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Soil Testing
Some plants need an acidic soil while others need an alkaline soil Acidity is usually difficult
to measure with indicator due to the darkness
Soil is moistened with water and universal indicator added
White barium sulfate powder places on surface of soil
White powder absorbs soil water so that color can be seen against white background
Chemical Analysis
Chemists routinely use indicators in analytical work
Used in titrations to signal point when the acid neutralizes the base
Visible signal as most of these solutions are colorless
Monitoring Pool Acidity
Acidity levels need to be carefully controlled at 7.4 to reduce skin and eye irritation
Regularly tested with indicator with a color range similar to that of universal indicator
Monitoring wastes from photographic processing (discharges to the sewerage system must
be nearly neutral: photographic solutions are often highly alkaline).
Results:
Substance Acid/Base Indicator Colour
HCl Acid Red/pink
Ammonia solution Base Dark green
Acetic Acid Acid Dark Pink
NaOH Base Green
Conclusions: the red cabbage produced a purple solution which was tested and found to
be read in an acid solution and green in a basic solution.
1.2.2 Identify data and choose resources to gather information
about the colour changes of a range of indicators
Aim: To find the colours of various indicators in acidic basic and neutral solutions
Method: Test each indicator by adding 2-3 drops to 1ml of HCl, NaOH, Na2CO3 and H2O
respectively
Tabulate colours of indicators in each solution
Results:
Reaction with Substances
Substance L M.O B.B P U.I
HCl Orange red Green colourless Red
NaOH, Blue Orange Blue Red Purple
Na2CO3 Purple Orange blue Red Purple
H2O L. purple orange green colourless Green
Conclusion:
HCl is acidic, NaOH, Na2CO3 basic, H2O neutral
Method:
1. Check pH meter is correctly calibrated and review instructions for use. Ensure pH
meter is properly handled and rinsed during testing.
2. Place a small amount of solution to be tested in a beaker (about 3cm depth). Insert
the pH meter electrode and record the pH.
3. Measure the pH by adding a couple of drops of universal indicator to the beaker
and record the results.
4. Repeat the process with all samples being sure to clean the pH meter electrode and
beaker between samples.
Results:
Sample Universal pH Meter Acidic/Alkaline/
Indicator Reading Neutral
Colour and
pH
Distilled water Green 7 6.9 Neutral/Acidic
Acids react with reactive metals to form a salt and hydrogen gas
2HCl + Mg MgCl2 + H2
Acids react with carbonates to form a salt, carbon dioxide and water
2HCl + 2Na2CO3 2NaCl +CO2 +H2O
Oxides of Non-Metals
Acidic Oxides Basic Oxides
Reacts with water to form an acid or Reacts with acids to form salt
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
SO2 + H2O H2SO3 Does not react with alkali solutions
SO3 + H2O H2SO4 (such as NaOH or KOH).
2NO2 + H2O HNO3 + HNO2
Are oxides of metal and their ionic
Reacts with bases to form salts (or does both) compounds
3rd Period
Strong sulfuric acids (H2SO4) can form if the sulfurous acid is catalytically oxidized in the air
2H2O(l) + H2SO3(aq) 2H2SO4(aq)
A mixture of weak nitrous and strong nitric acids is formed when NO2 dissolves in water
droplets
2NO2(g) + H2O(l) HNO2 (aq) + HNO3(aq)
Nitrous acid is unstable and can decompose to form nitric acid and nitric oxide or it can be
catalytically oxidised to form nitric acid
HNO2 HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + 2NO2(g)
HNO2 + O2 HNO3
Avogadro’s Law
Equal Volumes of equal gases at the same temp and pressure contain the same number of
moles.
Moles of Solids:
Moles = Mass _
Molar Mass
Moles of Gases:
Moles = Volume _
Molar Volume
Or
Volume = Moles X Molar Volume
Concentration Formula:
Moles = Concentration
Volume
Aim: To calculate the volume of carbon dioxide released from a can of soft drink
Method:
1. Find the mass of a can of soda water
2. Finds the mass of a 500ml beaker
3. Pour the drink into the beaker
4. Find the mass of the empty can
5. Add a known mass of sodium chloride (e.g. 25g)
6. Stir the salt and drink mixture until no more gas is released
7. Find the final mass of the beaker and the drink (by minus-ing the weight of the salt)
Results
Closed Can : 265.73g
Empty Can: 15.2g
Salt: 25.02g
Beaker: 199.79g
Mass of soda water: 250.53
Beaker + water +salt: 439.44
Soda water after CO2 release: 234.63
CO2 loss: 15.9
During ionization, the acid molecule donates a proton (H+) to the water forming and
hydronium ion H3O+ Eg.
H2O + H+ H3O+
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl –
3.1.2 Identify acids including acetic (ethanoic), citric (2-
hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic), hydrochloric and sulfuric acid
Acid Formula
acetic (ethanoic), CH3COOH(aq)
found in vinegar
citric (2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-
tricarboxylic)
(COOH)CH2CH(OH)(COOH)CH2COOH(aq)
found in citrus
fruits
hydrochloric HCl found in stomach juices
sulfuric H2SO4(aq) found in volcanic springs
3.1.4 Describe acids and their solutions with the appropriate use of
the terms strong, weak, concentrated and dilute
A strong acid is one which completely ionises in solution to form H+. Eg. HCl , H2SO4, HNO3.
A weak acid is one which is only partially ionized in solution. Acetic acid, CH3COOH, nitrous
acid H2NO3, carbonic acid H2CO3, sulfurous acid H2SO3
Concentrated acid is one which has a high number of moles per litre (molarity).
Dilute acid is one which has a low number of moles per litre.
Weak acids only partially ionise and thus an equilibrium is formed, this occurs with all weak
acids like ethanoic acid. In the equilibrium of the weak acid, the equation lies mostly on
the left (partial ionisation). The molecule of the weak acid is in solution with few of its ions.
Strengths of acids can also be compared by measuring their electrical conductivity at the
same concentration.
Acids ionise in water and become proton donors, forming [H+] ions in water. The greater the
concentration of [H+], the greater is the strength of the acid. Hydrochloric acid ionises more
completely than citric acid which ionises more than acetic acid.
From the table, the 0.1mol L-1 has a pH of 1, and an H+ concentration [H+] of 10-1mol L-1.
The 0.01 mol L-1 has a pH of 2, but an [H+] of 10-2 mol L-1.
The difference between the two in only one pH value, but the concentration has changed
by a power of ten. This is the logarithmic relationship between pH value, and the
corresponding [H+] value.
Basically a change of one in the pH scale means a ten fold change in the concentration of
hydrogen ions because pH is based on a logarithmic scale (base 10).
To work out [H+] from a known pH or to work out pH from a known [H+]:
In pure water at 25 oC -7
[H3O+] = [OH-] = 1 X 10 molL-1
[H3O+] X [OH-] = 1 X 10-14
[H3O+] > [OH-] = acidic
[H3O+] < [OH-] = basic
Note: the number of decimal places for pH should equal the number of significant figures
for [H3O+]
Results: Substance pH
CH3COOH 0.1 L-1 3
HCl 0.1mol L-1 1
• Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is produced by glands in the lining of our stomachs to form an
acidic environment for the efficient operation of the enzymes that break complex food
molecules into easily transportable small molecules that are absorbed into the blood
stream when they pass into the intestine
• Acetic acid (systematic name ethanoic acid), CH3-COOH. Acetic acid is present in
vinegar which is commonly made from wine by oxidation of ethanol.
• Citric acid (systematic name 2-hydroxypropane-1, 2, 3-tricarboxylic acid with molecular
formula C6H8O7). It occurs in citrus fruit.
• Vitamin C or ascorbic acid which has the molecular formula, C6H8O6. It occurs widely in
fruits and vegetables and is an essential part of our diet.
• Uracil C4H2OON2H2 is a base
Davy
Demonstrated that muratic acid (HCl) was a compound of hydrogen and chlorine and did
not contain oxygen. He observed that metals could displace hydrogen form acids and
concluded that acids contain hydrogen
Arrhenius
Suggested that acids are neural substances that dissolve in water and dissociate to give
positive hydrogen ions
and negative ions. Positive ions are called cations and negative ions are called anions
According to this theory
-an acid is a substance that ionises in water to produce H ions, as the only positive ions
-a base is a substance that ionises in water to produce OH ions, as the only negative ions
His theory has limitations
-it applies only to aqueous solutions
-does not account for why salts act as acids or bases
- does not include amphoteric substances (ZNO) which can act as acids and bases.
Conjugate acid
Base + water → conjugate acid + OH-
NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-
CO32- + H2O HCO3- + OH-
General equation is
Acid + Base Water + Salt + Heat
PHOTOCOPY
4.1.9 Qualitatively describe the effect of buffers with reference to a
specific example in a natural system
A buffer solution resists changes in pH when small amounts of acid or alkali are added to it
An acidic buffer solution can be made by mixing a weak acid by its conjugate base. An
example is a solution of ethanoic acid and ethanoate.
1. CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+
2. CH3COOH Na CH3COO- + Na+
When H+ are added the equib shifts left
When OH- are added equib shifts right
A basic buffer solution is made by mixing a weak base with its conjugate acid.Eg.
NH3/NH4Cl
Carbonic acid ionisation counteracts the addition of acid by reacting it with H+ to form
H2CO3, the equib shifts to the left, where there is already H2CO3 so the equib shifts back to
normal maintaining the pH. The CO3 acid ionisation counteracts any pH changes when
bases are added to the buffer. The equib shifts to the right to produce more H3O+ ions. It
was the absence of this buffering action in lakes in Scandinavia that resulted in the first
detection of falling pH from acid rain.
A buffer solution is a solution which contains comparable amounts of a weak aid and is
conjugate base which is therefore able to maintain an approximately constant pH even
when significant amounts of strong acid or strong base are added to it.
Conjugate acid
Base + water → conjugate acid + OH-
NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH-
CO32- + H2O HCO3- + OH-
General equation is
Acid + Base Water + Salt + Heat
PHOTOCOPY
1. CH3COOH CH3COO- + H+
2. CH3COOH Na CH3COO- + Na+
When H+ are added the equib shifts left
When OH- are added equib shifts right
A basic buffer solution is made by mixing a weak base with its conjugate acid.Eg.
NH3/NH4Cl
Carbonic acid ionisation counteracts the addition of acid by reacting it with H+ to form
H2CO3, the equib shifts to the left, where there is already H2CO3 so the equib shifts back to
normal maintaining the pH. The CO3 acid ionisation counteracts any pH changes when
bases are added to the buffer. The equib shifts to the right to produce more H3O+ ions. It
was the absence of this buffering action in lakes in Scandinavia that resulted in the first
detection of falling pH from acid rain.
A buffer solution is a solution which contains comparable amounts of a weak aid and is
conjugate base which is therefore able to maintain an approximately constant pH even
when significant amounts of strong acid or strong base are added to it.
Acids and base used in industry can often be determined as they are corrosive.
Neutralization reactions are therefore widely used in laboratories and factories were acids
and bases need to be discarded, this is hazardous to the environment due to varying pH
levels and to individuals working with these chemicals. Neutralization is employed to ensure
that chemicals which are spilled are neither acidic or basic.
Amphiprotic substances are useful for neutralizing chemical spills. These substances contain
amphiprotic ions. Such as the hydrogen carbonate ion in NaHCO3.
This amphiprotic substance is used due to its stable state as a solid easy to store and
handle. It is also cheap and does not cause major problems when used excessively. It is
also found in solid form and hence can easily soak up toxin without spreading it. It is also a
weak base and so will not heat up excessively with its exothermic reaction.
Polarity
Both C-O and O-H bonds are polar this means Alkanols and Alkanoic acids are polar
molecules
However the C=O bond is Alkanoic acids is also polar so with these 3 polar bonds Alkanoic
acids are the even more polar.
The O-H bonds make hydrogen bonds, consequently there are strong intermolecular
forces, in Alkanols and Alkanoic acids.
5.1.3 Explain the difference in melting point and boiling point caused
by straight-chained alkanoic acid and straight-chained primary
Alkanols structures
Alkanoic acids like Alkanols have hydrogen bonding between molecules. Alkanols contain
the hydroxyl group (-OH) but alkanoic acids contain the carboxyl group (-COOH) thus in
alkanoic acids in addition to the (-OH) group there is another polar group (-C=O) which
contributes further to the strength of the intermolecular forces between the acid
molecules. The hydrogen bonding is stronger in alkanoic acids to the presence of this
functional polar group.
Thus Alkanoic acids have a higher melting and moiling points than the corresponding
Alkanols, due to the more extensive hydrogen bonding and an increase in dipole-dipole
interactions.
So basically
1. To prevent loss of volatile liquids.
2. To allow the reaction to be carried out at higher temps.
Esters also are used as solvents (eg Ethyl acetate) for polar and non-polar compounds and
soaps. Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) is an example of an ester used in medicine. Due to their
dissolving tendencies towards polar and non-polar organic substances, esters are used in
varnishes, lacquers and paints and some are used as plasticisers (eg. for PVC).
Esters occur naturally. The presence of esters gives flavour to fruits and vegetables, and
scents to anything between flowers and rancid butter. Solid animal fats and plant oils are
also natural esters. Mixing common natural and synthetic esters can produce scents in
cosmetics, and colour and flavouring for food. Some esters are also used in industry as
solvents or thinners as they are able to dissolve many polar and non-polar substances.
Some examples of the use of esters: