text
has been chosen and distributed, the teacher demonstrates the process.
2. Estimate. Students look over the text and estimate how far they can read and maintain under-
standing. They identify the text portions with a light pencil mark.
3. Read. Students read the text silently, orally, or with a partner in paired reading. They are urged
to consider how the text affects them. What images come to mind as they read? Does the text
remind them of anything from their experience?
4. Respond. After reading, students react. What comes to mind as they read? What images or
feelings are evoked? If students are working with partners, they share oral retellings with their
partners. If students are working individually, they retell everything they can remember to
themselves or write their responses down for future reference.
5. Question. Students generate questions about the reading. If students have marked the text by
paragraphs or smaller portions of text, they may create questions about each of the marked
portions, or they may ask general questions about the whole piece. The teacher may collect
the questions for evaluation purposes.
Developed by:
Watson, D. (1979) Columbia, MO: University of Missouri.
Watson, D., & Gilles, C. (1988). ERRQ. In C. Gilles, M. Bixby, P. Crowley, S. Crenshaw, M. Henrichs, F. Reynolds, &
D. Pyle (Eds.), Whole language strategies for secondary students (pp. 44-45). New York: Richard C. Owen Publishers.
24
THINK-ALONG
WHAT: A think-along is a teaching demonstration that makes the invisible thinking process of
reading visible. It is an attempt on the part of the teacher to model the thinking process
that any good reader engages in when reading. Students observe the teacher thinking
aloud while reading a text.
WHY: Students need demonstrations of thinking processes to activate their own construction
of meaning. Making personal connections with text is important in becoming a transac-
tional reader.
HOW: 1. Select a short story or informational passage to read aloud to students while they
follow along with their own copies. Interrupt the reading by verbalizing the ideas
that are evoked by the text. Thinking aloud may include:
• Repetition or elaboration of details of setting or characters.

• Prediction of what might occur next.
• Cognitive confusion of events or word meanings.
• A need to reread for confirmation or clarification of meaning.
• Activation and connection of prior knowledge.
2. After the demonstration, ask the students what they noticed about your thinking pro-
cess as the text was analyzed. Make a list on the chalkboard. Discuss the strategies
that were demonstrated. Were some repeated or used more than others? Make a check-
list for use in doing think-alongs in small group settings. Students may tape-record
and listen to their think-aloud experience to check which strategies they used.
Davey, B. (1983). Think-Aloud: Modeling the cognitive process of reading comprehension. Journal of Reading, 26(2),
44-47.
Farr, R. (1989). Teaching good habits with think-alongs. Educational Leadership, 47(3), 94.
25
Example
A THINK-ALONG IN READING
Gwynne, F. (1970). The king who rained. New York, NY: Windmill Books and E.P. Dutton.
Teacher: My big sister’s getting married and she says I can hold up her train.
Thinking: I wonder if I will ever get married. Where will I live? Why does a train have to be
held up? What kind of train — a diesel, an electric? Is this the kind of train the
speaker means?
Teacher: Daddy says there are forks in the road.
Thinking: What are forks doing in the road? Did they come from someone’s dinner table? Do
they have three or four prongs? Are there other kinds of forks that I don’t know
about?
Developed by:
Seltzer, D. (1994). Overland Park, KS: Research & Training Associates, Inc.
26
Example
A THINK-ALONG IN MATH
Teacher: The fifth grade students at University Elementary School are planning a party, to
include the entire school. There is only one classroom per grade.
Thinking: I wonder how many boys and girls are in each classroom?
Teacher: To plan refreshments for the party, we need to figure out how many boys and girls
are to be served.
Thinking: How do I go about obtaining this information?
Teacher: A planning group will canvas the rooms to ask for the enrollment of each classroom.
Thinking: How will this information be recorded?
Teacher: The number of students will be written on a list showing each grade.
Thinking: Using my calculator I will add up the number of students in each grade to find the
total number of students.
Teacher: What is the total number of students at University Elementary School?
Thinking: My calculator has given me the answer. I need to check for reasonableness and
submit the answer so planning for the party can continue.
Developed by:
Burns-Stowers, R. (1994). Overland Park, KS: Research & Training Associates, Inc.
27
BIG BOOKS
WHAT: Big books are enlarged texts designed to be used in shared reading time. Increasing the
size of pictures and print makes it possible for children to see the illustrations and the
words as the teacher reads aloud and shares the text. Big books should have predictable
patterns or interesting plots so that students can have a worthwhile experience. Big print
and big pictures get attention, but the value is diminished if the text is not interesting.
Big book sets include multiple copies of small books for individual and group reading
after the text has been shared in a large group.
WHY: These large texts are used to make children aware of print and how it works. Big books
provide a linguistic framework for language learning within the context of a story or
connected text. The large visual display of conventional print along with the comple-
mentary illustration helps students to see interesting structural patterns and graphic
arrangements. Students may notice interesting letter similarities, punctuation symbols,
word order, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and other conventions of print. Using texts that
include rhyme, repetition, cumulative structure, natural language flow and familiar sub-
ject matter, or other predictable features assists students in developing confidence in
their ability to construct meaning.
HOW: 1. The teacher introduces a big book by showing the title and asking students to predict
the content (“What do you think this book will tell us about ___________?”).
2. The teacher reads the text aloud, stopping at natural points for student interaction.
3. The teacher invites students’ questions and comments after the reading is completed.
4. The teacher reads the book again and invites the students to read along. At the end of
this reading, he or she encourages a discussion about personal connections made by
the students.
28
THEN
WHAT: The teacher invites students to select individual ways of extending the story or retelling
information in visual or written forms.
Sources for big books:
Delmar Publishers, 2 Computer Drive West, Albany, NY 12212
Goldencraft-Children’s Press, Western Publishing, 5440 North Cumberland Avenue, Chicago, IL 60656
Learning Well, Department DF, 200 South Service Road, Roslyn Heights, NY 11577
Random House, Department 436, 400 Hahn Street, Westminster, MD 21157
Rigby, P.O. Box 797, Crystal Lake, IL 60014
Scholastic, P.O. Box 7501, 2931 East McCarthy Street, Jefferson City, MO 65102
Wright Group, 10949 Technology Place, San Diego, CA 92127
29
WORDLESS BOOKS
WHAT: These are books that use pictures and either minimal print or no print at all to tell a story
or to present information. The absence of print focuses attention on constructing mean-
ing from the illustrations.
WHY: Books without words are used to encourage language knowledge and use and also to
assess oral and written language development because students demonstrate their lin-
guistic knowledge and experiential background as they construct meaning.
HOW: There are numerous ways to use these picture books with groups and individuals. Per-
haps personal enjoyment with no requirements for responding is the best idea.
1. Some students like to look at a wordless book and then tell the story or make com-
ments about the information into a tape recorder. Some choose to write dialogue;
others prefer to write a narrative account of the plot, setting, or characters.
2. Students may work together as partners or within a small group to share their percep-
tions of the illustrations. They may respond by writing a group description of the
ideas generated by the pictures. Other possibilities include writing narratives of story
plots, creating dialogue for the characters, or developing scripts for puppet shows or
readers’ theatre. Students may also create their own wordless books for the class
library.
THEN
WHAT: Students may present their creative projects to the rest of the class, to other classes, or
for parents’ programs.
30
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF WORDLESS BOOKS
Alexander, M. (1970). Bobo’s dream. New York: Dial Books.
Anno, M. (1974). Anno’s alphabet. New York: Harper & Row.
. (1979). Anno’s animals. New York: Philomel.
. (1981). Anno’s journey. New York: Philomel.
. (1983). Anno’s USA. New York: Philomel.
Baker, J. (1991). Window. New York: Puffin.
Bang, M. (1980). The grey lady and the strawberry snatcher. Four Winds.
Briggs, R. (1986). The snowman. New York: Random House.
Day, A. (1985). Good dog, Carl. San Diego, CA: Green Tiger Press.
. (1989). Carl goes shopping. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux.
. (1991). Carl’s afternoon in the park. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux.
. (1993). Carl goes to daycare. New York: Farrar Straus Giroux.
DePaola, T. (1978). Pancakes for breakfast. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
. (1980). The knight and the dragon. New York: Sandcastle.
Felix, M. (1980). The story of a little mouse trapped in a book. San Diego, CA: Green Tiger Press.
. (1993). The further adventures of a little mouse trapped in a book. San Diego, CA: Green
Tiger Press.
Florian, D. (1982). The city. New York: Crowell.
Goodall, J. (1968). Adventures of Paddy Pork. New York: Harcourt.
. (1972). Jacko. New York: Harcourt.
. (1975). Creepy castle. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
31
. (1979). Story of an English village. New York: Macmillan.
. (1982). Paddy goes traveling. New York: Macmillan.
. (1983). Lavinia’s cottage. New York: Macmillan.
. (1984). Paddy under water. New York: Atheneum.
. (1985). Naughty Nancy goes to school. New York: Macmillan.
. (1986). Paddy to the rescue. New York: Macmillan.
. (1986). The story of a castle. New York: McElderry Books.
. (1988). Little red riding hood. New York: Macmillan.
. (1989). The story of a farm. New York: Margaret K. McElderry Books.
. (1990). Puss in boots. New York: Margaret K. McElderry Books.
Hoban, T. (1971). Look again. New York: Macmillan.
. (1981). Take another look. New York: Greenwillow.
Hutchins, P. (1971). Changes, changes. New York: Macmillan.
Krahn, F. (1974). April fools. New York: Dutton.
. (1975). Who’s seen the scissors? New York: Dutton.
. (1977). The mystery of the giant’s footprints. New York: Dutton.
. (1978). The great ape. New York: Viking Press.
. (1981). Arthur’s adventure in the abandoned house. New York: Dutton.
Mariotti, M. (1982). Hanimals. San Diego, CA: Green Tiger Press.
. (1982). Humands. San Diego, CA: Green Tiger Press.
. (1984). Humages. San Diego, CA: Green Tiger Press.
Mayer, M. (1967). A boy, a dog, and a frog. New York: Dial Books.
. (1976). Ah-choo. New York: Dial Books.
. (1977). A boy, a dog, a frog, and a friend. New York: Dial Books.
32
. (1977). Frog goes to dinner. New York: Dial Books.
. (1978). Hiccup. New York: Dial Books.
. (1978). Oops. New York: Dial Books.
. (1980). Frog on his own. New York: Dial Books.
. (1980). Frog, where are you? New York: Dial Books.
McCully, E. (1984). Picnic. New York: Harper.
. (1985). First snow. New York: Harper.
Ormerod, J. (1981). Sunshine. New York: Puffin.
. (1982). Moonlight. New York: Puffin.
Spier, P. (1982). Rain. New York: Doubleday.
. (1986). Dreams. New York: Doubleday.
Tafuri, N. (1987). Do not disturb. New York: Greenwillow.
. (1988). Junglewalk. New York: Greenwillow.
Turkle, B. (1976). Deep in the forest. New York: Dutton.
Vincent, G. (1985). Breakfast time, Ernest and Celestine. New York: Greenwillow.
Wiesner, D. (1991). Tuesday. New York: Clarion Books.
Winter, P. (1976). The bear and the fly. New York: Crown Publishers.
33
SCHEMA STORIES
WHAT: Schema stores are based on students’ understanding of story elements and the use
of language. Whole stories are divided into parts for students to arrange in logical
order. Students work in small groups to arrange and discuss one complete story or story
summary.
WHY: The experience of arranging parts of a story into a logical sequence assists students in
making predictions and confirming language knowledge.
HOW: The teacher selects short, well structured stories or informational pieces, divides them
into sections, and places the parts in an envelope. Group members work together to
determine the sense or schema of the piece and arrange the parts in order.
1. Form groups and choose a leader and a recorder from each group.
2. The leader of a group takes the story parts from the envelope and gives a different
section to each member of the group.
3. The parts are not in sequential order so that the participants can determine the logical
sequence. Each person in the small group reads his/her part silently. The leader may
suggest that they think about what could have happened before and after their sec-
tion of text. After individuals have had time to read and think about their portions of
text, they try to determine the sequence.
4. Members of the group try to determine who has the beginning of the story, and the
one who thinks s/he has the first section, reads aloud his/her section to the rest of the
group. They agree or disagree which is the first part. This process continues until the
group agrees on the sequential order of the parts.
5. If the group has trouble deciding, give members of it a copy of the complete story to
confirm their decisions. The important aspect of this strategy is the attention paid to
the structure and language of the story rather than the sequential order.
6. Invite small groups to share their experiences and insights.
34
Developed by:
Watson, D. (1977). Columbia, MO: University of Missouri.
Harste, J., Short, K., & Burke, C. (1988). Creating classrooms for authors (pp. 340-345). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Possible sources for schema stories and materials:
Cole, J., & Calmenson, S. (Eds.). (1988). The read-aloud treasury. New York: Doubleday.
Haugaard, E. (1974). A treasury of Hans Christian Andersen. New York: Barnes & Noble.
Kipling, R. (1978). Just so stories. New York: Weathervane Books.
Oxenbury, H. (1985). The Helen Oxenbury nursery story book. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Prelutsky, J. (1984). New kid on the block. New York: Scholastic.
35
Example
SCHEMA STORY SUMMARY

White, E.B. (1970). The trumpet of the swan. New York: Harper & Row.
This example is a variation of using schema story. A summary of a familiar story may be used to
introduce a story before reading or to review the plot after reading. Student-written summaries may
be used after the teacher has demonstrated the procedure. This summary of The Trumpet of the
Swan is divided in five parts so that a group can make decisions about the sequence of the sections
to check their understanding or to use their linguistic knowledge for making connections. Delete
the numbers before distributing the parts to individuals in the group.
1. Sam Beaver loved living on a ranch in western Montana, but most of all, he enjoyed the
camping trips to Canada that he and his father took when they could get away from the ranch.
During the summer he and his parents were kept busy entertaining guests at their ranch, so
spring and fall were the best times to plan on a few days of camping, fishing, and exploring.
2. On one of these trips, when Sam was exploring the swamps and woods around the Canadian
camp site, he discovered a nest of trumpeter swans. This event began an interesting and excit-
ing adventure that Sam recorded in his diary. For some time, Sam had been writing in a diary,
or journal, to keep a daily log of his experiences. Every night at bedtime he wrote about the
events of the day, the things that he had seen, and the thoughts that he had had. Sometimes he
drew a picture, but he always ended his journal by asking himself a question.
3. Sam returned to the pond the next morning to observe the trumpeter swans and did not know
that they were also observing him. When the eggs in the nest hatched, Sam observed the
cygnets’ (baby swans) first swimming lesson and noticed one cygnet in particular. That baby
was Louis, who had a real problem.
4. Louis was different from the rest of his noisy brothers and sisters because he couldn’t make a
sound. The family tried to help him but they were unsuccessful. Sam gave Louis a slate to
hang around his neck and taught him to read and write. However, since the other swans couldn’t
read, Louis still couldn’t make himself understood. He loved the beautiful Serena, but with-
out a trumpet sound, he couldn’t get her attention, so she ignored him.
36
5. Sensing the severity of the problem, Louis’ father crashed into a music shop and stole a brass
trumpet to give his son a voice so that he could woo Serena. Louis felt obligated to pay off his
father’s debt for damages and stolen property. He also wanted to win Serena’s love, so he had
to leave his home and family to find ways of making a living. Louis learned to play the
trumpet and found employment as a musician in Boston and Philadelphia to earn enough
money to repay the music shop owner. His faith and determination eventually brought success.
Developed by:
Crenshaw, S. (1994). Overland Park, KS: Research & Training Associates, Inc.
37
Example
MATH SCHEMA STORY

This story is divided into four parts for students to read and arrange in logical order. The numbers
are deleted before distributing the parts to different individuals.
1. On a cold and windy day in Anytown, America, a very large, ugly creature emerged from the
river to explore the possibilities of finding a home. It was 7 a.m. when he lumbered from the
river to start his investigation. The creature stood an awesome 40 feet tall and weighed 1,000
pounds. The amazing thing about him was that each day he would double in size.
2. After eating several prominent landmarks, he doubled in size. Twelve hours later, at 7 p.m., he
was 80 feet tall and weighed 2,000 pounds. The local police and fire departments, which were
in the path of the monster, seemed to be a perfect dessert. Eating them caused him to grow to
160 feet tall and to weigh in at 4,000 pounds. Amazing to say the least!
3. Mr. Monster devastated the town of Anytown, America, roaming back and forth destroying
everything in sight. The water tower was the next item on his menu, and it added to his size of
160 feet and 4,000 pounds. He doubled both his height and weight after eating the Anytown
water tower.
4. At 320 feet and 8,000 pounds, the monster decided to settle in what was left of Anytown. Who
knows if he will eat other things and continue to grow.
Developed by:
Burns-Stowers, R. (1994). Overland Park, KS: Research & Training Associates, Inc.
38
Expanding
Meaning
When students are exploring text, there is the hope that they are expanding meaning and
understanding. The ideas and activities that are included in this section assist learners in
that process. The suggestions are arranged from simple to more complex involvement
but are not necessarily meant to be sequential. Organizing concepts in visual form
emphasizes the arrangement of related ideas and includes semantic webbing, story maps,
and sketches to represent understanding. Problem solving focuses on thinking processes
applicable to all content areas. Meaning is expanded through social interactions with
others in reciprocal teaching, partner reading, and focused conversations. Writing is
both an individual and group process of expanding meaning through reading response
experiences such as journals, logs, letters, and the authoring cycle. Literature study in
discussion groups encourages shared meaning. Text sets and research projects are use-
ful for connecting student questions and interest. The last two items in this section are
evaluative forms that invite learners to expand meaning by reflecting on what they learned
or what they want to do next to expand their meaning.
39
SEMANTIC MAPPING
WHAT: Semantic maps or webs are diagrams that help students see how words or topics are
related to one another. Semantic mapping is not a new instructional strategy; for a num-
ber of years it has been known as “semantic webbing,” “plot mapping,” and “semantic
networking.”
WHY: The procedure activates and builds on students’ prior knowledge and generally involves
brainstorming and discussion of how new information links to this prior knowledge.
The maps can be used for vocabulary and comprehension development as a prereading
or postreading activity.
HOW: While there are a number of variations to semantic mapping, the general steps involved
are:
1. Write the chosen vocabulary word or story topic on the blackboard. Draw a box or
circle around the word or term.
2. Encourage students to think of as many words or ideas as they can that relate to the
selected word or topic.
3. Students may:
● Write their ideas on paper and then share those ideas in group discussion.
● Brainstorm ideas in a small group to share in large group discussion.
● Orally share ideas together to generate a class semantic map.
4. Students’ ideas are listed on the semantic map in categories that organize the words in
a reasonable and related manner. These details or related words or ideas are written
around the main word or topic.
5. Discussion of the semantic map is perhaps the most important part of the activity.
Here students see how words or ideas are related, learn new words and find new
meanings for words they already know. During discussion, focus on the ideas most
appropriate to the lesson being taught, add new related ideas to the map, and help
students to identify those ideas that do not appropriately fit the map.
40
Taken from:
leader’s guide). Indianapolis, IN: PRC, Inc. (formerly Advanced Technology, Inc.)
Reference:
Heimlich, J.E., & Pittelman, S.D. (1986). Semantic mapping: Classroom applications. Newark, DE: Reading Aids
Series, IRA Service Bulletin.
Other sources:
Hanf, M.A. (1971). Mapping: A technique for translating reading into thinking. Journal of Reading.
41
Example
SEMANTIC MAPPING
. . . before reading
The activity integrates information from several sources to build students’ background knowledge
for a topic to be studied. The instructor prepares for this activity by choosing several materials that
provide information on the topic. These materials could include posters; pictures; maps; easy-to-
read trade books; filmstrips; various high-interest, low-vocabulary reading materials; and textbook
or basal materials.
1. Write the topic on the blackboard and draw a circle around the word. List key vocabulary
words on the blackboard, including a context phrase or sentence for each word.
2. Write each key word on the semantic map as a category heading. Discuss each word, listing
details students already know about these category headings in colored chalk. Ask students to
skim the basal textbook to find the key words in context. Discuss the uses or meanings of
those words in the text and write those ideas on a semantic map in white chalk. (The different
colored chalk indicates information from different sources.) Have students review the other
materials (e.g., posters, filmstrips, library books) to find additional information that fits or
relates to the categories on the semantic map. Write these ideas on the map in chalk of a
different color.
3. Have students read the textbook material, stopping at the end of each section to add informa-
tion to the semantic map. Write this information in white chalk to indicate that the informa-
tion came from the textbook. When the semantic map is completed, use the map to help
students summarize or recap the information about the topic.
4. Have students use the semantic map to write a summary of the important facts and details
about the topic.
Taken from:
Reference:
42
Example
SEMANTIC MAPPING
. . . after reading
1. Tell students they are going to read a story about ______ (topic). Provide enough context for
the upcoming reading to help students make predictions about what they think will happen in
this story. Introduce any key vocabulary words in context and then have students read the
story silently.
2. Write the title of the story in the center of the blackboard and draw a circle around it. On lines
drawn from the circle, write key concepts or themes from the story. For example, these con-
cepts or themes can include how the characters look, important problems and episodes in the
story, how the characters feel or react, and outcomes of the story. Have students suggest ideas
for each of these concepts or themes based on what they remember from reading the story.
Write their ideas on the map.
Rass Island
McCall
EVENTS
Chesapeake Bay
Capt. Wallace
➞
Aunt Trudy World War II brings hardships
CHARACTERS SETTING
➞
Captain Wallace marries Aunt
Father Mother Trudy
➞
Caroline receives money from

JACOB HAVE
aunt to study music
Twins
➞
I LOVED
Louise leaves school to help
support family
➞
Louise Caroline
McCall, Louise’s friend, marries
plain beautiful Caroline
➞
quiet talented THEME Louise goes to work in

Appalachia
➞
thoughtful successful
Louise marries widower and
ignored by center of attention Louise feels settles in Appalachia
family disappointed and
sad but she finds
happiness
43
3. With the students, recap the story by reviewing the semantic map. Have students reread the
story (orally or silently) to look for other important information not included on the map. As
students find new information through this guided reading, add it to the map.
4. Have students use the completed map to guide retelling of the story. If appropriate, have
students role-play or act out the story. The map can also be used to structure a writing activity
in which students write a summary of the story using the information on the map.
Taken from:
Reference:
Paterson, K. (1980). Jacob have I loved. New York: Avon Books.
44
Example
SEMANTIC MAPPING
. . . for vocabulary development
1. Write the word or concept to be studied on the blackboard and ask students to think of as
many words as they can related to that word or concept. An alternate way to initiate the
activity is to ask, “What do you think of when you see the word ___________ (topic)?”
2. Have students, in small groups or as a whole group, brainstorm a list of words related to the
key word or concept. These words are written on a sheet of paper or on the blackboard in a
list.
3. Construct the group semantic map by writing the brainstormed words in categories around
the key word or concept. Have students suggest labels for these categories, if possible. As the
instructor, you may add words or ideas to appropriately complete the group semantic map.
Discuss the group’s semantic map, pointing out relationships and differences among words.
Have students point out new words they learned from this map as well as new meanings for
words they already knew.
4. Have students look for words in the semantic map as they read an appropriate story. Students
may also be asked to write a paragraph or short story using the words or concept from the
semantic map.
Reference:
45
Example
SEMANTIC MAPPING
. . . as a study skill strategy
Semantic mapping may be used as a study skill strategy to guide the processing of textbook mate-
rial with either individuals or groups.
There are three basic steps to design a map of content information from a text.
1. Identification of main idea. The title or main idea is written on a sheet of paper and a shape is
drawn around it. Students then think of all they already know about the topic and decide what
they expect to find in the chapter. Next, students write three or four questions about the topic
on the other side of the map.
2. Secondary categories. The principal parts of the textbook chapter will form the secondary
categories in the semantic map. Before reading the textbook, students hypothesize what the
basic parts of the chapter will be and then skim the chapter for the accuracy of their hypoth-
eses. Labels for the secondary categories are then written on the map. (If sections in the text
have not been labeled, the secondary categories must be summarized and labeled.) The sec-
ondary categories organized around the main idea complete the structure of the map and
provide a picture of the thinking that has taken place. Students may place a question mark
after each category label so they know what information to target during reading.
3. Support details. In this final step of the procedure, students read the chapter for details and
complete the map by adding the details from memory. The map provides immediate feedback
about whether students need to reread the chapter to add more information to any of the
categories. The completed map provides a graphic summary of the information in the chapter.
Reference:
46
SKETCH TO STRETCH
WHAT: Representing ideas through drawing provides another way of responding to text that
students have read, heard, or viewed. It can be an individual or group experience. After
reading, hearing, or viewing a text, individual students are invited to illustrate the con-
cepts or ideas that are important to them. Students may listen to a taped story and sketch
their ideas or read a short text and illustrate the meaning in a series of pictures. They
may listen to a text being read aloud, or they may view a video and draw their responses
as well.
WHY: Visual imagery helps students to see what they are thinking and understanding. Sketch
to stretch is an alternative way of responding to text by retelling a story or expanding
informational concepts through drawings or sketches. The drawings may be used to
generate writing.
HOW: To demonstrate this strategy, the teacher may read aloud a poem or a short story and
invite students to sketch any pictures or images that come to mind.
1. The teacher reads aloud a descriptive passage from a story or chooses a poem to
share with the class.
2. Students sketch while they are listening. Copies of the text may be distributed for the
students to read. After revisiting the text, students may revise their illustrations to
refine details or to expand the meaning gained from reading the material.
3. The teacher gives them additional time to complete their sketches and asks if they
would like to share them with a partner or in a small group. Students talk about the
meaning of their sketches and generate discussion about the author’s ideas and the
similarities or differences in individual interpretations.
Developed by:
Harste, J., Burke, C., Siegel, M., & Feathers, K. (1984). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University.
Harste, J., Short, K., & Burke, C. (1988). Creating classrooms for authors (pp. 353-357). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
47
PROBLEM SOLVING
WHAT: Problem solving is a method of inquiry and is a means of using “thinking processes to
resolve a known or defined difficulty” (Cohen, 1972) in any curricular area. Problem
solving, as described in mathematical terms, is “a method of inquiry and application to
provide a consistent context for learning and applying mathematics” (NCTM Standards,
p. 23). Teachers nurture problem finding and problem solving by encouraging students
to ask questions.
WHY: Development of students’ capacities for problem solving in all areas of learning is nec-
essary to achieve the goal of helping students become more effective, critical thinkers
about what they read and hear. The basics of the 21st century include problem solving
and communication.
HOW: Problem solving is often viewed as a series of steps that include defining or describing
a problem, determining a desired outcome, selecting possible solutions, choosing strat-
egies to use, trying out solutions, evaluating the outcomes, and revising where neces-
sary. A simplified version includes:
I Identifying the problem
D Defining the problem
E Exploring strategies
A Acting on ideas
L Looking for the effects (Bransford, 1984)
IDEAL APPROACH TO PROBLEM SOLVING
Have participants form groups of five.
Choose a newspaper article on a problem or social issue. Divide the article up into five
sections. Have each person read one section of the article to the group. This requires that
the reader participate by preparing and delivering the reading, but it also requires the
listeners to pay careful attention to details. (If the article contains a solution, you may
wish to keep the section on the solution so participants can come up with their own
solution.)
Consistent with the IDEAL approach to problem solving, the participants work together —
first identifying the problem, then defining it more clearly, exploring, acting on ideas,
and looking at the effects.
48
Have groups share their collaborative results and their thinking processes.
What distinguishes this model from traditional lessons on teaching critical reading skills
is the application of these skills in a reading context that presents real or simulated
problems. Successful problem solving uses many skills simultaneously.
Based on:
Bransford, J.D., & Stein, B.S. (1984). The ideal problem solver: A guide for improving thinking, learning, and creativ-
ity. New York: Freeman.
Reference:
Cohen, J. (1972). Thinking (p. 5). Chicago: Rand McNally and Co.
49
Example
PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES
Using objects. There are two major ways of using objects, materials, or manipulatives in problem
solving. First, objects can be used to represent various aspects of a problem or situation. A second
method of using manipulatives is particularly related to geometry, which requires physical models
for real understanding. Whether studying computational concepts such as angular measure or area
or considering perceptual ideas such as symmetry, students must experience tangible realities.
Acting out problems. Many problems are based on actions. Accurate modeling of the problem
requires students to carry out these actions to discover a solution. Unfortunately, textbooks often
suggest pictorial representations when concrete actions would be more appropriate for students’
level of thinking. By taking an active role in finding the solution, students are more likely to remember
the process they used and be able to use it again for solving similar problems.
Using or making a table. A table is an orderly arrangement of data, such as numbers. Problem
solvers find that making tables helps them keep track of data, spot missing data, and identify data
that are asked for in the problem. Because patterns often become obvious when data are organized
in a table, this strategy is often used in conjunction with other strategies. The table is used to keep
track of data and could also be used for identifying a number pattern.
Making an organized list. Making an organized list helps problem solvers organize their thinking
about a problem. Recording work in an organized list makes it easy to review what has been done
and to identify important steps that must yet be completed. It also provides a systematic way of
recording computations made with given data or recording combinations of given items.
Making a picture or diagram. For some students, it may be helpful to use an available picture or
make one when trying to solve a problem. Pictures and diagrams must be compatible with the
schemata that students have in their mind. It is important that they help the problem solver under-
stand and visualize the data in the problem.
Making a guess and checking the result. When problem solvers use this strategy, they guess the
answer, test to see if it is correct, and make another guess if the previous one was incorrect. In this
way, they gradually come closer and closer to a solution by making increasingly more reasonable
guesses. Problem solvers can also use this strategy to get started and may then find another strategy
that can be used. Guessing and checking is particularly helpful when a problem presents so many
pieces of data that making an organized list becomes a major task.
50
Using or looking for a pattern. A pattern is a regular, systematic repetition. A pattern may be
numerical, visual, or behavioral. By identifying the pattern, the problem solver can predict what
will come next and what will happen again and again in the same way. Looking for patterns is a
very important strategy for problem solving and is used to solve many different kinds of problems.
Sometimes students can solve a problem just by recognizing a pattern, but often they will have to
extend a pattern to find a solution. Making a number table often reveals patterns and, for this
reason, is frequently used in conjunction with the “look for a pattern” strategy.
Working backwards. To solve certain problems, the solver must make a series of computations,
starting with data presented at the end of the problem and ending with data presented at the begin-
ning of the problem. This strategy is used when the answer is given but a reconstruction of the parts
that made up this answer is needed.
Using logical reasoning. Logical reasoning is really used for all problem solving. However, there
are types of problems that include or imply various conditional statements such as: “if . . . then,” or
“if . . . then . . . else,” or “if something is true, then . . . ,” or “if something is not true, then . . .” The
data given in the problems can often be displayed in a chart or matrix. This kind of problem requires
formal logical reasoning as the problem solver uses deductive reasoning to attack the problem.
Simplifying the problem. Students will find it helpful to be able to make problems simpler, espe-
cially when they begin to solve complex problems. Making a problem simpler may mean reducing
large numbers to small numbers or reducing the number of items given in a problem. The simpler
representation of the problem may then suggest what operation or process can be used to solve the
more complex problem. The simpler representation may even reveal a pattern that can be used to
solve the problem.
Adapted from:
Hyde, A. A., & Hyde, P. R. (1991). Mathwise, teaching mathematical thinking and problem solving. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
Hoogeboom, S., & Goodnow, J. (1987). The problem solver 1, activities for learning problem-solving strategies. Sunny-
vale, CA: Creative Publications.
Problem solving and literature source:
Griffiths, R., & Clyne, M. (1988). Books you can count on: Linking mathematics and literature. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann Educational Books, Inc.
51
RECIPROCAL TEACHING
WHAT: Reciprocal teaching is an instructional activity that takes place as a dialogue between
teachers and students regarding segments of text. The dialogue is structured by the use
of four strategies: summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting. The
teacher and students take turns assuming the role of teacher in leading this dialogue.
STRATEGIES
Summarizing provides the opportunity to identify and integrate the most important
information in the text. Text can be summarized across sentences, across paragraphs,
and across the passage as a whole. When students first begin the reciprocal teaching
procedure, their efforts are generally focused on sentences within a paragraph. As they
become more proficient, they are able to integrate paragraphs and passages.
Question generating reinforces the summarizing strategy and carries the learner one
more step along in the comprehension activity. When students generate questions, they
first identify the kind of information that is significant enough to provide the substance
for a question. They then pose this information in question form and self-test to ascer-
tain that they can indeed answer their own question. Question generating is a flexible
strategy to the extent that students can be taught and encouraged to generate questions
at many levels.
Clarifying is an activity that is particularly important when working with students who
have a history of comprehension difficulty. These students may believe that the purpose
of reading is saying the words correctly; they may not be particularly uncomfortable
that the words, and in fact the passage, are not making sense. When the students are
asked to clarify, their attention is called to the fact that there may be many reasons why
text is difficult to understand (e.g., new vocabulary, unclear referent words, and unfa-
miliar and perhaps difficult concepts). They are taught to be alert to the effects of such
impediments to comprehension and to take the necessary measures to restore meaning
(e.g., reread, ask for help).
Predicting occurs when students hypothesize what the author will discuss next in the
text. To do this successfully, students must activate the relevant background knowledge
that they already possess regarding the topic. The students have a purpose for reading:
to confirm or disprove their hypotheses. Furthermore, the opportunity has been created
for the students to link the new knowledge they will encounter in the text with the
knowledge they already possess. The predicting strategy facilitates use of text structure
as students learn that headings, subheadings, and questions embedded in the text are
useful means of anticipating what might occur next.
52
WHY: These strategies help students to construct meaning from text and to monitor their read-
ing to ensure that they are understanding what they read.
HOW: 1. Reciprocal teaching should be introduced to students with some discussion regard-
ing the many reasons why text may be difficult to understand, why it is important to
have a strategic approach to reading and studying, and how the reciprocal teaching
procedure will help the students understand and monitor their understanding as they
read.
2. The students are then given an overall description of the procedure, emphasizing that
it takes the form of a dialogue or discussion about the text and that everyone takes a
turn assuming the role of teacher in this discussion. To illustrate, the person who is
assuming the role of teacher will first ask a question that he or she thinks covers
important information that has been read. The other members of the group answer
that question and suggest others they may have thought of. The “teacher” then sum-
marizes the information read, points out anything that may have been unclear, leads
the group in clarifying and, finally, predicts the upcoming content.
3. To ensure a minimal level of competency with the four strategies, the students receive
practice with each of them. For example, the students summarize their favorite movie
or television show. They then identify main idea information in brief and simple
sentences and graduate to more complex paragraphs that contain redundant and trivial
information. Each strategy receives one day of introduction.
THEN
WHAT: After the students have been introduced to each of the strategies, the dialogue begins.
For the initial days of instruction, the adult teacher is principally responsible for initiat-
ing and sustaining the dialogue. This allows the teacher to provide further instruction
and to model the use of the strategies in reading for meaning. The adult teacher may
wish to call upon more capable students who will serve as additional models, but it is
important that every student participate at some level. For some students, this participa-
tion may be such that they are noting one fact that they acquired in their reading. This is
a beginning, and over time the teacher, through modeling and instruction, can guide
these students toward a more complete summary.
As students acquire more practice with the dialogue, the teacher consciously tries to
impart responsibility for the dialogue to the students while he or she becomes a coach,
providing the students with evaluative information regarding the job they are doing and
prompting more and higher levels of participation.
53
Taken from:
Brown, A., & Palincsar, A.S. (1982). Inducing strategic learning from texts by means of informed, self-control training.
Topics in Learning and Learning Disabilities, 2(1), 1-17.
Palincsar, A.S. (1986). Reciprocal teaching. In Teaching reading as thinking (pp. 5-10). Alexandria, VA: Association
for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Palincsar, A.S., & Brown, A. (1985). Reciprocal teaching: Activities to promote “read(ing) with your mind.” In T.L.
Harris & E.J. Cooper (Eds.), Reading, thinking, and concept development: Strategies for the classroom. New York:
The College Board.
54
PARTNER READING
WHAT: Partner reading is a simple strategy of reading with someone else. Some students read
aloud to each other; others read silently and then talk about their perceptions, questions,
and insights. Students from different classrooms may be partners, or teachers and stu-
dents may be partners.
WHY: Sharing a text with someone else has benefits that go beyond enjoying a story or gaining
interesting information. It encourages shared meaning. Reading together works well in
multiage classrooms where partners of different ages share text and understanding. The
teacher may be a reading partner with individual students to assess strengths and needs
for planning appropriate instruction.
HOW: 1. Select partners and texts by choice or by random assignment.
2. Partners negotiate how they will read the text and how they will discuss shared mean-
ing. They will decide how far to read and who will begin. They may take turns read-
ing aloud or they may read silently. The value of having a partner is to talk about
what is clear and what is not. Questions may arise that send the readers back to the
text to find answers.
THEN
WHAT: 1. Partners may join other partners in a small-group setting to talk about their texts and
their interpretations.
2. A recorder in the group in the group takes notes and the group decides how to report
the questions or comments from the group discussion.
Gilles, C., & Crowley, P. (1987). Partner book selection. In D.J. Watson (Ed.), Ideas and insights (pp. 176-177).
Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Routman, R. (1991). Invitations (p. 35). Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
55
SAY SOMETHING
WHAT: This is a reading strategy that invites immediate response similar to written conversa-
tion. Instead of writing, students use oral language to share understanding or confusion.
It works best with partners but may be used with three or four. The students take turns
speaking first each time.
WHY: Talking about ideas is important in comprehending text. Verbalizing thought to some-
one else assists individuals in making connections with an author’s purpose for sharing
information and feelings.
HOW: 1. Each student receives a copy of the text for reading and responding.
2. The partners or group members decide cooperatively how far to read before stopping
to talk about the author’s ideas or descriptions, and they decide who will speak first.
3. After reading the identified portion of the text, they stop and the designated speaker
will say something related to the text.
4. Each person listens and responds with comments, reactions, or questions. The part-
ners or members of the group may decide to reread the text to clarify ideas or to
answer questions before reading the next portion for further discussion. They decide
how far to read for the next section and the readers take turns and continue the cycle
until the text has been completed.
5. Each person may keep notes of the main ideas discussed so that a group or partner
report may be shared.
Developed by:
Watson, D. (1977). Columbia, MO: University of Missouri.
Harste, J., Short, K., & Burke, C. (1988). Creating classrooms for authors. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
56
WRITTEN CONVERSATION
WHAT: This quiet communication experience is an approved form of note passing, and it can be
used with all ages, grade levels, and content areas. Anything that can be discussed ver-
bally can be written down, but it is a silent communication. Young children can partici-
pate by drawing pictures and using invented spelling.
WHY: Written conversation is a way of thinking and sharing understanding with someone else.
The teacher may use written conversation to check for understanding of specific content
by suggesting focus questions as a prewriting experience or as a review technique for
recalling or evaluating previous knowledge in various content areas.
HOW: One sheet of paper is shared by partners as they carry on a silent conversation in writing.
One person starts the conversation and usually asks a question before handing the paper
to the writing partner. The partner reads the comment or question and responds in writ-
ing. This conversation continues as the writers respond to each other’s comments and
questions.
Developed by:
Burke, C. (1977). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University.
Crafton, L. (1991). Whole language: Getting started . . . moving forward (pp. 195-198). Katonah, NY:
Richard C. Owen.
Burke, C. (1977). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University.
King, D. (1987). Written conversation. In D. Watson (Ed.), Ideas and insights. Urbana, IL: National Council
of Teachers of English.
57
RESPONDING TO READING AS WRITERS
WHAT: This strategy involves having students present their own writing to their peers. The goal
is to develop readers and writers who have a sense of authorship and readership, which
helps them in the composing process. This goal includes developing students’ apprecia-
tion of the following:
● What they read has been written by someone who has certain purposes in mind and
control over what has been written.
● When they write, they use a variety of options.
● What they write can be interpreted in different ways by different readers.
Collaboration is the Key
● The role of the teacher is nontraditional.
● Students act as advisors and evaluators along with the teacher.
● Students are given control of questioning and other ideas that are raised.
WHY: Providing students with opportunities to write — including writing in response to what
they read and interacting with each other about their own writing — encourages stu-
dents to generate their own ideas and provides feedback on the quality of their thinking.
HOW: Students give and receive responses to writing through different types of conferences.
1. Reading and Writing in Progress Conference
● The student who requests the conference is responsible for entertaining the
questions and ideas from the group.
● The key is providing peers an opportunity to get an issue on the floor, acquire
input, and then discuss how the advice can be used.
58
2. End of Book Conference
The reader/writer chooses a method to share his/her writing: summarizes the piece,
reads a section of the report or story, or discusses the process of reading or writing.
After the reader/writer’s presentation, the listener(s) responds with comments and
questions.
3. Peer Author Conference
● The author and another student (the reader) present the reading.
● The reader reports on the writing (including what he/she enjoyed, found confus-
ing, and might use) and fields questions and comments.
● The author listens as someone else represents the writing. The author may ask the
readers about their recommendations and evaluation.
Obstacles to Consider:
● Avoid center stage; a conferencing approach requires a social setting filled with a
collegial tone.
● Encourage students to comment honestly; and in the beginning, comments may

be off-base, too general, or too tentative.
● Model appropriate interactions.
Vital Conferencing Tenets:
1. Students should have the opportunity to write extended stories and reports of
their own choosing for longer than 30 minutes twice a week.
2. Writing experiences contribute to reading. Unless these tenets are observed in the
classroom, these conferences cannot take place.
Adapted from:
Tierney, R.J., Readence, J.E., & Dishner, E.K. (1985). Reading strategies and practices, a compendium,
second edition. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
59
JOURNALS AND LOGS
WHAT: Journals and logs are records of thinking and give students the chance to use writing as
a way of discovering what they know. Keeping a journal or a log is a way to preserve
one’s personal thoughts, feelings, opinions, ideas for exploration, and questions of
future consideration. The contents of personal journals are not usually shared with any-
one else unless an idea is taken from the journal as a seed for writing that will be shared.
Dialogue journals and traveling journals, variations of written conversation, are intended
for sharing.
WHY: Journals and logs are often used for making personal connections, sharing insights, and
collecting data to document learning.
HOW: Journal and log entries may be kept in manila folders, spiral notebooks, or three-ring
binders or on plain sheets of paper stapled together.
1. Paper, a stapler, and masking tape are the basic materials for assembling a personal
journal. Students may choose to vary construction from the model provided.
2. Ask the students to take some time to think about a personal entry. Ask, “What thoughts
or ideas are most important at this time?” Everyone is encouraged to participate so
that the experience may be shared. Show samples of journal writing or share a per-
sonal entry to demonstrate the possibilities.
3. Give the students sufficient time to think and write.
4. When everyone has finished, ask students to form small groups to reflect on the
experience. Have each group choose a discussion leader and a recorder for sharing.
Discuss the experience of putting personal thoughts on paper. Realizing writing is a
way of knowing, ask students, “What did you learn about yourself?”
5. Invite the group leaders to share their discussion ideas and ask students to make
suggestions for using journals or logs.
6. Try a variety of types to see what works best.
● Personal journals are used like diaries to record personal thoughts and feelings,
interesting ideas to explore, or perplexing questions. The writer and reader are
the same person, and the contents are not necessarily shared with anyone else.
60
● Dialogue journals are used for writing ideas, responses, feelings, insights, and
questions to share with others. Many students dialogue with their teacher, which
gives the teacher the opportunity to note the interests and abilities of individual
students. The teacher can demonstrate the use of dialogue format while using
conventional forms of language. Dialogue journals are another form of written
conversation and are not graded for spelling, punctuation, or any other conven-
tions of language. However, they may be used as an assessment tool to observe
how a student uses language.
● Traveling journals are used to record group responses to particular texts. When
groups of students are working together on a project, book, story, topic, question,
or common theme, the individuals write to each other, similar to written conver-
sation, in a traveling journal. Entries may include comments on the progress or
the lack of it that each person is experiencing. The journal may travel from person
to person in the group on a rotation schedule or it may be kept in a central loca-
tion for individuals to make regular entries. The teacher reads and responds to the
group effort to encourage progress, to provide new invitations for extending
understanding, or to suggest ways of locating assistance.
● Reading logs provide opportunities for students to record their thoughts and ques-
tions about what they are reading. Teachers need to demonstrate that they are
readers by sharing their reading log entries with students. Reading response logs
are variations of journals with a particular focus and literature response logs can
be specific components of literature discussion groups where students share their
written responses to initiate and continue discussion in the group. Teachers may
incorporate reading or literature logs as documentation for evaluations.
● Learning logs are another variation of writing as a way of knowing. They may
include responses to a variety of content materials and concepts, or theme cycles,
or they may be focused on one particular lesson or concept. They may take the
form of science logs or math logs if subject areas are not integrated. Students
keep track of what they have learned about a particular topic or lesson in the
learning logs and use them for reflection and self-evaluation. Entries may include
summaries, insights, and questions to extend learning.
61
Crafton, L. (1991). Whole language: Getting started . . . moving forward (pp. 163-168). Katonah, NY:
Richard C. Owen.
Fulwiler, T. (Ed.). (1987). The journal book. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook.
Harste, J., Short, K., & Burke, C. (1988). Creating classrooms for authors (pp. 280-285). Portsmouth,
NH: Heinemann.
62
Example
IDEAS FOR MATH LEARNING LOGS

Teachers might give students any of the following assignments:
● Write math word problems using the concept being taught.
● Describe a practical application of the concept being taught.
● Keep a budget to show how you use your allowance.
● List the steps you would follow to construct a five-sided polygon. (This activity could be used
for many figures.)
● Which configuration is best to describe life: a line? a circle? a square? a triangle? a spiral?
Explain.
● Make up an advertisement for a job requiring extensive math skills.
● Describe what would happen if no one could count past five.
● Take a real-life problem and describe how a computer would assist in solving it.
● When in real life has knowing math been helpful to you? Explain.
● Write a paragraph with the title “Computers I Have Known.”
63
Example
GUIDING QUESTIONS FOR READING LOGS

A reading log has many labels, such as reading journal, literature log, or reading response log.
Regardless of the label, it is a record of responses to reading literature. The purpose is to give
readers ownership of their understanding of the text and to connect reading, writing, and thinking
processes. Student responses in the log are valuable for initiating and continuing discussion in the
literature study groups. Teachers may use logs as part of guided reading activities or as dialogue
journals between teacher and student or student and student. Logs may also serve as documentation
for evaluations.
Here are some possible questions to get students started:
1. Who was your favorite character? Describe.
2. Where did the story take place?
3. What was a problem in the story?
4. Did any of the characters change? If so, how?
5. Was there anything that surprised you?
6. Were you disappointed about anything?
7. Would you change anything in the story? Why or why not?
8. Is this story like any other you have read or seen?
9. Did you have strong feelings as you read this story?
10. What thoughts went through your head while you were reading?
11. Were you reminded of something or someone in your own life?
12. What questions occurred to you as you were reading?
Developed by:
64
LETTERS
WHAT: The prevalent availability of technology has affected students’ style and interest in writ-
ing letters. Some have suggested that letter writing is becoming a lost art. Students need
to know that personal and business correspondence is still important. Pen pal letters,
personal letters to family and friends, business letters of application, persuasive let-
ters, and consumer awareness letters are possibilities for developing communication
proficiency.
WHY: Students need to know that letter writing is an important ability that serves a number of
purposes. Some examples for student involvement include persuasive letters to the local
newspaper editor, the school board president, the school superintendent, or to state and
national legislators. Other options are pen pal letters to students in other schools, other
states, or other countries. Learning to write letters of application is the first hurdle many
job seekers face. Knowing how to write consumer awareness letters is important when
ordering materials and protesting inferior products when returning materials. Students
are invited to generate the types of letters that they would like or need to write. The
sense of audience determines the format and language.
HOW: Ask students to think about the different purposes for writing letters. Divide them into
small groups and choose someone in each group to lead the discussion and someone
else to record ideas for later sharing.
1. The leader or teacher may begin with the following introduction: “Think about the
last letter you wrote. What was the purpose? How often do you write letters?” After
individuals have shared some perceptions, invite them to think about what kind of
letter they would like to draft.
2. Provide paper for first draft writing of a letter. After about ten minutes, lead a discus-
sion about the experience. What was easy? What was difficult?
3. Have the recorder list the major points of the discussion and share them with the
larger group.
4. Facilitate whole group sharing of ideas about letter writing. Ask students to choose
two kinds of letters they will write. Suggest partner conferences for revision and
editing.
Developed by:
65
AUTHORING CYCLE
WHAT: An authoring cycle is a framework for using writing as a way of knowing in the class-
room. As a writing process, the authoring cycle includes thinking, drafting, sharing,
revising, editing, and publishing. Students make choices about what they want to say
and how to say it.
WHY: An authoring cycle is useful for helping students to view themselves as authors with
important ideas to share and to develop communication abilities. The emphasis is on
generating ideas and selecting the appropriate expressive language. Students’ progress
and needs are monitored by reviewing collected drafts, and strategy lessons may be
used in context to encourage writing improvement.
HOW: Students follow these steps:
1. Think about experiences.
2. Read and write materials of one’s choice.
3. Prepare writer’s folder.
4. Choose topic.
a. The teacher leads discussion about choices.
b. The students list two or three possibilities.
c. Individuals brainstorm on paper all the ideas they have related to one or both of
the topics.
d. The students choose a listening partner and share ideas for two or three minutes
each.
5. Write first drafts.

a. Write name and date on paper.
b. Write “draft #1” on paper.
6. Conference.
a. The teacher circulates among students to check progress.
(1) “How is it going?”
(2) “What do you plan to do now?”
b. The teacher holds conference.
(1) The student reads a piece to the teacher.
(2) The student says what s/he likes best about the work.
(3) The teacher may ask revision questions:
“Did anything give you trouble?”
“Is there anything you would like to change?”
“What do you plan to do next?”
c. The students hold peer conferences.
The students may follow the format of the teacher conference.
66
7. Work on additional drafts using ideas from the conferences.
8. Revise to express the message clearly — focus on meaning.

Label additional drafts in order (draft #2).
9. Edit to check the form or structure.
10. Publish on bulletin board displays or in newsletters, class books, individual books,
or like materials.
11. Celebrate and share one’s work with others.

a. Invite the principal, librarian, and parents.
b. Share the writing with other classes.
c. Have an author’s party.
12. Start another topic and keep the cycle going.
Developed by:
Applebee, A., Langer, J., & Mullis, I. (1987). Grammar, punctuation, and spelling: Controlling the convention of
written English at ages 9, 13, and 17. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. (ERIC Document Reproduction
Service No. ED 282 928).
Atwell, N. (1990). Coming to know: Writing to learn in the intermediate grades. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Calkins, L. (1986). The art of teaching writing. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Graves, D. (1983). Writing: Teachers and children at work. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Harste, J., Short, K., & Burke, C. (1988). Creating classrooms for authors: The reading-writing connection. Ports-
mouth, NH: Heinemann.
Moffett, J. (1992). Active voice. Portsmouth, NH: Boynton/Cook.
Murray, D. (1989). Expecting the unexpected: Teaching myself — and others to read and write. Portsmouth, NH:
Boynton/Cook-Heinemann.
Parson, L. (1991). Writing in the real classroom. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Watson, D. (Ed.). (1987). Ideas and insights. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
67
SPELLING STRATEGIES
WHAT: Spelling strategies are ways the students focus on the conventions of written language.
WHY: Editing is an important part of written communication, and spelling is a part of the
editing process. Students need options for dealing with spelling problems.
HOW: Discuss the following strategies with students and ask them for additional suggestions.
Try it first. To encourage students to explore language structure, have them try several
spellings of a particular word. Invite them to try as many forms as they wish, but they
must try at least two spellings that make sense to them.
Use other resources. Students may ask someone other than the teacher, or they may
use the dictionary or other printed resources.
Work with a partner. Students may work with a partner to check spelling or to learn
new spelling words. They teach and support each other.
Develop own list. Students choose five focus words each week that they want to learn
to spell. This works well with partners because they can give each other hints and pre-
tests or develop crossword puzzles to increase spelling efficiency. They keep records of
progress and share these with the teacher.
Create personal dictionaries. These may evolve from focus words identified by indi-
vidual students or may include high-frequency words that are difficult to remember. As
students learn the words, new dictionaries may be constructed or word files may be
reviewed and reorganized. Known words may be deleted and new ones included.
Check four basic rules. Sixty years ago, Leonard Wheat identified four basic rules
that were consistent enough to spend time in learning (cited in Wilde, 1992, pp. 89-90).
They are:
1. When a word ends in a single vowel and single consonant, double the consonant
before adding -ed or -ing if the word is a monosyllable or has stress on the final
syllable.
2. When a word ends in a consonant and y, change the y to i before adding most
suffixes (except those beginning with i).
3. When a word ends in a silent final e, drop the e before adding suffixes starting with
a vowel.
68
4. When a word has the vowels i and e together, the i comes before e except after c.
Check classroom display chart. Students brainstorm frequently used words that have
difficult spelling configurations. These words are printed on a display chart that is used
as a handy reference for immediate visual checking as needed.
Share mnemonic strategies. Students take the role of teacher to share tips for remem-
bering specific spellings by presenting their strategies as a mini lesson.
Developed by:
Wilde, S. (1992). Portland, OR: Portland State University.
Buchanan, E. (1989). Spelling for whole language classrooms. Winnipeg, Manitoba: Whole Language Consultants.
Frith, U. (Ed.). (1980). Cognitive processes in spelling. London: Academic Press.
Henderson, E., & Beers, J. (Eds.). (1990). Developmental and cognitive aspects of learning to spell: A reflection of
word knowledge. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Read, C. (1981). Children’s categorization of speech sounds in English. Urbana, IL: National Council of
Teachers of English.
Wilde, S. (1992). You kan red this! Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
69
LITERATURE STUDY
WHAT: Literature study is extensive and intensive reading for learning and for pleasure.
WHY: Literature is a way to connect with the language strengths of children and to expand
their thinking and experience. By sharing literature in this active and natural way, read-
ers increase the foundations for reading, writing, listening, and speaking.
HOW: 1. Provide books for extensive reading. Books are chosen based on readers’ interests
and on the books’ potential for helping readers make personal meaning and extend
their previous experiences with literature and their desire to know. Young readers
may primarily need familiar stories or those that have predictable language and
experiences. Introduce the books to the group by giving short book talks.
2. Form groups of three to five readers based on their selection of books to be read.
3. Read the book to the group or negotiate a number of pages to be read. Readers are
invited to keep records of their reading in reading logs, which are self-written or
drawn or dictated.
4. Recognize that the intensive reading occurs in the group when the readers study and
discuss the book. Begin the discussion by encouraging readers to share their impres-
sions and ideas based on the text and problems they may have encountered in creat-
ing meaning as they read. Encourage students to think critically and “live” the action
and characters. Study of literacy elements will naturally occur as discussion focuses
on characters, mood, language, action, and symbols.
Adapted from:
Peterson, R. (1987). Literature groups: Intensive and extensive reading. In D. Watson (Ed.)., Ideas and insights
(pp. 21-23). Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Cullinan, B. (1987). Children’s literature in the reading program. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Harste, J., Short, K., & Burke, C. (1988). Creating classrooms for authors: The reading-writing connection.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Moss, J. (1984). Focus units in literature: A handbook for elementary school teachers. Urbana, IL: National Council of
Nelms, B. (Ed.). (1988). Literature in the classroom: Readers, texts, and contexts. Urbana, IL: National Council of
70
Peterson, R., & Eeds, M. (1990). Grand conversations: Literature groups in action. Richmond Hill, Ontario:
Scholastic-TAB.
Short, K.G., & Pierce, K.M. (Eds.). (1990). Talking about books: Creating literate communities. Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.
Watson, D. (Ed.). (1987). Ideas and insights. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
71
Example
SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERATURE RESPONSE LOGS

A literature response log may be called a reading log, reading journal, literature log, or reading
response log. Regardless of the label, it is a record of responses to reading literature. The purpose is
to give readers ownership of their understanding of the text and to connect reading, writing, and
thinking processes. Student responses in the log are valuable for initiating and continuing discus-
sion in the literature study groups. Teachers may use logs as part of guided reading activities or as
dialogue journals between teacher and student or student and student. Logs may also serve as
documentation for evaluations.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LITERATURE LOG ENTRIES:
Respond to cues:
● Describe one of the characters.

● Where did the story take place?
● What was a problem in the story?
● What were the main events?
● Did any of the characters change? If so, how?
● Was there anything that surprised you?
● Were you disappointed about anything?
● How did the author keep you interested?
● What do you think might happen next?
● Would you change the ending? Why or why not?
Reflect on personal reactions:
● Is this story like any other you have read or seen?

● Did you have strong feelings as you read this story?
● What thoughts went through your head while you were reading?
● Were you reminded of something or someone in your own life?
● What questions occurred to you as you were reading?
● What was your overall feeling about this story?
● Why do you think the author wrote this story?
● Is there any part that you would change?
Illustrate part of the text:
● Draw your favorite part of the story.

● Draw particular character(s) based on description.
● Draw a setting as described by the author.
● Assume the role of illustrator for a part of the book.
72
Use for vocabulary enrichment:
● Reader-selected miscues — Students select unknown words by writing the page and line
number for each. They suggest how each word is used and what they think it could mean.
Share ideas in the discussion group.
● Author’s use of words — Students select interesting words; that is, those that describe par-
ticular story elements or those that they find fascinating for any reason.
● Students copy interesting passages that connect to different writing styles or exemplify par-
ticular language patterns or usage.
Generate questions for discussion:
Students learn how to ask discussion questions as teachers model good ones. Often, their first
ones are quite literal and text-dependent, but as students gain experience, they learn more about
open-ended questioning to enrich the discussion in the group.
Freewrite:
Invite students to write anything they choose. Give no cues or prompts. This may be the best
response of all.
Suggestions for other writing activities:
Books without words.
Extending reading by writing

● Different ending
● Changing characters, revised plot
● Different point of view
● Student-written books
Rewriting patterned language

● Repetitive (The Gingerbread Man, Arno, E., 1973, Scholastic)
● Cumulative (The Napping House, Wood, A., & Wood, D., 1984, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich)
● Interlocking (Small Talk, Pienkowski, J., 1985, Price/Stern/Sloan)
● Chronological (The Giving Tree, Silverstein, S., 1964, Harper & Row)
● Rhyme and rhythm (Over in the Meadow, Keats, E.J., 1985, Scholastic)
Reference:
Crenshaw, S.R. (1992). Literature sets, circles, and cycles. An in-service presentation at Wydown Middle School for
Clayton, Missouri, district teachers.
73
READERS’ THEATRE
WHAT: Readers’ theatre is a variation of choral reading. It is a group project that gives students
the experience of working together to present a collaborative oral interpretation of a
written text.
WHY: Reading aloud for a focused purpose alleviates the anxiety associated with oral reading
because everyone is helping in a positive way. In the process, individuals engage natu-
rally in silent reading to track other readers’ parts. Several practice sessions may be
necessary to establish confidence for sharing the piece with an audience.
HOW: Rehearsal provides the opportunity to listen to others and to feel the rhythm of blended
voices. When performing, students usually stand in a semicircle facing the audience.
Each reader has a marked script in a folder that is held at a comfortable reading distance.
Some groups have the readers step forward to deliver their lines and then step back into
the formation. Script may be developed from predictable language stories or those with
repetitive passages. Stories with dialogue are easily adapted to script with the use of a
narrator to give background information. Poetry is a good way to begin because of the
rhythm and imagery of the language. Here are some suggestions for group presentation:
1. Distribute copies of the script to each reader.
2. After everyone reads the text silently, talk about how to arrange the different parts or
voices.
3. Have the students do a first draft oral reading to experience the sound of the language
and the meaning that they want to express.
4. As rehearsal continues, have them generate and adapt ideas for presentation to the
larger group.
5. Have groups select a recorder and reporter and discuss how to use readers’ theatre in
the classroom. Suggest some good resources for scripts.
Sloyer, S. (1982). Readers’ theatre: Story dramatization in the classroom. Urbana, IL: National Council of
74
TEXT SETS
WHAT: Text sets are collections of books related by theme, author, illustrations, or genre.
WHY: Text sets are helpful in encouraging students to compare, contrast, and make connec-
tions in a reading discussion group. Literature discussion groups are sometimes difficult
to sustain because multiple copies of the same text are not available. Sharing is neces-
sary in using text sets because all group members do not have access to each text.
HOW: Students should form groups and do the following:
1. Explore the various books in the text set collection.
2. Share discoveries from the various copies of texts.
3. Talk about differences and likenesses.
4. Decide how to share information with the larger group.
5. List how books were alike or different.
THEN
WHAT: Text sets give students the opportunity to read two or more texts that are related in some
way and then talk about the relationships. Generally two or more texts that have similar
characteristics are chosen. Following are different ways to choose text sets.
1. In content areas, students can read conceptually related texts and use them for text
sets (Crafton, 1991). For example, if students were studying Abraham Lincoln’s part
in the Civil War, a teacher might begin collecting books such as:
Beatty, P. (1988). Be ever hopeful, Hannalee. New York: Morrow. (Sequel to Turn Homeward,
Hannalee. This work of fiction authentically portrays regulators, the Ku Klux Klan, and blacks
and whites after the Civil War.)
Fehrenbacher, D. (Ed.). (1964). Abraham Lincoln: A documentary portrait through his speeches
and writings. New York: New American Library. (Lincoln’s own writings.)
Freedman, R. (1987). Lincoln: A photobiography. New York: Clarion Books. (Photos and text
about Lincoln.)
Neely, M. (1982). The Abraham Lincoln encyclopedia. New York: McGraw-Hill. (For refer-
ence and browsing.)
75
To this list, a variety of expository texts — including encyclopedias, nonfiction trade
books, National Geographic articles, facsimiles of newspapers of the era and fiction
books — could be added.
Students then have opportunities to read their choice(s) and discuss a common ques-
tion or compare and contrast the similarities in the texts. Using text sets in this way
leads into research and reporting in content areas.
2. Genre-related text sets such as using fairy tales or folk tales allow students to com-
pare and contrast stories to gain a better understanding of the genre itself (Moss,
1990). For example, the following tales all deal with magical objects:
DePaola, T. (Reteller). (1975). Strega Nona: An old tale. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Lang, A. (Reteller). (1981). Aladdin and the wonderful lamp. New York: Viking Press.
Steel, F. (Reteller). (1976). Tattercoats: An old English tale. Scarsdale, New York:
Bradbury Press.
Steig, W. (1969). Sylvester and the magic pebble. New York: Windmill Books.
Of course, other genres such as biography, poetry, social issues, realism, historical
fiction, high fantasy, and informational books could be used.
3. Teachers often can focus literature study group books around a theme. Since all
students have read novels centered on a theme, students can discuss the theme as an
entire class after they all have finished their novels, or members of the class who
have read different books with a similar theme can meet together in small groups to
discuss the similarities and differences in their books. Some books that lend them-
selves to particular themes are:
Survival/personal discovery
George, J. (1972). Julie of the wolves. New York: Harper & Row.
George, J. (1959). My side of the mountain. New York: Dutton.
Holman, F. (1974). Slake’s limbo. New York: Scribner.
Mazer, H. (1973). Snow bound. New York: Delacorte Press.
Paulsen, G. (1987). Hatchet. Scarsdale, New York: Bradbury Press.
76
Family problems
Byers, B. (1985). Cracker Jackson. New York: Viking Kestral.
Danziger, P. (1980). Can you sue your parents for malpractice? New York: Dell.
Nixon, J. (Dates variable). The orphan train quarter (includes A Family Apart, Caught in the
Act, A Place to Belong, In The Face of Danger). New York: Bantam Books.
Peterson, K. (1978). The Great Gilly Hopkins. New York: Crowell.
4. Literature text sets are useful for developing math concepts. The following two
book lists both use time as a theme, but for different age groups.
Text Set for Younger Children
Carle, E. (1987). The very hungry caterpillar. New York: Philomel.

Coats, L. (1987). The oak tree. New York: Macmillan.
Florian, D. (1988). A summer day. New York: Greenwillow Books.
Gerstein, M. (1989). The sun’s day. New York: Harper & Row.
Gould, D. (1988). Brendan’s best-timed birthday. Scarsdale, NY: Bradbury Press
Maestro, B., & Maestro, G. (1985). Through the year with Harriet. New York: Crown Publishers.
Neasi, B. (1988). A minute is a minute. Chicago: Children’s Press.
Sendak, M. (1986). Chicken soup with rice: A book of months. New York: Scholastic.
Text Set for Older Children

Anno, M., Briggs, R., Brooks, R., Carle, E., Calvi, G., Chengliang, Z., Dillon, D., Dillon, L.,
Hayashi, A., & Popov, N. (1986). All in a day.. New York: Philomel.
Anno, M. (1987). Anno’s sundial. New York: Philomel.
Burns, M. (1978). This book is about time. Boston: Little, Brown, & Co.
Fisher, L. (1987). Calendar art: Thirteen days, weeks, months, years from around the world.
New York: Four Winds Press.
Kirst, Werner. (1977). Time. Woodstock, NY: Beekman Publishers.
5. Other ways of grouping books for text sets are:
— Texts with a similar structure (especially useful with younger children are rep-
etitious language, rhyme, and refrain).
— Different versions of the same story (Chicken Little stories, Jack and the
Beanstalk versions, the Elves and the Shoemaker versions).
77
— Texts by the same author (Jean George, S.E. Hinton, Roald Dahl, Virginia
Hamilton).
— Texts with similar characters (compare the strong women characters of Mildred
Taylor, or the male characters of S.E. Hinton).
— Various cultures or a similar culture as a theme.
— Caldecott or Newbery Award text sets. Students can read award winners from
previous years, generate ideas for the criteria used for selection, and then read
nominees for the current year and try to select a winner based on their criteria.
Reference:
Gilles, C. (1994). Literature study, phase II. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri.
Crafton, L. (1991). Whole language: Getting started . . . Moving forward. Katonah, New York: Richard C. Owen,
Publishers.
Harste, J.C., Short, K.G., & Burke, C. (1988). Creating classrooms for authors. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Jensen, J.M., & Roser, N.L. (Eds.). (1993). Adventuring with books: A booklist for pre-k-grade 6. Urbana, IL: National
Council of Teachers of English.
Matthews, D. (Ed.). (1988). High interest easy reading. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Moir, H. (Ed.). (1992). Collected perspectives: Choosing and using books for the classroom. Boston, MA: Christopher-
Gordon Publishers, Inc.
Moss, J. (1990). Focus on literature: A context for literacy learning. Katonah, NY: Richard C. Owen, Publishers.
Rhodes, L, & Dudley-Marling, C. (1988). Readers and writers with a difference: A holistic approach to teaching
learning disabled and remedial students. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Taxel, J. (Ed.). (1992). Fanfare: The Christopher-Gordon children’s literature annual. Norwood, MA: Christopher-
Gordon Publishers, Inc.
Tway, E. (1981). Reading ladders for human relations. Washington, DC: American Council on Education.
Webb, C.A. (Ed.). (1993). Your reading: A booklist for junior high and middle school. Urbana, IL: National Council of
Wirth, S. (Ed.). (1992). Books for you: A booklist for senior high students. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of
English.
78
Example
TEXT SET PROJECT FORM

Read:
Present understanding of book
Record in journal
Read: compare to
Interview one person about
Write up interview
Write original story
Read articles on:
Write reactions to articles
Project on topic (suggestions given)
Find newspaper articles
Possible choices
● Adventure
● Death
● Dog
● Early America — Pioneers
● War
● Survival
Developed by:
Copeland, K. (1991). Columbia, MO: Stephens Elementary Children’s School.
Vacca, R., & Rasinski, T. (1992). Case studies in whole language. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
79
STUDENT RESEARCH PROJECTS
WHAT: Student research projects are based on student inquiry. Individual choice is important to
fully engage students in research investigations. Research may focus on current curricula
and may integrate curricular content areas. Many of the questions or topics that students
want to research are not confined to a specific content area but rather cut across disci-
plines. A curriculum based on inquiry includes the examination of various perspectives.
WHY: Research projects involve students and teachers in acquiring knowledge, skills, and strat-
egies using many learning processes. Extensive reading and writing are incorporated in
project preparation, along with problem solving and decision making to support the
research that expands meaning.
HOW: Initiate a discussion about research by brainstorming what students know about it. Sug-
gest that everyone can be a researcher and share the ideas about the components of a
research project.
1. Selecting a topic. Ask individuals to think about something that would be a good
topic or question to explore.
2. Criteria for topic. Help students to narrow a topic for a focused study. Using seman-
tic webbing, determine which subtopics are manageable.
3. Determining purposes of the research project. Invite students to think about the rea-
sons they have for choosing a particular question or topic. What do they want to find
out and why?
4. Identifying available resources. Where will students look for information? Suggest
that they do a library search and make a list of other sources for information.
5. Developing research procedures. Elicit ideas from the group for ways to gain and
organize information for the research project.
6. Writing a proposal for a research project. The teacher demonstrates the process of
developing a proposal (see the example “Planning Guide for Research”). A research
proposal is an outline that structures the project and gives direction for the research.
7. Implementing the project proposal. After the proposal has been approved, students
work individually or in groups to carry out the activities and methods included in the
research plan. There will be ongoing assessment and revision as the research
progresses.
80
8. Culminating activities. Students need the opportunity to share their discoveries and
new knowledge with others. They may demonstrate their learning in a variety of
ways. The teacher may suggest some alternatives and then ask students to think of
other possibilities. Some suggestions may be biographical sketches or journals, time
lines, dramatic scripts, field guides for scientific subjects, posters, displays, models,
murals, mobiles, topic-oriented alphabet books, skinny books, how-to books, games,
puzzles, computer programs, videotapes and audiotapes, articles for class magazines,
newsletters, or newspapers.
Adapted from:
Flores, B. (1988). Whole language: A pedagogy of resistance. San Bernardino, CA: CSU — School of Education.
81
Example
PLANNING GUIDE FOR RESEARCH

(May be filled out by teacher for younger children. Older children fill it out for themselves.)
Name (individual or members of group):
Theme or topic:
Questions to be explored:
Plan for exploration and reporting (“How will I find out? How will I share findings with
others?”):
Adapted from:
82
Example
IDEAS FOR WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A proposal is a statement of the rationale, the purpose, and the methodology of a research project.
It is a planning activity to focus energy into inquiry and guide the investigative process.
Why Write a Proposal
● Writing makes thoughts and ideas concrete.
● Writing helps with understanding of what is already known.
● A written proposal provides an outline and a direction for research.
● A written proposal helps assess progress toward objectives.
Elements of a Proposal
● Identification of topic, issue, subject to be researched
● Reasons for researching the selected topic
● What might be learned about the topic
● Methods to be used to investigate the topic (research strategies and activities)
● Resources to be used in the investigation
Writing a Proposal
● The teacher explains the reasons for writing a proposal (scientific method).
● The teacher models the process of developing a proposal.
● Students and the teacher collaborate on developing the proposal and on brainstorming top-
ics, questions, and rationales.
Adapted from:
83
Example
TEACHER PLANNING FORM

Theme or topic:
Names of those working on plan:
Student plans: Teacher plans:
Includes: How can I help the students

accomplish their plans? What do I already
know about the questions? How can I help
students learn? What resources can I provide?
What processes can I facilitate? What are some
learning objectives? How will we evaluate?
How will I learn?
Adapted from:
84
Example
GUIDELINES FOR INDIVIDUAL RESEARCH PROJECTS

1. Once you have chosen your research topic, list everything you know about your topic. Then list
everything you don’t know and formulate a list of questions to which you would like to find
answers. Review the questions, drop the ones that don’t fit, and clarify the ones that do.
2. Brainstorm ways you can find the answers to your questions.
3. Collect your data accurately from as many sources as possible and then organize and collate it.
What conclusions does it support?
4. Write a summary statement of your work: What were you looking for? What did you find?
5. Represent your learning in a way that you can share with others. Here are some ideas — feel
free to use your own, keeping in mind the nature of your research topic. You will need to
determine which presentational format will best serve your data and findings.
Possibilities for sharing:
letters to the editor

poster sessions, bulletin board
scrapbook or photo album
oral histories and interviews
newspaper
surveys, interviews, questionnaires
slide or video presentation
debate or panel discussion
models and maps
diagrams, tables, graphs, flowcharts, time lines
role-playing, socio-drama
folk art, songs and dances, food
museum kits
6. What do you want to research next?
Reference:
Bird, L. (1991). Supporting real research. In K. Goodman, L. Bird, & Y. Goodman (Eds.), The whole language catalog
(p. 296). Santa Rosa, CA: American School Publishers.
85
Example
EVALUATION FORM FOR RESEARCH PRESENTATION

Rank yourself 1 (poor) to 5 (outstanding) on the following areas of your report.
COMMENTS
ORAL REPORT
● Information
● Visual aids
WRITTEN
● Appearance
● Information
MATH PROJECT
ART PROJECT
GAME
I learned:
I would like to learn:
Developed by:
Copeland, K. (1990). Columbia, MO: Stephens Elementary Children’s School.
86
PRAISE-QUESTION-POLISH (PQP)
WHAT: PQP is a framework used to assess understanding and evaluate learning. It has three
columns for student responses to specific lessons, texts, topics, or focus studies. The
praise column is for positive comments, the question column is for recording ideas that
are not clear, and the polish column is for suggested changes to improve understanding.
WHY: PQP gives students time to analyze what they understand, critically evaluate their learn-
ing, and identify and clarify troublesome areas. It also provides a structure for feedback
to the teacher about how much more time needs to be spent clarifying and extending
meaning.
HOW: PQP is done at the end of the class period or lesson. Students react by writing or discuss-
ing three things about the lesson. The teacher may demonstrate the procedure in the
following way:
1. After a particular presentation or lesson, the teacher asks the students for positive
comments: have them tell what they liked best or what part of the lesson helped them
most. Prepare a large PQP chart on the chalkboard or on an overhead transparency.
Write students’ comments on the chart.
2. Ask students to produce a question or two about what was confusing or about infor-
mation that they still need. Record some of these on the chart.
3. Invite students to make suggestions about how to improve or polish the lesson. After
recording their ideas, ask them to try a PQP on their own.
Reference:
Reading/Language in Secondary Schools Subcommittee of IRA. (1990). Working with at-risk learners.
Journal of Reading, 33(7), 551.
87
EXIT SLIPS
WHAT: Exit slips are self-evaluations that prompt students to review their learning. They may
be used at the end of a class session, the end of a day, the end of a week, or the end of a
focused study, a presentation, or a theme unit. Students reflect on what they learned and
request further assistance if needed.
WHY: Students need to assume responsibility for their own learning. Exit slips offer them the
opportunity to make learning personal, give an account of the knowledge they have
gained, and identify areas for further exploration. These self-evaluations help the teacher
to monitor students’ understanding and to provide resources for further assistance.
HOW: 1. Talk to students about the importance of taking responsibility for learning. They
have the opportunity to think about what they have learned that they didn’t know
before the information, concepts, or ideas were presented.
2. Distribute slips of paper or index cards to each student at the beginning of the class
or presentation. Tell them that the slips will be collected at the end of the session.
This establishes the expectation that everyone will take responsibility for learning
and recording something.
3. When the lesson or study is completed, ask students to list one or two things that they
have learned and one thing that they want to know more about. Additional ideas
include one question they have, one thing they will do to extend their learning, or
some assistance that they need to learn more about the topic. Some exit slips have
two prompts: I learned and I need. Others include I learned, I will try, and I need or
I have a question. The teacher may adapt exit slips to meet individual needs.
4. When all exit slips are collected, the teacher reviews them for information about
what students have emphasized. It is interesting to see if there are similarities in
learning entries, identified needs, or specific questions.
Crafton, L. (1991). Whole language: Getting started . . . Moving forward. Katonah, NY: Richard C. Owen Publishers, Inc.
88
89
February, 1995
A publication of the Curriculum & Instruction Option for

the Chapter 1 Technical Assistance Centers.
Prepared under contract number LC91027044
Research & Training Associates, Inc., 9209 West 110th Street, Overland Park, KS 66210-1439
(800) 922-9031 FAX (913) 451-8190
Permission to reproduce is granted by the publisher.
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Pre Reading Plan (PReP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Responding to Reading as Writers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58

Journals and Logs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Student Research Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

WHAT ARE LEARNING STRATEGIES?

WHY USE LEARNING STRATEGIES?

● Emphasizing meaning and understanding. Teachers who give priority to understanding

HOW TO USE THE STRATEGIES

2. Brainstorming. Brainstorming is a way to value prior knowledge and prior experience by

7. Think-Along. A think-along is a teaching demonstration that makes the invisible thinking

1. Semantic Mapping. Visual representations of connected ideas may be labeled as semantic

2. Sketch to Stretch. Representing ideas through drawing provides students an alternative

4. Reciprocal Teaching. Reciprocal teaching is an instructional activity that takes place in

9. Journals and Logs.

b. Dialogue Journals. Dialogue journals are another form of written conversation, or

17. Praise-Question-Polish (PQP). PQP is a framework used to assess understanding and

HOW: 1. Sample text.

2. Determine author’s purpose.

a. Inform (give facts)

3. Make prediction based on prior knowledge and textual information.

5. Confirm or adjust prediction.

6. Repeat the steps, stopping at logical places.

7. Prove, confirm, or reject.

8. Guide students to apply strategy in all content areas.

DIRECTED READING THINKING ACTIVITY

Support the prediction. “Why do you think so?”

Students read selection.

Students check their predictions and confirm or reject.

Personal Group Author

only in intensity of color.”

WHAT: Brainstorming is an exercise that involves groups of students in free association of

● What does this mean?

K-W-L worksheet for a science selection on toads

Toads Are toads the same

1. small animals If not, how are they

3. jumps What do toads eat?

3. spits poison How do toads protect

Particular verbs: was and were

Initial consonant clues

Initial consonant clues

Once p n t m th r w s l ttl g rl n m d Sh rry wh l v d t v s t h r

● What is the topic?

● What kind of information am I learning?

● What are the main points?

● What does the title mean?

For additional questions, refer to the section on literature response logs.

● What do you think . . . ?

The Request Procedure consists of the following steps:

6. The teacher facilitates follow-up discussion of the material.

QUESTION-ANSWER RELATIONSHIP (QAR)

The IN-THE-BOOK category can be expanded to include:

1. Answers that are stated in the text (RIGHT THERE).

The IN-MY-HEAD category can include answers that require:

Watson, D. (1979) Columbia, MO: University of Missouri.

• Repetition or elaboration of details of setting or characters.

Teacher: Daddy says there are forks in the road.

Thinking: How do I go about obtaining this information?

Thinking: How will this information be recorded?

Teacher: What is the total number of students at University Elementary School?

Sources for big books:

Delmar Publishers, 2 Computer Drive West, Albany, NY 12212

Random House, Department 436, 400 Hahn Street, Westminster, MD 21157