Auto Mechanic

Study Unit
Automotive Engine
Parts and Operation
iii
Preview
By far, the most important component in any car is the engine. If the engine isn’t operating prop-
erly, the car isn’t going anywhere. A car’s engine must be reliable and economical to use, as well as
powerful enough to perform under all sorts of driving conditions. In addition, an automotive en-
gine must be able to keep running in all temperatures, through the heat of summer and the bitter
cold of winter.
Because the engine performs more and works harder than any other automotive component, it’s
serviced more often. As an automotive technician, engine repair and troubleshooting will be one of
your chief concerns. Because of this, you must thoroughly understand how automotive engines
operate and how they’re repaired.
In this study unit, you’ll begin your examination of the engine. You’ll start with a discussion of the
basic parts of the gasoline engine. Then, you’ll learn how these engine components work together
to make an engine run. A complete understanding of engine operation will be your first step to-
ward engine repair. When diagnosing engine problems, knowing exactly how an engine operates
will be your most important tool.
When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to
· Explain the basic operation of the four-stroke engine
· Visually identify the components of the lower-end assembly, including the engine block,
crankshaft, connecting rods, piston assembly, engine bearings, and vibration dampeners
· Visually identify the components of the upper-end assembly, including the cylinder head,
valve assembly, camshaft, and the intake and exhaust manifolds
· Name and describe the functions of the primary engine systems, including the fuel, ignition,
cooling, and lubrication systems
v
Contents
THE FOUR STAGES OF ENGINE OPERATION· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 1

Introduction
Review of the Basic Parts of an Engine
Review of the Four Stages of Operation
Engine Parts
THE LOWER-END ASSEMBLY · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 11

The Engine Block and the Cylinders
The Piston
The Piston Rings
The Movement of the Connecting Rod and Crankshaft
The Connecting Rod
The Crankshaft
The Engine Bearings
Engine Vibration
The Oil Pan
Crankshaft Seals
THE UPPER-END ASSEMBLY · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 50

The Cylinder Head
The Intake and Exhaust Valves
The Camshaft
The Valve Train Assembly
The Valve Train in an Overhead Valve Engine
The Valve Train in an Overhead Camshaft Engine
The Manifolds
The Engine Covers
SUMMARY · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 94
POWER CHECK ANSWERS · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 97
EXAMINATION · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 99
1
Automotive Engine Parts and Operation
THE FOUR STAGES OF ENGINE OPERATION
Introduction
As you learned in an earlier study unit, the engine is the automotive
system that produces the power for operation. This power is produced
when a mixture of air and fuel is burned inside the engine. Since the
fuel is burned inside the engine to produce power, an automotive en-
gine is called an internal combustion engine. The term combustion refers
to the burning of the air-and-fuel mixture.
The engines used in automobiles, light trucks, and sport-utility vehi-

cles are all gasoline-powered, internal combustion engines. In contrast,
the engines used in large trucks are usually powered by diesel fuel.
These engines are called diesel engines, and they’re different in con-
struction and operation from gasoline engines. Note that we’ll discuss
only gasoline-powered engines in this program.
In this study unit, we’ll look at the parts of an automotive engine and
learn how these parts contribute to overall engine operation. However,
before we begin to look at the parts of an engine, let’s quickly review
the four stages of engine operation. These stages of operation are
called the four-stroke engine cycle. When you’re studying engine con-
struction and repair, it’s very important to remember the four stages of
engine operation. Memorize these four stages well, and everything else
we talk about will fall right into place.
Review of the Basic Parts of an Engine

Let’s start by discussing some basic ideas we covered earlier in your
program. These topics are so important that it won't hurt to review
them. First, you know that an automotive engine produces power by
burning a mixture of air and fuel inside a closed cylinder. The basic
parts that make up an engine cylinder assembly are shown in Figure 1.
Note the round cylinder with the piston positioned inside it. The cylin-
der is a hollow metal tube that’s drilled into the metal engine block. The
piston is a can-shaped metal component that can move up and down
inside the cylinder. The piston is the main moving part in an engine.
2 Automotive Engine Parts and Operation
The top of the cylinder is sealed by a metal cover that’s called the cylin-
der head. The cylinder head is bolted onto the top of the cylinder.
When the piston is positioned at the very top of the cylinder, an open
area is still left above the piston. This area is in the cylinder head and is
called the combustion chamber. In the combustion chamber, a mixture of
air and gasoline is burned to produce power.
Note that the spark plug is screwed into a threaded hole in the cylinder
head. The end of the spark plug protrudes through the cylinder head
and into the combustion chamber. The spark plug is used to make
sparks that will ignite the air-and-fuel mixture in the cylinder and
cause it to burn.
The piston is connected to the crankshaft by the connecting rod. When

the piston is forced downward in the cylinder, the piston's downward
motion is transferred through the connecting rod to the crankshaft.
The rod and crankshaft then convert the up-and-down motion of the
piston into rotary motion.
Remember that some special terms are used to describe the exact posi-
tion of the piston in the cylinder. When a piston is at its lowest position
in the cylinder, it's said to be at bottom dead center (BDC). When the pis-
ton is at its highest position in the cylinder, it's said to be at top dead
center (TDC). The total distance that the piston moves from the top of
the cylinder to the bottom of the cylinder is called the stroke.
Note that the cylinder head contains valves that open and close during
engine operation. A four-stroke engine will contain two types of
valves: intake valves and exhaust valves. These valves are moved up and
down to make them open and close. The intake valve opens to allow
the air-and-fuel mixture to enter the cylinder. The exhaust valve opens
to allow the exhaust gases produced by the burning mixture to exit the
cylinder. When both valves are closed, the cylinder is sealed tightly.
In order to burn properly in an engine, fuel must be mixed with air.

Fuel from the fuel tank is vaporized and mixed with air in the engine.
The air-and-fuel mixture is then delivered to the cylinder through the
intake valve.
Review of the Four Stages of Operation

Now that we’ve reviewed some basic components of a typical engine,
let’s take a look how these components make the engine work. In or-
der to produce power, an engine must continually go through the
same four stages of operation. The stages are
1. Intake
2. Compression
Automotive Engine Parts and Operation 3
FIGURE 1—A simplified

drawing of part of a EXHAUST VALVE
four-stroke engine is INTAKE VALVE
shown here. Note the
CYLINDER HEAD
location of the cylinder,
piston, connecting rod,
crankshaft, combustion COMBUSTION
chamber, cylinder head, CHAMBER SPARK PLUG
spark plug, intake valve,
and exhaust valve.
CYLINDER
PISTON
CONNECTING ROD
CRANKSHAFT
3. Power
4. Exhaust
In the intake stage, air that has been mixed with fuel is drawn into the
cylinder. In the compression stage, the piston rises and compresses the
air-and-fuel mixture trapped in the combustion chamber. During the
power stage, the air-and-fuel mixture is ignited, and the contained ex-
plosion of the fuel forces the piston back down in the cylinder. The
downward motion of the piston is transferred to the rod and crank-
shaft. During the exhaust stage, the exhaust gases are released from the
cylinder. The four stages then begin all over again.
In order for any engine to operate, it must run through all four stages
of operation. In a four-stroke engine, the piston requires four strokes
(that is, two complete up movements and two complete down
movements) to complete one full engine cycle. In a four-stroke engine,
the four piston strokes complete the four stages of operation as follows:
Piston stroke 1: Intake stage
Piston stroke 2: Compression stage

Piston stroke 3: Power stage
Piston stroke 4: Exhaust stage
Now, let’s look at the four stages of operation more closely. During the
intake stage, the intake valve opens and the piston moves down in the
cylinder. As the piston moves down in the cylinder, a vacuum is cre-
ated. This vacuum draws the air-and-fuel mixture into the cylinder
through the open intake valve. (This is something like the vacuum cre-
ated when you use a straw to draw liquid up out of a glass.) The intake
stage continues until the piston reaches BDC. During the intake stage,
the engine’s exhaust valve remains closed. The intake stage is illus-
trated in Figure 2.
AIR-AND-FUEL MIXTURE
INTAKE VALVE (OPEN)
EXHAUST VALVE (CLOSED)
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
SPARK PLUG
PISTON BLOCK
(MOVES DOWN)
CONNECTING
ROD
CRANKSHAFT
FIGURE 2—During the intake stage, the piston lowers and causes the air-
and-fuel mixture to be drawn into the cylinder. The intake valve is open at
this time, and the exhaust valve is closed.
When the piston reaches BDC, the intake stage is completed and the
compression stage of the cycle begins. During this stage, both the in-
take and the exhaust valves are closed. The air-and-fuel mixture is now
trapped inside the sealed combustion chamber. At this point, the pis-
ton begins to rise, compressing the air-and-fuel mixture tightly. Com-
pressing the air-and-fuel mixture will make it ignite easier and burn
more efficiently, thus producing more power. The compression stage
is illustrated in Figure 3.

INTAKE VALVE (CLOSED)
CYLINDER HEAD
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
SPARK PLUG
AIR-AND-FUEL
MIXTURE
(IN COMBUSTION CHAMBER)
PISTON BLOCK
(MOVES UP)
CONNECTING
ROD
CRANKSHAFT
FIGURE 3—During the compression stage, both the intake and exhaust valve
are closed. As the piston rises, it compresses the air-and-fuel mixture in the
sealed combustion chamber.
The compression stage continues as the piston rises to the top of the
cylinder. As the piston approaches TDC, the engine's ignition system
causes the spark plug to “fire.” That is, the ignition system causes the
spark plug to make a spark. Naturally, when a spark is applied to a
compressed mixture of fuel and air, an explosion immediately occurs.
Remember that the process of burning the air-and-fuel mixture in the
cylinder is called combustion.
When the air-and-fuel mixture is ignited, the burning gases expand

rapidly with great force. Therefore, the contained explosion inside the
cylinder forces the piston down hard and fast. Since the piston is con-
nected to the crankshaft through the connecting rod, the piston's
downward movement causes the crankshaft to turn around, just like

COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
SPARK PLUG
FIRES
PISTON BLOCK
(MOVES DOWN)
CONNECTING
ROD
CRANKSHAFT
FIGURE 4—When the piston reaches TDC, the spark plug fires and ignites the
air-and-fuel mixture. The force created by the exploding fuel gases pushes
the piston down in the cylinder. This is the power stage.
pushing down on the pedals of a bicycle. This stage of burning the

mixture in the cylinder and forcing the piston downward is called the
power stage, which is illustrated in Figure 4.
The power stage continues until the piston reaches BDC. At this point,
the piston begins to move back upward in the cylinder, and the ex-
haust valve opens. However, the intake valve remains closed at this
time. As the piston moves upward in the cylinder, it forces the remain-
ing burned gases in the cylinder out through the open exhaust valve.
This is the exhaust stage, which is illustrated in Figure 5.
The exhaust stage continues until the piston reaches TDC. Once the ex-
haust stage is completed, the four stages of engine operation are fin-
ished, and the cycle begins all over again. The intake valve opens, the
piston moves downward to draw in more fuel, and a new intake stage
begins.
EXHAUST VALVE (OPEN)
EXHAUST
MANIFOLD
SPARK PLUG
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
BLOCK
PISTON
(MOVES UP)
CONNECTING
ROD
CRANKSHAFT
FIGURE 5—During the exhaust stage, the piston rises and the exhaust valve
opens. The rising piston pushes the remaining burned gases in the cylinder
out through the open exhaust valve.
One engine cycle is a complete run through all four stages of opera-
tion—intake, compression, power, and exhaust. After the completion
of the fourth piston stroke, the engine has gone through all four stages
of operation, and the cycle will begin again. Note that the four stages
of operation occur very quickly, and they repeat continually for as long
as the engine is running. All automotive engines operate in these same
four basic stages, and all the stages must occur in order for the engine
to run properly.
Engine Parts
Virtually all modern automobiles contain the four-stroke engines you
just learned about. A typical automotive engine is shown in Figure 6.
You'll see that an automotive engine is actually quite complex. Figure 7
shows a disassembled view of a typical engine. In the disassembled
FIGURE 6—An external view of a typical automotive engine is shown here.

(Used by permission of General Motors Corp.)
view, you can see all the component parts that make up the engine. In
this study unit, we’ll look at each of these components and how they
relate to the overall operation of the engine.
Since an engine contains so many different parts, it's usually easier to

break the engine into two separate sections for discussion. These two
sections are the lower end and the upper end. An engine’s lower end
contains the cylinder block, the cylinders, the piston, the connecting
rods, and the crankshaft assemblies. This area is called the lower end
because these components are usually located near the bottom of the
engine assembly. The basic function of the lower-end components is to
convert the up-and-down motion of the pistons into rotary motion that
can be used to power a vehicle. An engine’s upper end contains the
cylinder head, the valves, the valve train components, the manifolds,
and the engine covers. This area is called the upper end because these
components are located at the top of the engine assembly. The basic
function of the upper-end components is to control the flow of air-
and-fuel mixture into the engine, and the flow of exhaust gases out of
the engine after combustion.
Now, take a few moments to review what you’ve learned by complet-

ing Power Check 1.
FIGURE 7—A disassembled view of an engine is shown here.

Power Check 1
At the end of each section of Automotive Engine Parts and Operation, you’ll be asked to
pause and check your understanding of what you’ve just read by completing a “Power
Check” exercise. Writing the answers to these questions will help you to review what
you’ve studied so far. Please complete Power Check 1 now.
1–12: Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements.
1. One engine _______ is a complete run through all four stages of operation—intake,
compression, power, and exhaust.
2. When the piston is at its highest position in the cylinder, it's said to be at _______.
3. During the _______ stage, the air-and-fuel mixture is ignited, and the contained explo-
sion of the fuel presses the piston back down in the cylinder.
4. The burning of the air-and-fuel mixture in the cylinder is called _______.
5. The _______ is the total distance that the piston moves from the top of the cylinder to
the bottom of the cylinder.
6. The small open space between the top of the piston and the cylinder head is called the
_______.
7. The basic function of the _______ -end components is to control the flow of air-and-
fuel mixture into the engine, and the flow of exhaust gases out of the engine after com-
bustion.
8. In an engine, the _______ ignites the air-and-fuel mixture in the cylinder and causes it
to burn.
9. Air that has been mixed with fuel is drawn into the cylinder during the _______ stage.
10. In a four-stroke engine, the piston requires four strokes to complete one full _______.
11. During the _______ stage, burned gases are released from the cylinder.
12. An engine’s _______ contains the cylinder block, the cylinders, the piston, the connect-
ing rods, and the crankshaft assemblies.
Check your answers with those on page 97.

THE LOWER-END ASSEMBLY

An engine’s lower end contains several of the engine’s most important
parts. You’ve already learned the operation of some of these parts.
However, in this section you’ll learn about the following lower-end
components in more detail.
· Engine block
· Crankshaft
· Connecting rods
· Piston assembly
· Engine bearings
· Vibration dampeners
As you read through this section of your study unit, try to understand
what each individual part does, and also how each part works with the
other components to make the engine run. It’s important to remember
that the performance of one component often relies on the perform-
ance of another. Therefore, the way that the parts work together is just
as important as the individual function of each part.
The Engine Block and the Cylinders

If any one part could be considered to be the “main component” of an
engine, it would be the engine block. Almost all other engine compo-
nents are attached in some way to the engine block. Some parts fit in-
side the block, while others are bolted to the outside of the block.
The most important function of the engine block is to hold the pistons
inside the cylinders. The cylinders are deep, can-shaped holes that are
drilled into the engine block. The up-and-down movement of the pis-
tons inside the cylinders produces the power needed to operate the ve-
hicle. Therefore, the more cylinders an engine contains, the more
power it will produce.
A typical engine block is shown in Figure 8. Note that this block con-
tains four separate cylinders. Each cylinder will hold a piston that will
be used to produce power. An engine may contain any number of cyl-
inders, although modern automobiles usually contain either four, six,
or eight cylinders. Most engines will contain an even number of cylin-
ders in order to maintain a proper balance of weight and forces. Some
FIGURE 8—A typical engine block with four cylinders is shown here.
more unusual engines may contain up to twelve cylinders, but these

engines are usually found only in high-performance vehicles.
Since an engine block supports all the other engine components, it

must be solidly built. For this reason, most of today’s engine blocks are
made of cast iron. Cast-iron blocks are very strong and can be mass-
produced easily. However, one disadvantage of cast-iron engine
blocks is their extreme weight. Because cast iron is so heavy, some en-
gine blocks are made of aluminum instead of cast iron. However, alu-
minum engine blocks are quite expensive, so they’re usually found
only in expensive or high-performance automobiles.
Because aluminum is a very soft metal, each cylinder in an aluminum

engine block will usually be lined with a thin layer of steel that's
pressed into the block. This steel lining is called a cylinder sleeve. The
function of the cylinder sleeve is to prevent the soft aluminum cylinder
from wearing excessively as the piston rubs against it. In cast-iron
blocks, the cylinders may be machined directly into the block.
Now, let’s take a moment to examine the engine’s cylinders. In very

simple terms, an engine cylinder is a large hole that’s bored into the
cylinder block. The proper name for this hole in the engine block is the
cylinder bore, but it’s usually referred to as the cylinder. The inside sur-
faces of the bore are called the cylinder walls. Each bore is machined to
a precise diameter (width) so that a piston will fit inside it properly.
The bores are also very smooth inside, so the piston can slide up and
down easily inside the cylinder.
As you learned earlier, many vital engine parts are mounted on the en-
gine block. Therefore, an engine block must be carefully cut, drilled,
and machined so that it can hold all the engine components in the
proper alignment. The engine block must also be able to maintain its
proper alignment when it’s exposed to strong physical forces. For ex-
ample, the small explosions produced by the fuel burning inside the
cylinders apply very high stresses to the engine block. In order for the
engine to operate properly, the block must be able to maintain its
alignment even when it’s exposed to these stresses.
The burning of the fuel inside the engine creates a lot of heat as well as
a lot of force. Therefore, engine blocks must also be designed to with-
stand a wide range of temperatures. Take a moment to think about all
the different types of weather an automobile is driven in. Automobiles
are driven on cold days when the temperature is below freezing, and
on hot days when the temperature inside the engine can reach 200 de-
grees Fahrenheit or more. The engine block must be strong enough to
tolerate these temperature changes and the stresses they produce.
The engine block also contains the engine’s cooling system and lubrica-
tion system. The cooling system regulates the engine’s temperature, and
the lubrication system circulates lubricating oil to all of the engine’s
moving parts.
At this point, you may be wondering if all engine blocks are the same.
Well, all engine blocks perform the same functions and are designed in
a similar way. However, the exact shape, size, and features of an en-
gine block vary depending on the engine model and manufacturer.
Automotive engine blocks are usually classified in the following two
ways:
1. By the number of cylinders the block has
2. By the way the cylinders are arranged in the block
Most of us have heard an engine described by the number of cylinders

it has. When you purchase a car, one of the features that’s often
pointed out to you is the number of cylinders in the engine. For exam-
ple, a car may be described as having a six-cylinder engine or an
eight-cylinder engine. The number of cylinders simply refers to the to-
tal number of cylinder bores in the engine block.
The number of cylinders isn't the only factor that may differ between
engine blocks—the size of the cylinders may also vary. Therefore, it’s
possible for two different engines to contain the same number of cylin-
ders, but have different sizes. Remember that the size of an engine is
called the engine’s displacement. When you’re comparing two different
engines, the engine with the larger displacement will generally be
more powerful.
Engine blocks are often classified according to the arrangement of their

cylinders. The three most common cylinder arrangements used today
are the in-line arrangement, the V-type arrangement, and the horizontally
opposed arrangement. Let’s take a look at each of these types of engine

blocks.
An in-line engine (also called a straight engine) is an engine whose cyl-

inders are arranged in a straight line. An in-line engine block is shown
in Figure 9A. Note that all the cylinders in the engine block shown are
arranged ina straight line. In-line engines may contain any number of
cylinders; however, most automotive in-line engines contain either
four or six cylinders.
In contrast to the in-line engine just described, the cylinders in a V-type

engine are arranged in two separate rows, with an equal number of
cylinders in each row. The two cylinder rows are placed together at an
angle that resembles a letter V. A typical V-type engine block is shown
in Figure 9B. Like in-line engines, V-type engines can have any
number of cylinders. However, most V-type engines contain six or
eight cylinders. These engines are often called V-6 or V-8 engines.
The final type of cylinder arrangement is the horizontally opposed

engine or opposed engine. The cylinders in an opposed engine are ar-
ranged so that they’re directly across from one another. In most op-
posed engines, the cylinders are placed as shown in Figure 9C. These
engines aren’t as common as in-line and V-type engines; however,
CYLINDERS
CYLINDERS
(A) (B)
(C)
FIGURE 9—An example of an in-line engine block is shown in Figure 9A. Figure 9B shows the arrangement of
cylinders in a V-type engine. Figure 9C shows the arrangement of cylinders in an opposed engine.
opposed engines are used widely by manufacturers such as Volks-

wagen and Subaru.
Now that you have a basic understanding of the engine block, let’s move
on to other lower-end components.
The Piston
The piston is one of the hardest-working parts in an engine. Remember
that the piston forms the bottom part of the combustion chamber where
the fuel is burned. This means that a piston must be able to withstand
the extreme heat produced by the burning air-and-fuel mixture as well
as the physical forces produced during the power stage.
Each cylinder in an engine contains its own piston. The parts of a typi-
cal automotive piston are shown in Figure 10A. As you can see, a pis-
ton is shaped rather like a soup can. The pistons used in modern
automotive engines are usually made of aluminum.
Now, observe all the parts of the piston carefully. Let’s begin with the
very top of the piston, which is called the piston head. Depending on
the type of engine, a piston head may be perfectly flat, like the one
shown in Figure 10B, or it may be slightly raised, like the one shown in
Figure 10C. A piston with a flat head is called a flat-topped piston, while
a piston with a raised head is called a domed piston. You may also see
small indentations in the piston head. These indentations allow extra
FIGURE 10—The parts of a

typical automotive piston
are shown in Figure 10A.
Some common piston
head shapes are shown in
Figure 10B and 10C.
piston-to-valve clearance for the engine valves so they won’t strike the
piston head when the engine is running.
Note that the piston isn’t a completely solid metal “can.” The top half
of the piston is solid metal, but the lower portion of the piston is hol-
low inside. The sides of the piston that extend downward from the
solid portion are called the piston skirts. The skirts prevent the piston
from rocking in the cylinder as it moves up and down. If a piston
didn't have a skirt, it would wobble from side to side inside the cylin-
der instead of moving straight up and down. Also, note that the skirt
doesn’t go all the way around the bottom of the piston. To save weight
and allow clearance for the crankshaft, most pistons have skirts only
on the sides that receive the most forces. The exact design of the skirt-
ing varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, but most engine pis-
tons have a similar shape.
All automotive pistons are fitted with steel rings called piston rings.
The piston rings are placed around the outside of the piston, and fit
into slots or grooves that are machined into the outside of the piston.
These machined slots are called the piston ring grooves, and the small
areas between the grooves are called the ring lands. The typical piston
has three grooves, and therefore holds three rings. When the piston—
with its rings installed—is placed in a cylinder, the piston rings seal the
area between the cylinder wall and the side of the piston.
Also note that a piston has a hole machined through it. This hole,
called the piston pin hole or the wrist pin hole, is used to connect the pis-
ton to the connecting rod. A round, thick steel pin called a piston pin or
a wrist pin is placed through the hole to connect the piston to the con-
necting rod. When the piston and the connecting rod are joined to-
gether, the piston fits over the top of the connecting rod. The piston
pin fits through the hole in the piston, and then passes through the
hole in the top end of the connecting rod. Several methods are used to
keep the wrist pin from falling out while the engine is running. These
will be discussed later in this unit.
Most pistons aren’t perfectly round, although they may appear to be

round at first glance. Actually, most pistons are slightly oval in shape
(Figure 11A). You can see in Figure 11A that an oval-shaped piston has
different values for dimensions D1 and D2. The third piston shown in
Figure 11A is a circle with the diameter, D1 equal to D2. Pistons are
oval for two basic reasons. First, a piston comes into direct contact with
the burning fuel in a cylinder, and the high combustion temperatures
cause the piston to expand as an engine runs. Second, a great deal of
stress is placed on a piston as it moves up and down in a cylinder. The
heat and forces placed on a piston distort it as it moves up and down
in the cylinder. The oval shape takes this distortion into account, so
when an oval piston is distorted by heat and stress, it actually becomes
almost perfectly round. So, to make the piston almost perfectly round
when it gets hot, the piston is deliberately made out-of-round.
These oval-shaped pistons are often called cam ground. The smaller di-
ameter of the oval is along the same line as the piston pin hole, while
the larger diameter of the oval is directly opposite the piston pin hole.
Most of the stress that’s placed on a piston during the power stroke is
applied to the side of the piston that’s opposite from the piston pin.
This area opposite the piston pin is called the thrust face of the piston.
Because the thrust face receives most of the forces during the power
stroke, this side of the piston is made wider.
Pistons aren’t only made slightly out-of-round, they’re also usually

tapered slightly from top to bottom. That is, the diameter of the piston
head is slightly smaller that the diameter of the piston skirt
(Figure 11B). Again, the piston is made with a taper because of heat ex-
pansion. As the aluminum piston gets hot, it expands in the cylinder.
However, the piston head is directly in contact with the burning air-
and-fuel mixture, while the skirt is farther away from the heat source.
As a result, the piston head will expand more than the piston skirt. To
compensate for these differences in expansion, a piston will be made
slightly larger at the bottom than at the top.
Now, let’s look at how the piston fits into the cylinder block. As stated
earlier, each engine cylinder has its own separate piston. The piston fits
FIGURE 11—Most pistons are slightly oval in shape, as shown in Figure 11A. When an oval-shaped piston
heats up during operation, it becomes almost perfectly round in shape. Pistons are also made with a slight
taper. That is, the diameter of the piston head is slightly smaller than the diameter of the piston skirt, as
shown in Figure 11B. Figure 11C shows the thrust face of the piston, located opposite the piston pin. The
thrust face is pressed into the cylinder wall somewhat during the power stage.
into the cylinder as shown in Figure 12. Remember that the piston’s
most important function is to transfer the force produced by the burn-
ing air-and-fuel mixture into usable power. During the power stage,
the piston is forced downward in the cylinder very quickly. As the pis-
ton moves down, it transfers its force to the connecting rods, and then
to the crankshaft. The piston also performs several other important func-
tions during engine operation. For example, the piston helps to create a
vacuum in the cylinder during the intake stage. It also compresses the
air-and-fuel mixture during the compression stage, and forces the
burned exhaust gases out of the cylinder during the exhaust stage.
FIGURE 12—The piston fits

into a cylinder as shown
here.
The Piston Rings

In order for a piston to properly perform all of its functions, there must
be a good seal between the side of the piston and the cylinder wall. If
gases in the combustion chamber are allowed to leak past the piston,
the engine will produce very little compression and very little power.
Therefore, the piston rings are used to help form a seal between the
piston and the cylinder walls. The piston rings are placed in grooves
that are cut into the outside of the piston. As the piston moves up and
down in the cylinder, the piston ring edges will slide along the cylin-
der walls, which helps the piston form a tight seal against the walls.
Note that a piston ring isn’t a completely solid ring; instead, it’s usu-
ally split at one point. This split or gap in the ring is called the ring end
gap (Figure 13). The ring end gap allows the ring to expand and con-
tract as the temperature changes.
FIGURE 13—A typical

piston ring is shown
here. This ring is made
from layers of cast iron
and an alloy called
molybdenum. Note the
position of the ring end
gap.
Piston rings are made to be slightly larger in diameter than the cylinder.
Since they’re larger in diameter, the piston ring ends must be pushed to-
gether in order for the ring to fit into the cylinder. Once a ring is inside a
cylinder, it will spring back out to return to its original size. Thus, the
ring presses tightly outward against the cylinder wall. This spring pres-
sure allows the piston rings to form a seal and prevent leakage between
the rings and the cylinder wall (Figure 14).
COMPRESSION
RINGS
OIL
CONTROL
RING
CYLINDER WALL
FIGURE 14—Shown here is an automotive piston with its three rings installed
on it. Note how the rings contact the cylinder walls to form a tight seal.
Since the alloy layer of the piston rings slide against a cast-iron cylin-
der wall, you may wonder about the problem of friction and wear.
Well, over time, piston rings will wear out to a point where they can
no longer seal the cylinder properly. Therefore, to help reduce the
amount of piston ring wear, lubricating oil is splashed onto the cylin-
der walls when the engine is running. This oil keeps the cylinder walls
well lubricated so the piston rings will slide along them easily. The oil
reduces the amount of friction and wear on the rings, so piston rings
usually last a very long time before they become too worn to seal
properly.
The amount of time that piston rings last depends on the quality of the
maintenance that's performed on the engine. Dirt is the greatest enemy
of piston rings. Any dirt that’s allowed to get into the cylinder will
wear out the rings faster. Therefore, it's very important to properly
maintain an engine by changing the oil, oil filter, and air filter at regu-
lar intervals. A well-maintained engine can usually run over 100,000
miles without much wear. However, an engine that isn't properly
maintained will wear out much more quickly. Much of the wear that
occurs will be in the piston rings.
Most automotive pistons contain three piston rings. The design of each
ring varies slightly, and each has a specific purpose. The top two rings
are called compression rings. The compression rings are used to prevent
any gases from leaking out of the combustion chamber and past the
rings. Since these two rings perform the same function, they’re usually
similar in shape; in fact, in many engines, the two compression rings
are identical. The third piston ring is an oil control ring. The oil control
ring has a different function than the compression rings. The oil con-
trol ring’s function is to prevent the oil on the cylinder walls from leak-
ing past the rings and into the combustion chamber. To perform this
function, the oil control ring scrapes excess oil down off the cylinder
wall during each downward piston stroke.
Now, let’s examine the different types of piston rings in more detail.
Compression Rings
As we just mentioned, compression rings seal in the pressure created

in the combustion chamber during the compression and power stages.
During these stages, the pressure in the combustion chamber is quite
high. If the pressure in the combustion chamber was allowed to leak
out, the engine wouldn’t develop much power, and might actually fail
to run. For this reason, the compression rings perform one of the most
important functions inside the engine. Naturally, the piston rings can’t
seal the cylinder completely; however, the amount of leakage must be
kept to a minimum, or performance problems will occur. Leakage in
only one cylinder is enough to cause a noticeable power loss in the
engine.
Any compression gases that do find their way past the rings and into
the engine block’s lower area are called blow-by gases. You may hear
someone say that an engine “has blow-by” or “has too much blow-
by.” This means that the engine’s piston rings are worn or damaged in
some way, allowing combustion gases to leak past the rings and into
the engine block’s lower area. (The engine block’s lower area is called
the crankcase, since this part of the engine block holds the crankshaft.)
Compression rings are made in many different styles, depending on

the engine make and model; however, their overall shapes are similar.
Figure 15 shows some typical compression rings. Note that some rings
have square edges, and some have beveled edges. Compression rings
can also be made of different metals. Some rings are made of cast iron,
but most are made of iron or steel alloys. Since the exact shape of the
rings varies slightly depending on the engine make and model, when
you're replacing rings, it's important to use the exact rings that were
intended for the vehicle. Also, you must always make sure that com-
pression rings are reinstalled in their correct positions.
FIGURE 15—Some typi-

cal compression rings
are shown here.
VERTICAL GAP
DIAGONAL GAP
STEP GAP
Let’s take a closer look at exactly how compression rings seal the cylin-
der. First, remember that spring tension in the rings keeps them
pressed out against the cylinder walls to form a seal. Compression
rings must be flexible so that they can flex slightly without breaking.
As the piston moves up and down in the cylinder, this flexibility tends
to force one edge of the compression ring against the cylinder wall,
thus forming a tighter seal.
The compressed gases in the combustion chamber also help the rings
form a seal. In most cases, when a ring is installed on a piston, a small
space is left between the groove and the piston ring. When the engine
is in its compression and power stages, the pressurized gases in the com-
bustion chamber force their way into the small space behind the piston
ring (Figure 16). This pressure behind the ring pushes the ring harder
into the cylinder wall. This action helps the rings seal the cylinder better.
In the other stages of the engine cycle, no pressure is created behind the
ring, so the ring can easily glide along the lubricated cylinder wall.
COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
CYLINDER
WALL
PISTON
PISTON
RING
(A) (B) (C)

RING DURING RING DURING RING DURING
INTAKE STROKE COMPRESSION POWER STROKE
AND EXHAUST
STROKE
FIGURE 16—When the piston moves down during the intake stage, the piston rings scrape excess oil off the
cylinder walls. During the compression and exhaust stages, the rings glide along the walls. During the
power stage, the pressurized gases in the combustion chamber get into the small spaces behind the piston
rings and help them form a tighter seal against the cylinder wall.
Oil Control Rings
As you’ve learned, wear on the compression rings is reduced by the

coating of oil on the cylinder walls. Well, the oil coating also assists in
sealing the cylinder. Since oil is a thick liquid, it tends to stick to both
the cylinder wall and the piston rings, which helps to seal the cylinder
better.
However, what happens if there’s too much oil on the cylinder walls?
The rings will slip and won’t be able to seal properly. Also, oil may
leak past the rings and into the combustion chamber. Therefore, a spe-
cial piston ring called an oil control ring is used to control this prob-
lem. The oil control ring scrapes most of the oil off the cylinder wall
with each downward piston stroke. Naturally, the rings don’t scrape
off all the oil—a film of oil is left on the wall to lubricate the compres-
sion rings.
Oil control rings are designed differently from compression rings. A

typical oil control ring consists of three separate pieces (Figure 17): two
very thin metal rings called scrapers, and a spacer ring called an ex-
pander placed in the groove between them. The scraper rings are much
thinner than the compression rings, and a lot more flexible. As the pis-
ton moves up and down in the cylinder, the scraper rings flex, which
forces their edges into the cylinder wall. The edges of the scraper rings
slide along the cylinder wall, scraping the majority of the oil off the
cylinder wall, and leaving only a thin coating of oil behind. The ex-
pander ring doesn’t contact the cylinder wall—it simply keeps the two
scraper rings in their proper positions.
FIGURE 17—A typical oil

control ring consists of
three separate pieces
as shown. SCRAPER
EXPANDER
SCRAPER
You may wonder what happens to the oil that’s scraped off the cylin-
der wall. In most cases, the oil simply drops down into the crankcase.
However, some oil will be caught between the two scraper rings. This
oil then escapes through drilled holes near the oil control ring grooves.
These holes allow any oil that’s caught between the two scraper rings
to pass through the piston, and then drop down into the crankcase.
As you can see, oil control rings are important because they keep the
cylinder walls lubricated. In addition, they also help to keep the engine
running properly. During the intake stage, the piston moves down-
ward to create a vacuum in the combustion chamber. If the oil control
rings didn't keep excess oil off the cylinder walls at that time, the ex-
cess oil would be drawn up into the combustion chamber. In the cham-
ber, the oil would be burned along with the air-and-fuel mixture.
Burning oil will produce a blue-colored smoke from the exhaust pipe,
and also cause the engine to consume an excessive amount of oil. In
fact, if a large amount of oil enters the combustion chamber, it can coat
the end of the spark plug and prevent it from igniting the air-and-fuel
mixture properly. This would reduce the amount of power the engine
produces.
Now that you understand the function of the piston and rings, let’s re-
view how the piston works with the other engine components to pro-
duce usable power in a vehicle.
The Movement of the Connecting Rod and Crankshaft

Remember that a piston is forced down in its cylinder by expanding
gases in the combustion chamber. This downward movement of the
piston is then converted to rotary motion by the crankshaft. In order
for this to occur, the piston must somehow be connected to the crank-
shaft. Figure 18 shows a typical piston-and-crankshaft system. Note
that the pistons are connected to the crankshaft by the connecting rods.
As the pistons move up and down in the cylinder, the connecting rods
push up and down on the crankshaft to turn it.
FIGURE 18—This figure shows a typical piston-and-crankshaft system.
The action of the piston and crankshaft is similar to the pedaling of a

bicycle. When you’re on a bicycle, your upper body can be compared
to a piston, your legs can be compared to the connecting rods, and the
bicycle pedals can be compared to the crankshaft. As you pedal the bi-
cycle, your legs move up and down to push on the pedals. As you
push on the pedals, the pedal assembly rotates and moves the bicycle
forward (Figure 19). The same action occurs in an automotive engine.
As the pistons are forced downward, the connecting rods push on the
crankshaft and cause the crankshaft to rotate, thus moving the vehicle.
As the crankshaft rotates, the lower ends of the connecting rods move
around with the crankshaft, and eventually return to their original po-
sition. You may wonder how the pistons are moved back up in their
cylinders. Well, in general, the crankshaft rotation itself is sufficient to
force the pistons back up in their cylinders. During the power stage,
the pistons move downward with so much force that the crankshaft is
FIGURE 19—The turning of a crankshaft is similar to the pedaling of a bicycle.
rotated. This force is so great that the crankshaft will continue to rotate
even after the pistons stop moving downward. Therefore, even if an
engine has only one cylinder, enough rotational force is placed on the
crankshaft to keep it turning so it pushes the piston back upward in
the cylinder. You can observe a similar situation with a bicycle. If you
pedal a bike fast and then take your feet off the pedals, the pedals will
keep rotating due to the force that was created.
Naturally, automotive engines have more than one cylinder. The more
cylinders the engine has, the more power it will produce. This can
again be compared to the pedaling of a bicycle. When you pedal a bi-
cycle with both legs, more power will be produced than if you pedal
with just one leg. It’s also important to remember that power is applied
unevenly in an engine. That is, the cylinders go through their power
stages at different times. This is the same in a bicycle—first, you push
one pedal down, then the other. This alternating between pedals is the
same thing that occurs with the power stages in an engine. In an en-
gine with several cylinders, the power stage of each cylinder occurs at
a different time. This method provides smooth engine operation and
helps to keep engine vibration to a minimum.
In a multicylinder engine, the process of moving the pistons back up in

the cylinders is easier than in a single-cylinder engine, because all the
pistons are connected to the same crankshaft. Therefore, since the
power stages in all the cylinders occur at different times, an almost
constant force is placed on the crankshaft. This constant force keeps the
crankshaft rotating smoothly, and thus forces the pistons back up in
the cylinders.
The Connecting Rod

As you’ve learned, the connecting rod connects the piston to the crank-
shaft. The connecting rod must be strong and capable of withstanding
a lot of force, because all the combustion forces placed on the piston
will be transferred to the connecting rod. Almost all automotive con-
necting rods today are made of cast iron, although some high-
performance engines may contain steel, titanium, or even aluminum
connecting rods. In addition, since the lower end of the connecting rod
must rotate with the crankshaft, the connecting rod must be able to
pivot at each end.
A view of all the parts of a connecting rod is shown in Figure 20. Note
that most connecting rods are made in two pieces. The top end of the
rod has a small hole machined through it. A round steel pin is placed
through this hole to connect the rod to the piston. The opposite end of
the rod connects to the crankshaft. That end of the rod is usually split
into two halves as shown in the figure. The top half of the rod end fits
over the crankshaft journal. The lower half of the rod end, called the
bearing cap, is then placed under the crankshaft journal and is fastened
with the two retaining bolts (Figure 21). These retaining bolts are
called rod bolts. Once connected, the connecting rod can rotate freely on
the crankshaft journal.
FIGURE 20—A view of all the parts of a connecting rod is shown here.
Remember that as the connecting rod rotates on the crankshaft journal,

wear will rapidly occur unless something is placed between the parts
to reduce the friction. Unlike piston rings, which have relatively small
forces applied to them, connecting rods receive very high stresses.
Therefore, a coating of oil isn’t enough to protect a connecting rod.
FIGURE 21—The piston

and connecting rod
are attached to a
crankshaft journal as
shown. The rod fits over
the top of the rod jour-
nal, and the cap fits up
under the journal. The
rod bolts are then used
to fasten the cap to the
rod.
For this reason, bearings are used to reduce friction. A bearing is a com-
ponent that helps reduce the friction between two metal parts. Many
types of bearings are used in an engine. A bearing can be either a one-
piece or two-piece type. The one-piece type of bearing is called a bush-
ing. In the connecting rod, a two-piece bearing called a shell-type bearing
or a bearing insert is used to reduce friction. In Figure 20, note the two
thin, half-moon-shaped bearing inserts in the lower end of the connect-
ing rod. The bearing inserts are made of a softer metal than the con-
necting rod, so they form a lining that helps to reduce wear on the
connecting rod itself. The bearing inserts, along with proper oil lubri-
cation, reduce the amount of friction between the connecting rod and
the crankshaft journal while still allowing the rod to rotate freely.
Now that you’ve seen how the connecting rod attaches to the crank-
shaft, let’s take a closer look at how the other end of the rod attaches to
the piston. Remember that the connecting rod is attached to the piston
with a piston pin. Once in place, the connecting rod can pivot back and
forth freely under the piston, similarly to the way your hand can pivot
back and forth on your wrist. To prevent friction and wear, some type
of bearing must be used on this end of the connecting rod. The type of
bearing that’s used depends on the design of the rod.
In general, the connecting rod can be attached to the piston in one of

three ways. Each of these ways uses a wrist pin—the difference is in
how the two parts are connected. The first and most common method
of connecting the piston to the connecting rod is shown in Figure 22. In
this method, the piston is placed over the end of the connecting rod;
then, the wrist pin is inserted through the hole in the piston and into
the hole in the end of the rod. The diameter of the piston pin hole is
slightly larger than the diameter of the piston pin, so the pin can rotate
freely in the hole. Since the wrist pin is tightly press-fitted into the end
of the connecting rod, the pin will move and pivot with the connecting
FIGURE 22—In the most

common method of
connecting the piston
to the connecting rod,
the piston is placed
over the end of the
connecting rod. The
wrist pin is then inserted
thorough the hole in
the piston and pressed
into the hole in the end
of the rod.
rod. This tight fit prevents the wrist pin from falling out when the en-
gine is running. In this method, the soft aluminum of the piston itself is
used as the bearing—no additional bearing insert is necessary.
Now, let’s look at another method of connecting the piston and the
connecting rod. In this second method, a thin bushing of soft material
is inserted into the hole on the end of the connecting rod. The hole in
the bushing is slightly larger in diameter than the wrist pin, which al-
lows the wrist pin to rotate easily in the bushing. The diameter of the
piston hole is slightly smaller than the wrist pin. To connect the two
parts together, the piston is placed over the end of the connecting rod,
and the wrist pin is then press-fitted into the piston hole and through
the bushing in the end of the connecting rod. Since the wrist pin is
tightly pressed into the piston hole, the pin moves and rotates with the
piston rather than with the connecting rod, and the connecting rod ro-
tates easily on the pin. Since the wrist pin is press-fitted into the piston,
it’s held tightly in place and won’t fall out during engine operation.
The third method of connecting the connecting rod and the piston is a
combination of the two methods previously described. In this method,
the piston is placed over the end of the connecting rod, and the piston
pin is inserted through the holes in the piston and the rod end. Because
the diameter of the pin is smaller than both the piston hole and the
bushing, the pin slides easily through the holes. To hold the pin in
place, small wire retaining clips are placed at each end of the wrist pin.
The retaining clips fit into small grooves that are machined into the
two ends of the piston hole. Once in place, the clips prevent the pin
from falling out. In this method, the wrist pin can rotate freely in both
the piston and the end of the connecting rod.
As you can see, several different methods can be used to attach a con-
necting rod to a piston. However, no matter what method is used, the
overall function is the same—to attach the piston securely to the con-
necting rod while still allowing the rod to pivot back and forth.
The Crankshaft
The crankshaft is the main rotating part in the engine. The crankshaft’s
function is to convert the up-and-down motion of the piston into ro-
tary motion that can be used to power the vehicle. A crankshaft is
mounted in an engine’s crankcase (the lower area of the engine block).
Bearing inserts are used to allow it to rotate freely. The connecting rods
are attached to the crankshaft, and when the force from the pistons is
transmitted to the crankshaft, it makes the crankshaft rotate.
Now, let’s take a look at the parts of a typical crankshaft. The exact
crankshaft design depends on the engine’s make and model; however,
all crankshafts have the same basic parts. A typical automotive crank-
shaft is shown in Figure 23. The most important parts of the crankshaft
are the crankshaft journals. There are two types of journals on a crank-
shaft—the rod journals and the main journals. The connecting rods are
attached to the rod journals. The main journals are used to mount the
crankshaft to the engine block. Each journal has a wide, smooth sur-
face that’s machined to the exact size to hold a bearing. The journals
are all highly polished and are machined to be perfectly round so that
they’ll rotate easily inside the bearings.
FIGURE 23—A typical crankshaft is shown here. (Photo by Lunati Cams, Inc.)
Since the crankshaft must be able to rotate within the engine block, the
main journals are placed directly in line with the crankshaft’s center-
line. In contrast, the rod journals are offset slightly from the crank-
shaft’s centerline. This offset placement provides the means to convert
the rod’s up-and-down motion into rotary motion. Just as the pedals of
a bicycle are placed away from the centerline, the connecting rods are
mounted so that they’re offset slightly from the crankshaft’s center.
The distance the rod journals are offset from the centerline is called the
crankshaft throw.
The rod journals are not only spaced away from the crankshaft’s cen-
terline—they’re also spaced apart from one another. This staggering of
the rod journals is the feature that allows each cylinder to reach its
power stage at a different time. In almost all engines, the rod journals
are spaced evenly around the crankshaft.
Figure 24 contains a simplified drawing of the parts of a typical crank-

shaft in a four-cylinder engine. Notice that the rod journals on this
crankshaft are placed directly opposite one another. When one piston
is at TDC, another is at BDC. Remember that the power stage in each
cylinder occurs once for every two rotations of the crankshaft. Since
the crankshaft’s rod journals are spaced apart from one another, each
cylinder will be at a different point in the engine cycle at any given
time. For example, Cylinder 1 could be performing its power stage,
while Cylinder 4 is on its intake stage. The crankshaft design, espe-
cially the rod journal spacing, makes this possible.
ROD BEARING JOURNAL MAIN BEARING JOURNAL FLYWHEEL END
FRONT END
THROW
THROW
MAIN BEARING JOURNAL MAIN BEARING JOURNAL

ROD BEARING JOURNAL
FIGURE 24—This figure shows the parts of a typical crankshaft for a four-cylinder engine.
To get a better understanding of just how this works, let’s look at the
crankshaft of a typical four-cylinder, in-line engine as it performs two
complete rotations. In Figure 25, the crankshaft is shown in its “start-
ing” position. At this time, because of the crankshaft design, you can
see that two pistons are at TDC and two pistons are at BDC. Let’s as-
sume that Cylinder 1 is now in its power stage, and Piston 1 is being
forced downward.
Now, let’s look at what’s occurring in the other cylinders at this same
time. Piston 2 is now moving up, and Cylinder 2 is currently in its ex-
haust stage. Piston 3 is also moving up, but Cylinder 3 is now in its
compression stage. Finally, Piston 4 is moving down, and Cylinder 4 is
in its intake stage.
Next, let’s rotate the crankshaft one-half turn. The crankshaft in this
new position is shown in Figure 26. At this time, you can see that
Cylinder 1 has completed its power stage. Piston 1 is moving up, and
Cylinder 1 is entering its exhaust stage. Cylinder 2 has completed its
exhaust stage, and Piston 2 is moving down in the cylinder to perform
the intake stage. Cylinder 3 has completed its compression stage, the
spark plug has ignited the fuel mixture, and Piston 3 is moving down
to start its power stage. Finally, Cylinder 4 has completed its intake
stage, and Piston 4 is moving up to perform the compression stage.
PISTON 1 PISTON 2 PISTON 3 PISTON 4

CYLINDER 1 CYLINDER 2 CYLINDER 3 CYLINDER 4
POWER EXHAUST COMPRESSION INTAKE
FIGURE 25—At the beginning of the crankshaft rotation, two pistons are at TDC and two pistons are at BDC.
Piston 1 is moving down, and Cylinder 1 is in its power stage. Piston 2 is moving up, and Cylinder 2 is in its
exhaust stage. Piston 3 is moving up, and Cylinder 3 is in its compression stage. Piston 4 is moving down,
and Cylinder 4 is in its intake stage.
Now, let’s rotate the engine another one-half turn. This new crankshaft
position is illustrated in Figure 27. At this point, we’ve rotated the en-
gine a total of one complete turn from where we started. Notice that
the cylinders appear to be in the same position as when we started.
That is true; however, the stages that each cylinder is currently under-
going are quite different. For example, Piston 1 is beginning to move
down again; however, this time it’s performing the intake stage in
Cylinder 1. Piston 2 is moving up, performing the compression stage
in Cylinder 2. Cylinder 3 has completed its power stage, and Piston 3 is
moving back up to perform its exhaust stage. Finally, Cylinder 4 has
completed its compression stage, the spark plug has ignited the fuel
mixture, and Piston 4 is moving down to perform its power stage.
Next, let’s rotate the engine another one-half turn. This will make a to-
tal of 1 1 2 revolutions from where we started in Figure 25. This new
crankshaft position is shown in Figure 28. In this position, Cylinder 1
has completed its intake stage, and Piston 1 is moving upward to per-
form its compression stage. Cylinder 2 has completed its compression
stage, the spark plug has ignited the mixture, and Piston 2 is now mov-
ing down to perform its power stage. Cylinder 3 has competed its ex-
haust stage, and Piston 3 is moving down to perform its intake stage.

EXHAUST INTAKE POWER COMPRESSION
FIGURE 26—In this illustration, the crankshaft has rotated one-half turn from its previous position in Figure 25.
The power stage in Cylinder 1 has now been completed. Piston 1 is now coming up, and Cylinder 1 is enter-
ing its exhaust stage. The exhaust stage has been completed in Cylinder 2, and Piston 2 is moving down to
perform its intake stage. The compression stage has been completed in Cylinder 3, and Piston 3 is moving
down to perform its power stage. The intake stage has been completed in Cylinder 4, and Piston 4 is now
moving up to perform its compression stage.
Finally, Cylinder 4 has completed its power stage, and Piston 4 is mov-
ing up to perform the exhaust stage.
Now, let’s rotate the crankshaft an additional one-half turn as shown

in Figure 29. This makes a total of two complete crankshaft revolu-
tions, and as you can see, all the cylinders are back to the stages they
started from in Figure 25. Cylinder 1 is in its power stage, Cylinder 2 is
in its exhaust stage, Cylinder 3 is in its compression stage, and Cylin-
der 4 is in its intake stage.
Notice that in the two complete crankshaft revolutions we observed,

each separate cylinder completed all four engine cycles in the proper
order (intake, compression, power, exhaust). However, each cylinder
completed its stages at a different time from the other three cylinders.
That is, each cylinder completed its power stage at a different time. En-
gine cylinders are designed to work in this way in order to keep the
physical forces in the engine balanced. If all the cylinders entered their
power stages at the same time, the force of all four power stages com-
bined would throw the engine off balance and probably damage it.

INTAKE COMPRESSION EXHAUST POWER
FIGURE 27—In this illustration, the crankshaft has rotated another one-half turn. The exhaust stage in Cylin-
der 1 has now been completed, and Piston 1 is now moving down to perform its intake stage. The intake
stage has been completed in Cylinder 2, and Piston 2 is moving up to perform its compression stage. The
power stage has been completed in Cylinder 3, and Piston 3 is moving up to perform its exhaust stage. The
compression stage has been completed in Cylinder 4, and Piston 4 is now moving down to perform its
power stage.
The order in which an engine’s cylinders complete their power stages

is called the firing order for the engine. In our example, Cylinder 1 com-
pleted its power stage first, followed by Cylinder 3, Cylinder 4, and
finally, Cylinder 2. This means that the firing order for this particular
engine is 1-3-4-2. You’ll learn about the firing order of engines more in
a later study unit. The important point to remember for now is that the
crankshaft's journals are spaced on the crankshaft in order to allow
each cylinder to complete all four stages of the engine cycle within two
crankshaft revolutions. This applies to any type of automotive engine.
A V-type engine operates in the same manner. Each cylinder has its
power stage at a different time, and all cylinders complete the four
stages within two crankshaft revolutions.
The appearance of an engine’s crankshaft depends on the number of

cylinders the engine has. For example, a six-cylinder, in-line engine has
six crankshaft rod journals spaced equally on the crankshaft (Figure 30).
Another example is the V-8 crankshaft shown in Figure 31. Note that
this crankshaft looks different from the in-line crankshaft. In a V-8 en-
gine, when the rod journals are spread evenly around the crankshaft,
some of the rod journals end up in the same positions. Therefore,

COMPRESSION POWER INTAKE EXHAUST
FIGURE 28—In this illustration, the crankshaft has rotated another one-half turn. The intake stage in Cylinder
1 has now been completed, and Piston 1 is moving up to perform its compression stage. The compression
stage has been completed in Cylinder 2, and Piston 2 is moving down to perform its power stage. The ex-
haust stage has been completed in Cylinder 3, and Piston 3 is moving down to perform its intake stage. The
power stage has been completed in Cylinder 4, and Piston 4 is now moving up to perform its exhaust stage.
instead of having eight separate rod journals, the crankshaft simply

uses four extra-wide rod journals. These journals are wide enough to
allow two connecting rods to be attached to each journal. Therefore,
even though the crankshaft has only four rod journals, eight connect-
ing rods (one for each cylinder) can be attached to the crankshaft.
Because the crankshaft must be able to withstand the tremendous

forces applied during the engine’s power stages, it must be very
strong. A typical automotive crankshaft is usually made of cast iron or
forged steel, and is usually fairly heavy. In addition, because a crank-
shaft rotates very fast when it’s operating (sometimes thousands of
times per minute), the crankshaft must be balanced so that it won’t vi-
brate. Most crankshafts contain built-in weights called counterweights
to help maintain their balance during engine operation. These weights
compensate for the weight of the pistons and connecting rods that are
placed on the crankshaft, keeping it perfectly balanced.
The crankshaft also contains a stub on its front end that’s used for
mounting other engine components, and a flange on its rear end that's
used to hold the attachment components that connect the engine to the
transmission.

POWER EXHAUST COMPRESSION INTAKE
FIGURE 29—In this illustration, the crankshaft has rotated another one-half turn. At this point, we’ve rotated
the crankshaft two complete turns, and are back to the position we started at in Figure 25. Cylinder 1 is in its
power stage, Cylinder 2 is in its exhaust stage, Cylinder 3 is in its compression stage, and Cylinder 4 is in its
intake stage.
FIGURE 30—A six-cylinder,

in-line engine crankshaft
will contain six rod jour-
nals spaced equally
along the crankshaft.
FIGURE 31—This V-8 crank-

shaft has only four rod
journals. However, each
rod journal is designed
double-wide to hold two
connecting rods. Thus, the
crankshaft will be turned by
a total of eight rods.
As you learned earlier, the crankshaft is mounted in the crankcase, and

soft bearing inserts are used to help reduce friction. To further reduce
friction, a film of oil is applied between each bearing and the crank-
shaft. Because the space between the bearing and the crankshaft
journal (called the bearing clearance) is so small, it isn't possible to
splash oil onto the surface. Instead, a small pump is used to pump
pressurized oil to the bearing inserts. This oil enters the bearing clear-
ance area through small passages that are drilled inside the crankshaft.
Figure 32 shows the oil passages of a typical crankshaft. Notice how
the passages deliver oil to both the main bearing journals and the con-
necting rod journals.
FIGURE 32—This illustration shows the oil passages of a typical crankshaft.
The bearing clearance is small enough to prevent the oil from flowing
out easily, therefore maintaining lubrication. In fact, the bearing clear-
ance is so small that the oil pressure is enough to keep the space filled
with oil. Thus, when the engine operates, the crankshaft journal and
the bearing insert rarely touch each other. Instead they ride on a thin
film of oil. This allows the components to operate over many miles
with very little wear to the bearing surface.
Now, let’s take a closer look at how the crankshaft is mounted inside
the engine block. Remember that the crankshaft is mounted in the
crankcase in the same way as the connecting rods. Special crankshaft
bearing supports are machined into the bottom of the engine block
(Figure 33). Two-piece bearing supports are used to reduce the amount
of friction. The upper half of the bearing insert is placed onto the en-
gine block’s bearing support. Then, the crankshaft is placed into the
engine block on the bearing supports and inserts. The crankshaft is
then secured with bearing caps, called main bearing caps. The main
bearing caps contain the other halves of the bearing inserts. The main
bearing caps are held onto the engine block using bolts threaded into
the block. An exploded view of a typical crankshaft installation is
shown in Figure 34. Once the crankshaft is installed in the block, it
can be rotated easily due to the bearing inserts that are used in the
supports.
FIGURE 33—Special crankshaft bearing supports are machined into the bottom of the engine block as
shown in Figure 33A. Figure 33B shows a closer view of the bearing caps and bolts that hold the crankshaft
in the block.
Usually, two bolts are used to hold each bearing cap to the engine block
and to hold the crankshaft in the block. However, in some situations,
four bolts are used to retain each bearing cap. This type of bearing cap
is usually found in high-performance engines that need the strength
provided by the extra bolts. When four bolts are used to retain each
main bearing cap, the engine is said to have a four-bolt main engine block.
The number of main bearings and supports an engine has depends on

the design and size of the engine. Most four-cylinder engines have four
main bearing supports, while larger six-cylinder and eight-cylinder
engines may have five, six, or seven supports. An example of this is
shown earlier in Figure 30. The crankshaft shown in Figure 30 would
be found in an in-line, six-cylinder engine with a total of five main
bearing supports for the crankshaft. Since this is a six-cylinder, in-line
FIGURE 34—This illustra-

tion shows an ex-
ploded view of a
crankshaft installation.
Note the location of
the main bearing caps
and the bearing inserts.
engine, its crankshaft is quite a bit longer than the crankshaft found in
a four-cylinder or V-type engine. Therefore, more crankshaft supports
are required.
The Engine Bearings

As you learned earlier, the bearings used with a typical connecting rod
are two-piece inserts. Once installed, the two-bearing inserts com-
pletely surround the crankshaft journal, providing a good support
surface all the way around the journal. The same type of two-piece
bearings are used to support the crankshaft in the engine block. These
crankshaft support bearings are called main bearings. The upper half of
the main bearing insert fits into the engine block, and the lower half
fits into the bearing cap.
The main bearing inserts are made of a softer metal than the crank-
shaft. The bearing insert is actually made up of layers of different ma-
terial. However, most engine bearings will contain a layer of copper
material covered with a layer of soft material called babbitt.
Bearing inserts offer several important benefits. Even under ideal con-
ditions, the engine bearings experience some wear. Although a supply
of oil is pumped into the bearing clearance, the metal of the bearing
sometimes comes into direct contact with the metal of the crankshaft
journal, especially during starting. Over time, the bearings will wear so
much that they won’t be able to properly support the crankshaft and
reduce the friction. If not corrected, this excessive bearing wear will
eventually cause serious damage to the engine. The main benefit to us-
ing a bearing insert is that if wear does occur, only the bearing insert
will be affected. Also, since bearings are cheap and crankshafts are
very expensive, it’s preferable to periodically replace the bearings
rather than the crankshaft.
Another benefit to using bearings is that they tend to mold themselves

around any slight irregularities on the journal surfaces. So, if any small
particles of dirt or debris do end up between the bearing and the
crankshaft journal, the dirt will stick to and be absorbed by the bear-
ing, rather than remain between the two parts. The ability of a bearing
to absorb particles in this way is called embeddability. If dirt particles
can’t embed themselves in the bearing, they’ll remain between the two
surfaces and may severely scratch the crankshaft journal.
Thrust Bearings
So far, you’ve seen how the engine bearings support the crankshaft
and allow it to rotate freely. However, although the crankshaft must be
able to rotate freely, it must be prevented from moving too much from
front to back. This front-to-back movement is called end play. In most
engines, the end play is controlled with a special bearing called a thrust
bearing. A thrust bearing is used as a main bearing. However, unlike a
typical main bearing, a thrust bearing has flanged surfaces on each
side (Figure 35). In most engines, only one of the main bearings is a
thrust bearing; the other bearings are regular bearing inserts.
FIGURE 35—A thrust

bearing is a special
main bearing that has
flanged surfaces on
each side. This type of
bearing controls the
front-to-back move-
ment of the crankshaft
in the engine block.
To control the end play, the crankshaft itself usually has machined sur-
faces on each side where the thrust bearing is located. Therefore, once
the thrust bearing and crankshaft are installed, if the crankshaft moves
in either direction (front or back), it bumps against the flanges of the
thrust bearing and is prevented from moving any farther. Since the
thrust bearing flanges are made of soft material, no damage is caused
to the crankshaft or the bearing when the two come in contact. Since a
flange is located on each side of the thrust bearing, the bearing stops
the crankshaft from moving in either direction.
Bearing Lubrication
As you learned earlier, the bearing material alone can’t completely re-
duce the amount of friction. Therefore, all automotive engines contain
some type of pressurized oil lubrication system. You’ll learn about the
lubrication systems in detail in a later study unit. For now, however, let’s
briefly look at how the lubrication system affects the engine bearings.
First, a constant supply of pressurized oil is needed to keep the bearings

well lubricated. A typical engine uses a special oil pump to pressurize
the oil and pump it through oil passages in the engine block and crank-
shaft. In most engines, the oil is pumped through the engine block pas-
sages and then out through small passages at the main bearing supports.
Each main bearing usually has a small hole drilled through it that
matches the oil hole in the bearing support. This allows the supply of
pressurized oil to enter the area between the main bearing and the
crankshaft journal to provide lubrication for the main bearings.
Earlier, we talked about the oil passages that were drilled into the
crankshaft itself. These oil passages are used to supply each rod bear-
ing with proper lubrication. The oil enters the space between the main
bearing and the crankshaft journals, then flows through the passage in
the crankshaft to the rod journals. There, it fills the space between the
rod bearing and rod journal.
As you learned, the space between the bearing and the crankshaft jour-
nal is very small. So, the lubrication system can supply oil to this area
faster than the oil can leak out. Therefore, oil almost always fills this
space and separates the surfaces of the two parts. This separation of
the parts by an oil film allows the engine bearings to last for thousands
of miles. If this oil film weren’t present, the engine bearings would
wear rapidly and eventually fail.
This is actually what happens if the bearings become worn. As the

bearings wear, the space between the two components increases until
the oil leaks from between the surfaces at a faster rate than the oil
pump can pump it in. When this occurs, oil no longer separates the
surfaces; therefore, the surfaces are in direct contact with one another.
This causes the bearing to wear very rapidly and then fail. Without the
proper oil film present, friction will increase to the point where heat
will begin to build up. The temperature can get so high that the bear-
ing material actually melts. If it melts, the bearing may attach itself to
the crankshaft, cause the crankshaft to stop rotating, and seize the en-
gine. In other cases, the bearing may begin to spin with the crankshaft,
thus causing severe damage to the crankshaft and the engine block.
Grooved Engine Bearings
In modern engines, a tremendous amount of force is placed on the

crankshaft by the pistons during the power stage. This force helps
prevent the oil film from forming between the bearings and the crank-
shaft, and squeezes all the oil out from between the surfaces. There-
fore, to help ensure that the oil film is created and maintained, a
bearing insert often contains a groove cut into its surface to help dis-
tribute the oil around the bearing more efficiently. A typical grooved
bearing is shown in Figure 36. Because most of the pressure on the
crankshaft is applied at the main bearing supports, usually only the
main bearings are grooved. The connecting rod bearings are usually
equipped only with an oil hole. The groove in a bearing insert reduces
the amount of bearing surface that’s in contact with the crankshaft.
This isn’t too much of a concern with the main bearings, since the main
bearings are relatively large. However, connecting rod bearings are
much smaller, and reducing their surface area by grooving them tends
to reduce their ability to work properly.
FIGURE 36—A grooved

main bearing is shown
here. The groove helps
to distribute lubricating
oil more efficiently
through the bearing.
Now that you have a good understanding of the types of bearings that
are used and how they're lubricated, let’s look at some of the character-
istics of the bearing inserts that help to keep them in their proper place
once they’re installed.
Bearing Locks
Every insert-type bearing must have a means to lock it in place and

keep it from rotating with the crankshaft. Otherwise, the bearing
would simply spin around with the crankshaft and cause damage to
the crankshaft and engine block. The most common method of keep-
ing an engine bearing from spinning is the use of a tang on the bearing
itself. A tang is simply a tab that sticks out on one edge of the bearing.
(Refer back to Figure 36 to see the tang.) This tab fits into a small notch
that’s cut into the bearing support in the engine block and in the bear-
ing cap. Once the bearing cap is installed, the tab is trapped by the con-
necting surfaces and prevents the bearing from rotating.
Another way to lock the bearing in place is to use a metal stub that sticks
out of the bearing support. In this type of bearing lock, the bearing has a
hole drilled in it to match the metal stub. When installed, the bearing fits
over the stub, thus keeping it from rotating. In this system, the stub
sticks up only a little bit, not as much as the bearing thickness. Therefore,
once installed, the stub won’t come into contact with the crankshaft.
Bearing Spread
The bearing inserts in a typical engine are designed with a feature

called bearing spread. The term bearing spread means that a bearing in-
sert is made a little wider than the bearing cap or support it’s intended
to fit into (Figure 37). Because of this bearing spread, a typical bearing
insert must be pushed into the cap or support with a little bit of force
to make it fit into the smaller space. (The size difference between the
parts is relatively small; therefore, only a small amount of force is re-
quired to push them into position. This force can easily be applied
with your fingers.) Once the bearing insert is in position, the tight fit
will hold the bearing insert in place until it’s installed, even if the cap
or other bearing support is turned upside down. This is really helpful
when you’re installing bearings in an engine. The bearing spread will
help them stay properly positioned during their installation.
FIGURE 37—Most bear-

ings are wider than the BEARING
cap bore and must be
pressed into place. This
extra width is called
“bearing spread.”
CAP
Bearing Crush
Another characteristic of engine bearing inserts is bearing crush. The

term bearing crush means that a bearing is made slightly longer than
the caps or supports it’s intended to fit into. Thus, when the inserts are
pressed into place, the bearing itself usually extends slightly above the
surface (Figure 38). The amount that the bearing insert sticks up from
FIGURE 38—Main bear-

ings are made to ex- BEARING CRUSH
tend slightly above the
cap surface. This ex-
tension is called bear- BEARING
ing crush. This forces
the bearings tightly into
their seats when the
caps are tightened. BEARING SEAT
the surface is very small. Each bearing insert is made with a slight
amount of bearing crush.
When the bearings are installed in the engine and the bearing caps tight-
ened, the bearing inserts are forced tightly into the cap, the engine block
support, or the connecting rod. This forcing of the bearing tightly into
place serves two purposes. The first purpose is to ensure that the bear-
ings will stay in place and won’t shift around during engine operation.
The second purpose is to form a tight contact area between the bearing
insert and the metal that surrounds it. When friction in the bearing
causes heat to build up, this tight contact area helps transfer the heat to
the metal around the bearing, thus keeping the bearing relatively cool.
With the use of the bearing crush, bearing spread, and the bearing locks,
the engine bearings are held securely in the engine, even under extreme
operating conditions, such as high engine speed and high temperatures.
Engine Vibration
As you learned earlier, an engine produces power by using the force
developed from the burning of the air-and-fuel mixture in the cylinder.
Each cylinder goes through its power stage at a different time, and per-
forms it once for every two rotations of the crankshaft. Each perfor-
mance of a power stage by a cylinder is called a power pulse, because
it’s a push that keeps the crankshaft rotating. These power pulses only
occur when a cylinder is in its power stage. The rest of the time that
cylinder doesn’t apply force onto the crankshaft.
To see how this works, let’s look at a typical four-cylinder engine. In

this type of engine, each cylinder fires once for every two rotations of
the crankshaft. Therefore, for every two rotations of the crankshaft,
there will be four power pulses. In other words, there will be one
power pulse for every one-half turn of the crankshaft. Because the
power pulses occur every one-half turn, the crankshaft turns won’t be
completely smooth. Instead, the crankshaft will actually speed up and
slow down slightly as it rotates. That is, at each power pulse, the
crankshaft speeds up; between power pulses, the crankshaft slows
down. The more cylinders an engine has, the smoother the engine
runs. While a four-cylinder engine has one power pulse for every
half-turn of the crankshaft, an eight-cylinder engine has twice as many
power pulses for every two rotations of the crankshaft. In an eight-
cylinder engine, one power pulse occurs for every one-quarter rotation
of the crankshaft. For this reason, engines with more cylinders tend to
run smoother than those with fewer cylinders.
The continual changing of crankshaft speed can cause a serious vibra-

tion problem. This vibration can be severe enough to damage engine
components. In addition, vibrations in the engine can be transmitted to
the passenger compartment and become annoying to the driver and
passengers. Two devices are used to control vibration in the crank-
shaft: the flywheel and the vibration dampener.
The Flywheel
A flywheel is simply a large metal disc that’s attached to the output

end of the crankshaft (Figure 39). The flywheel helps to control crank-
shaft vibration, serves as a connection for the engine to the vehicle’s
drive wheels, and assists in engine starting. In vehicles that have man-
ual shift transmissions, the flywheel is a heavy, one-piece metal disc. In
vehicles that have automatic transmissions, the flywheel is usually
thinner and lighter. However, these vehicles also contain a component
called a torque converter that bolts to the lighter flywheel. The torque
converter provides extra weight that allows the flywheel to control the
crankshaft vibration.
Because the flywheel is rather large in diameter and often quite heavy
(or the components attached to the flywheel are heavy), it reduces vi-
bration by increasing the inertia of the crankshaft. Inertia is the ten-
dency of an object to keep moving even when the force moving it has
stopped. For example, if you spin a wheel with your hands and then
suddenly remove your hands, the wheel would continue to turn. The
wheel keeps turning because of the inertia of the wheel. The heavier
the wheel is, the more inertia it has, and the longer it will continue to
spin. The same concept occurs with the flywheel and crankshaft. The
heavy flywheel attached to the end of the crankshaft will rotate with
the crankshaft. However, when the engine doesn’t have a power pulse,
the crankshaft will keep spinning at the same speed due to the inertia
created by the flywheel. The flywheel therefore helps to reduce vibra-
tion by maintaining the crankshaft speed.
Even though the flywheel reduces engine vibration effectively, it can’t

remove all of the vibration. Therefore, another component called a vi-
bration dampener is also used in an engine to help reduce vibration.
FIGURE 39—An automotive flywheel installation is shown here. Note the posi-
tion of the flywheel in relation to the crankshaft. The flywheel’s weight on the
end of the crankshaft helps to smooth out the vibrations caused by the
power stages and also helps return the pistons to their original positions in the
cylinders.
The Vibration Dampener
A vibration dampener (also called a harmonic balancer) is installed at

the front end of the crankshaft, opposite the flywheel. As shown in
Figure 40, a typical vibration dampener is made of two pieces of metal
with a layer of rubber placed between the inner and outer parts. The
inner piece of the vibration dampener is mounted to the stub on the
end of the crankshaft. On some engines, the inner piece is held on by a
retaining bolt that threads onto the end of the crankshaft; on other en-
gines, the inner piece is simply pressed tightly onto the end of the
shaft. To keep the dampener from rotating on the end of the crank-
shaft, a special key is used to lock the dampener and the crankshaft
together. The key is simply a small bar of metal. The key fits into con-
necting grooves that are cut into the crankshaft inside the inner hub.
FIGURE 40—A vibration

dampener is attached to
the front of the crank-
shaft to help reduce
vibrations.
The key is thick enough so that half of the key fits into each of the con-
necting grooves. Therefore, once in place, the key will lock the two
parts together so that they can’t turn independently of one another.
The way the vibration dampener works is quite simple. The inner
piece turns with the crankshaft. As the crankshaft rotates, it vibrates.
At the same time, the outer piece of the vibration dampener moves
back and forth to smooth out the vibrations. Since the only connection
between the inner and outer piece is a strip of rubber, the outer piece
can move back and forth only slightly compared to the inner piece.
When the crankshaft and inner piece move, the outer piece snaps back
slightly, smoothing out any vibrations that occur.
When both a flywheel and a vibration dampener are used, the vibra-
tions caused by the varying power pulses are reduced to a minimum,
and damage to the engine components is prevented.
The Oil Pan

Once all of the major lower-end engine components are in place, the
bottom of the engine block is sealed with an oil pan and a seal at each
end of the crankshaft. The oil pan serves as a cover to seal the bottom
of the engine block, and also serves as an oil reservoir for the engine.
As stated earlier, a small pump in the engine supplies oil under pres-
sure to the various engine parts. This oil pump gets its supply of oil
from the oil pan. (Note that the placement of the oil pump varies de-
pending on the engine design. In most cases, it's mounted to the lower
side of the engine block inside the oil pan.)
A typical oil pan is made of thin metal, usually steel, shaped to form a
deep pan. An example of a typical oil pan is shown in Figure 41. The
oil pan is usually attached to the engine block using a series of small
bolts that thread directly into the engine block.
As oil is pumped through an engine, it absorbs some of the heat pro-

duced by the engine. Thus, the oil can get very hot. For this reason, oil
pans are usually made of thin steel. The thin steel allows the hot oil to
be cooled slightly by the air passing over the outside of the pan.
FIGURE 41—An oil pan

is attached to the bot-
tom of an engine block
to seal the block and
also to provide a reser-
voir for lubricating oil.
The seals and gasket
must be used with the
pan to form a tight seal.
When an oil pan is installed, a gasket and rubber seals are usually in-
stalled to prevent oil from leaking between the pan and the engine
block. Once installed, the oil pan prevents any leakage out the bottom
of the engine block.
Crankshaft Seals
To prevent oil from leaking out around the ends of the crankshaft, spe-
cial seals are placed at each end of the crankshaft. The crankshaft must
be able to rotate within these seals, so specially designed seals are used
for this purpose. These seals, usually made of rubber or fiber material,
are called rope seals. The seal material completely surrounds the end of
the crankshaft to prevent oil from passing by it. In some cases, a one-
piece, circular seal is used; in other cases, the seal may be split into two
parts, similar to a bearing insert. The seal at the front end of the crank-
shaft is usually called a front cover seal, while the seal at the very back
of the crankshaft is usually called a rear main seal.
You’ve now learned all the basic parts that make up the lower end of
the engine. You’ve seen how these components work together to con-
vert the up-and-down motion of the piston into rotational motion that
can power the vehicle. Now, focus your attention on the components
that make up the upper end of a typical automotive engine. However,
before you move on, take a few moments to review what you’ve
learned by completing Power Check 2.
Power Check 2
1. Most engines contain an _______ number of cylinders in order to maintain a

proper balance of weight and forces.
2. The cylinders in an aluminum engine block are usually lined with a steel lining
called a _______ to prevent them from wearing excessively as the pistons rub
against them.
3. The proper name for the hole in the engine block that holds a piston is the _______.
4. The inside surfaces of a bore are called the _______.
(Continued)
Power Check 2
5. A round, thick steel pin called a _______ is placed through the hole to connect the
piston to the connecting rod.
6. The area on a piston that receives most of the stress during the power stroke is
called the _______.
7. To compensate for the problems of heat expansion, a piston is deliberately made to

be slightly out-of-round as well as _______ from top to bottom.
8. The split or gap in the piston ring is called the _______.
9. Most automotive pistons contain three piston rings—two _______ rings and one oil
control ring.
10. Compression gases that do find their way past the rings and into the engine block’s
lower area are called _______ gases.
11. A typical oil control ring consists of three separate pieces—two very thin metal
rings called _______ and a spacer ring called an expander.
12. How many cylinders does a typical V-type engine contain?
13. The two types of journals on a crankshaft are the rod journals and the main jour-
nals. The _______ are attached to the rod journals. The main journals are used to
mount the crankshaft to the _______.
14. The distance that the rod journals are offset from the centerline of the crankshaft is
called the _______.
15. The order in which an engine’s cylinders complete their power stages is called the
engine’s _______.
16. In vehicles that have automatic transmissions, the flywheel usually contains a
component called a _______ that provides extra weight to control the crankshaft
vibration.
17. The small space between a bearing and a crankshaft journal is called the _______.
18. The two-piece bearing inserts that support the crankshaft in the engine block are
called the _______.
(Continued)
Power Check 2
19. The front-to-back movement of a crankshaft in an engine block is called the

_______.
20. A _______ is a large metal disc that’s attached to the output end of the crankshaft.
21–26: Indicate whether each of the following statements is True or False.
_____ 21. As an engine operates, each cylinder in the engine will complete its power
stages at the same time.
_____ 22. Most crankshafts contain built-in counterweights to help maintain their bal-
ance during engine operation.
_____ 23. The small space between a bearing and a crankshaft journal is lubricated
with splashed-on oil.
_____ 24. One benefit of using bearings is that they tend to mold themselves around
any slight irregularities on journal surfaces.
_____ 25. The only function of the flywheel is to help control crankshaft vibration.
_____ 26. The oil pan serves as a cover to seal the bottom of the engine block, and also
serves as an oil reservoir for the engine.
_____ 27. In the illustration shown below, label the indicated engine parts.

THE UPPER-END ASSEMBLY

As you learned in the last section, the main function of the lower-end
engine components is to convert the piston motion to rotary motion. In
contrast, the main function of the upper-end components is to control
the flow of the air-and-fuel mixture into the engine and the flow of ex-
haust gases out of the engine. The upper end of a typical automotive
engine contains the following components:
· Cylinder head
· Intake and exhaust valves
· Camshaft
· Valve train assembly
· Intake and exhaust manifolds
· Engine covers
Let’s discuss each of these components in detail, beginning with the

cylinder head.
The Cylinder Head

The cylinder head is the component that seals the top of the engine block
and forms the top of the combustion chamber. In addition, a cylinder
head also houses many vital engine components. These components
include the valves that allow gases in and out of each cylinder, the
spark plug that’s used to ignite the air-and-fuel mixture in each cylin-
der, and the camshaft that opens and closes the valves. A cylinder
head is attached to the top of an engine block using a series of large
bolts.
One cylinder head is used to cover all the cylinders in one row. For ex-
ample, since an in-line engine contains only one row of cylinders, it
uses only one cylinder head to cover all the cylinders. In a V-type en-
gine, the cylinders are arranged in two separate rows. A separate cyl-
inder head is needed to cover each row of cylinders, so a V-type
engine contains two cylinder heads. The two cylinder heads on a V-
type engine are almost always identical, and one is mounted on each
side of the engine block.
The exact design of the cylinder head depends on the make and model
of the engine, but all heads have similar characteristics. Cylinder heads
are made of either cast iron or, more commonly, cast aluminum.
FIGURE 42—A top view

of an automotive en-
gine cylinder head is
shown in Figure 42A.
The bottom surface of a
cylinder head is shown
in Figure 42B. Note how
the bottom surface of
the head is machined
smooth to form a tight
seal against the top of
the engine block.
Aluminum heads are used more frequently on modern engines be-

cause of their lighter weight and superior ability to transfer heat. A
typical automotive cylinder head is shown in Figure 42A.
As stated, a cylinder head is attached to the very top of an engine

block. Since the cylinder head must be able to seal the top of each cyl-
inder, the bottom surface of the cylinder head and the top surface of
the engine block are machined flat so they’ll fit tightly against each
other. The underside of a typical cylinder head is shown in Figure 42B.
In this figure, note that the bottom of the cylinder head contains a re-
cessed area for each of the cylinders. This particular cylinder head is
from one side of a V-6 engine; therefore, it contains three separate cyl-
inder recesses. (Remember that the cylinders in a V-6 engine are ar-
ranged in two separate rows, with three cylinders in each row.) The
recessed space for each cylinder head is the combustion chamber
where the air-and-fuel mixture is compressed and burned. The exact
shape and size of the combustion chamber depends on the make and
model of engine. Two common combustion chamber shapes are
shown in Figure 43.
As you can see, the combustion chamber also contains the valves that
allow the fuel in and the exhaust gases out of the cylinder. The pas-
sages that the valves cover and uncover can be seen in Figure 42B. The
valves are installed in one of these cylinders, while the valves are re-
moved from the other two cylinders.
SPARK PLUG
SPARK PLUG
VALVE
VALVE VALVE
COMBUSTION
QUENCH AREA COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
CHAMBER
PISTON PISTON
(A) (B)
WEDGE COMBUSTION CHAMBER HEMISPHERIC COMBUSTION CHAMBER
FIGURE 43—Figure 43A shows a wedge-shaped combustion chamber, while Figure 43B shows a hemi-
spheric combustion chamber.
A close-up view of a similar combustion chamber is shown in

Figure 44. In this figure, you can clearly see the large passages that al-
low the fuel to enter and the gases to exit the combustion chamber and
cylinder. These passages are called ports. The ports that allow gases to
enter the cylinder are called intake ports, and the ports that allow the
exhaust gases to leave the cylinder are called exhaust ports. A cylinder
will contain an intake port and an exhaust port for each valve in the
cylinder.
FIGURE 44—A close-up
view of a combustion
chamber is shown
here.
The cylinder ports are usually arranged in one of two ways. In the first
arrangement, the intake ports and exhaust ports are placed on oppo-
site sides of the cylinder head (Figure 45A). This type of head is called
a cross-flow head. In a cross-flow head, the incoming air-and-fuel mix-
ture enters through ports on one side of the head, and the exhaust
CYLINDER HEAD
SPARK PLUG
VALVE LOCATION VALVE
CYLINDER
PISTON
BLOCK
CROSS-FLOW CYLINDER HEAD WEDGE

(A) (B)
FIGURE 45—Figure 45A shows a cross-flow cylinder head. In this type of head, the intake and exhaust ports
are located on opposite sides of the cylinder head. Note that the intake and exhaust valves are positioned
on opposite sides of the spark plug. In the cylinder head shown in Figure 45B, both the intake and exhaust
ports are located on the same side of the head. In this head, the intake and exhaust valves are positioned
side by side.
gases exit through ports on the opposite side of the head. In the second
type of cylinder head design, both the intake and exhaust ports are lo-
cated on the same side of the head (Figure 45B). In this design, the fuel
enters the intake ports and the exhaust gases leave the exhaust ports
on the same side of the cylinder head.
As stated earlier, the cylinder head must form a tight seal against the
engine block to prevent leakage from the combustion chamber area.
You’ve seen how the bottom surface of the cylinder head and the top
surface of the engine block are made perfectly flat to assist in forming a
tight seal. However, a special gasket called a head gasket must also be
placed between these surfaces to form a complete seal. The gasket is
usually made of a thick fibrous material, and often has small metal
rings molded into it that surround each of the cylinders (Figure 46). A
typical cylinder head is attached to the top of the engine block using
several large bolts called head bolts. Once the head bolts are tightened,
the cylinder head gasket is compressed between the two flat surfaces
to form a tight, leak-free seal.
The Intake and Exhaust Valves

Remember that the flow of gases in and out of each cylinder is con-
trolled by valves mounted in the cylinder head. Each cylinder has its
FIGURE 46—A typical automotive cylinder head gasket is shown here. (Photo
courtesy of Mr. Gasket Co.)
own set of valves to control the flow of gases. These valves open and
close the ports as the engine operates. During the intake stage, the in-
take valve opens. The air-and-fuel mixture then enters through the in-
take port, past the open intake valve, and into the cylinder. During the
compression stage, both the intake and exhaust valves close com-
pletely and prevent any leakage from the cylinder. The valves remain
closed as the compressed mixture is burned in the cylinder to produce
power. Once the mixture is burned, the exhaust valve opens and al-
lows the remaining burned gases to escape out through the exhaust
port.
The valves used in automotive engines are called poppet valves. A pop-
pet valve, in simple terms, is a round metal disk with a long shaft.
Figure 47 shows the parts of a typical intake and exhaust valve. The
long shaft of the valve is called the valve stem. The large-diameter
round end of the valve is called the valve head. The surface where the
valve head fits against the valve seat is machined at an angle to help
form a seal. This angled sealing surface is called the valve face.
The small area between the valve head and valve face is called the
valve margin. The valve margin is important to the operation of the
valve. If the valve margin is too thin, the intense heat inside the engine
will simply melt the margin away and prevent the valve from sealing.
A melted or burned valve margin is commonly called a burnt valve.
The final parts of the valve shown in Figure 47 are the retainer lock
grooves. These grooves are cut into the end of the long valve stem. The
FIGURE 47—The parts of

an intake and exhaust
valve are shown here.
Note that the intake
valve is larger than the
exhaust valve.
locking parts that keep the valve from falling out of the valve guide are
attached to these grooves.
Both the intake and exhaust valves are similar in appearance—the only
real difference is their size. In most engines, the intake valve head is
larger than the exhaust valve head. There are several reasons for this,
but the main reason is heat. During the power stage, the temperature
inside the combustion chamber gets very hot from the burning of the
air-and-fuel mixture. Since the valves are in the combustion chamber
area, they’re directly exposed to this heat. Once the burning is com-
plete, the hot gases remaining from the burning process exit the cylin-
der by passing the open exhaust valve. As these hot exhaust gases pass
over the valve, the exhaust valve's temperature rises even more.
In contrast, the temperature of the intake valve isn’t increased during

combustion. In fact, the intake valve is actually cooled by the fresh air-
and-fuel mixture that’s brought into the cylinder during the intake
stage. The temperature of the incoming mixture is relatively cool com-
pared to the valve, so the mixture cools the valve as it passes through.
Since the intake valve stays much cooler than the exhaust valve, the in-
take valve can be larger in size without the concern of melting the
valve margin.
Thus, since the exhaust valve is exposed to higher temperatures in the

engine, it’s usually made of a heavy material and is smaller than the in-
take valve. This helps to prevent the edges of the exhaust valve from
burning away. Unlike the intake valve, which is cooled by the incoming
fuel mixture, the exhaust valve can cool itself only by transferring heat to
the cylinder head. This metal-to-metal heat transfer occurs through the
valve guide, or through the valve seat whenever the valve is closed.
Now, let’s examine how a valve is installed in an engine. A typical

valve installation is shown in Figure 48. In the figure, note that when
a valve is closed, it seals against a specially machined area in the

valve arrangement is
shown here.
cylinder head called the valve seat. The valve seats are simply round,
machined holes located at the edge of the cylinder head ports. As you
can see in this illustration, the valve is in the open position, allowing
gases to flow through the port and into the engine. When the valve is
in its closed position, it fits tightly against the valve seat, forming a
tight seal that will prevent any leakage out of the cylinder. The valve
and valve seat are machined to such precise specifications that they
seal with only metal-to-metal contact. No additional gasket or seal is
used between them.
As we mentioned earlier, a valve has a long metal stem. In Figure 48,

you can see how the long valve stem fits into a long, round tube in the
cylinder head. This long tube is called a valve guide. The valve guide
holds the valve in place, while still allowing it to open and close. The
valve guide is slightly larger in diameter than the valve stem, which
allows the stem to slide easily in and out of the guide. However, the
guide is narrow enough to prevent the valve stem from moving side
to side. In some engines, the valve guide is machined directly into the
cylinder head, while in other engines, the guide is a separate part that’s
press-fit tightly into the cylinder head. Either way, the valve guide per-
forms the same function.
Valve Arrangements in the Cylinder

So far, you’ve learned about engines that have one intake valve and
one exhaust valve in each cylinder, like the engine shown in Figure 49.
In this photo, you can see that each combustion chamber area has two
valves. The larger valve is the intake valve, and the smaller valve is the
exhaust valve. This is a common engine design; however, it isn’t the
only design available. Some engines contain more than two valves in
each cylinder.
For example, a cylinder may contain several smaller valves instead of

two larger valves, as shown in Figure 50. In this figure, you can see
FIGURE 49—This engine

cylinder contains one
intake valve and one
exhaust valve.
FIGURE 50—Each cylin-

der in this engine con-
tains two intake valves
and two exhaust valves.
that this engine contains four valves for each cylinder. Two of the
valves are intake valves and two are exhaust valves. Usually, the in-
take valves are still slightly larger than the exhaust valves; however,
both types of valves are considerably smaller than the ones used in the
two-valve system shown in Figure 49.
The operation of the valve system is the same with multiple valves. If
more than one valve is used, the valves simply open and close at the
same time that they would in a two-valve-per-cylinder engine. For ex-
ample, in a cylinder with four valves, the two intake valves would
open at the same time during the intake stage, and both exhaust valves
would open at the same time during the exhaust stage.
There are both advantages and disadvantages to using multiple

valves. One reason to use several small valves instead of two larger
valves is to increase the size of the open port when the valves are open.
Since combustion chambers are normally quite small, a valve can only
be so large and still fit within the combustion chamber. Therefore,
when two larger valves are used, the valve heads (and the port open-
ings) can only be so big before the valves would either bump into one
another or stick out wider than the combustion chamber. However, if
several smaller valves are used, the total amount of port area can often
be increased. This allows the engine to produce a little more power.
Smaller valves can fit inside the confines of the combustion chamber
easier, and the area of two small valves added together is often greater
than the area of one larger valve.
However, a disadvantage to using multiple valves is that the valve as-

sembly becomes more complex, and thus more expensive to build and
maintain. For example, a four-cylinder engine that has two valves in
each cylinder contains a total of eight valves. In contrast, a four-
cylinder engine that has four valves in each cylinder contains a total of
sixteen valves. Because of the added cost and complexity of the valve
assembly, multiple-valve cylinder heads are usually used only in more
expensive or high-performance automobiles.
So far, you've looked closely at the valve itself. Now, turn your atten-
tion to the valve seats, where the valve face seals to prevent leakage
when the valve is closed.
The Valve Seats

Remember that when a valve closes, the valve face contacts the valve
seat to form a seal. The valve seat is part of the cylinder head. The
valves open and close thousands of times per minute as the engine op-
erates, hammering against the valve seats each time they close. This
hammering action exerts a lot of pressure on the valve seats. In addi-
tion, the valve seats are exposed to the extremely high combustion
temperatures inside the cylinder. Thus, they must be strong enough
to withstand both the hammering action of the valves and the high-
operating temperatures without failing.
A valve seat may be machined directly into the cylinder head itself, or
it may be a separate part that's pressed tightly into a hole in the cylin-
der head. In a cast-iron cylinder head, the valve seats and valve guides
are usually machined directly into the head because the metal is so
strong. However, aluminum cylinder heads are too soft to use this
method. Therefore, in an aluminum head, the valve seats and valve
guides are separate steel parts that are pressed tightly into the head.
A valve face must fit tightly against a valve seat in order to prevent
leakage when the valve is closed. Therefore, to form a better seal, the
connecting surfaces of the valve face and the valve seat are machined
at matching angles. A typical valve face and valve seat match is shown
in Figure 51. In this side view of the valve assembly, you can see how
FIGURE 51—A valve face

and valve seat match is
shown here.
the two surfaces lock together to form a seal. The angle of this contact
area depends on the engine make and model; however, in most en-
gines, the valve seat angle is either 30 or 45 degrees. Each valve in an
engine has its own matching valve seat in the cylinder head.
The Valve Springs, Retainers, and Locks
So far, you’ve learned how a valve in the engine makes a seal. How-
ever, what makes the valve close at the proper time? Well, in this sec-
tion of your text, you’ll look at the components that close the valves
during engine operation. Before you do this, however, let’s discuss
valve springs and retainers, which keep the valves in place in the cylin-
der head and keep them tightly closed when required.
The valve spring and retainer each perform an important function. The
valve spring is a heavy steel spring that keeps the valve tightly closed
against the valve seat until it’s time for the valve to open. A typical
valve spring is shown in Figure 52A. Note that the ends of the valve
spring are ground flat so that the spring pressure is applied equally,
and so that the ends won’t dig into the cylinder head or the retainer.
The valve spring works with two locking devices called a retainer and
a valve lock. The retainer and the valve lock hold the valve in the cylin-
der head so that it can’t slide all the way out of the valve guide. These
two components are shown in Figure 52B and Figure 52C.
SPRING
LOCKS
(A)
ASSEMBLY
RETAINER
(C)
(B)
FIGURE 52—A typical valve spring is shown in Figure 52A, and a retainer is shown in Figure 52B. The valve
locks hold the valve in the cylinder head so that it can’t slide all the way out of the valve guide.
When the valves are installed in the engine, the valve is first slid into
the valve guide from the combustion chamber side of the cylinder
head. When the valve is all the way in against the valve seat, the end of
the valve stem will stick out of the top of the cylinder head. The valve
spring is then placed over this end of the valve stem.
In order for the valve spring to apply pressure to the valve stem and
hold the valve tightly closed against the valve seat, the valve spring
must be attached to the valve stem. The most common way to attach
the valve spring and the valve stem is to use a retainer and a set of
valve locks. The retainer is simply a large, round metal disk. The out-
side of the retainer is about the same size as the valve spring, and the
inside of the retainer has a tapered hole that’s slightly larger than the
valve stem. The retainer is placed over the valve stem and against the
valve spring.
Once the retainer is in place, the valve locks are placed onto the valve
stem. The valve locks fit into the grooves that are cut in the end of the
valve stem. The most common type of valve lock is the two-piece type.
The inner edges of the two valve locks have raised areas that match the
grooves on the end of the valve stem. Once the valve locks are in place,
the valve retainer is slid up over the outside of the locks, and the com-
pleted assembly looks like that shown in Figure 53. Since the hole on the
inside of the retainer is slightly tapered and large enough to fit over the
locks, the locks can't come out of their grooves. Thus, the valve spring
and retainer are now attached to the end of the valve spring.
FIGURE 53—The valve is LOCKS

held in the cylinder
head by the valve
spring retainer and the
locks. The completed
installation appears as RETAINER
shown here.
VALVE
SPRING
VALVE STEM
The valve springs must exert enough pressure at all times to keep the
valve closed. In fact, on some engines, you may find two springs on
each valve—the ordinary valve spring with an additional, smaller
spring placed inside it. (However, the spring pressure mustn’t be too
great, because the spring must be able to open the valve during certain
parts of the engine cycle.) Because of the spring pressure exerted on
the valves, a special tool called a valve spring compressor must be used
to compress the spring when the retainer and locks are installed. You’ll
learn how this job is performed in more detail in a later study unit on
engine rebuilding.
The Valve Seals
During normal engine operation, oil continually flows in the top of the
cylinder head. This oil flows through passageways from the top of the
head all the way back down to the oil pan. This oil helps keep compo-
nents—such as the valve guide—lubricated and operating properly.
However, if excessive oil leaks past the valve stem along the valve
guide and gets into the combustion chamber, engine performance
could suffer.
Therefore, on most engines, the valve spring and retainer system con-
tains a valve seal. These seals are placed on the valve stems to limit the
amount of oil that can leak down between the valve stem and the
valve guide. These seals, however, do allow some oil to lubricate the
valve stem.
Several different types of valve seals are used in modern engines. The
type of seal that’s used depends on the make and model of engine.
Each type of seal serves the same purpose, and each performs its func-
tion well.
The first valve seal you’ll learn about is a round rubber O-ring that fits
over the valve stem and into a groove just below the valve locks
(Figure 54). Once installed, the O-ring keeps any excess oil from leak-
ing down from the top of the retainer. The rubber O-ring fits snugly
around the valve stem and diverts oil on the valve stem away from the
valve guide.
FIGURE 54—An O-ring valve

seal is commonly used to
prevent oil from leaking
between the valve stem
and the valve guide.
FIGURE 55—Shown here

is a typical umbrella
shield that fits inside the
valve spring.
Another type of valve seal that’s often used is called an umbrella shield.
The umbrella shield is a hard plastic shield that’s slipped over the
valve stem. The seal then forms an umbrella-like shield over the valve
guide. Just as rain striking an umbrella is diverted off to one side, oil is
diverted from the valve guide by the umbrella shield. This type of seal
is illustrated in Figure 55. Once it’s inserted, the only oil the valve stem
receives is that splashed around during the operation of the valve
system.
The final type of valve seal is a special rubber seal with a metal or ny-
lon retainer ring, called a combined valve stem seal. The seal’s retainer
ring has a soft rubber seal on the inside that rides along the valve stem.
A cutaway view of this type of seal is shown in Figure 56. In this type
of seal, the metal or nylon retainer ring is press-fitted tightly over the
end of the valve guide. Then, the soft inner seal simply rides along the
outside of the valve stem, wiping off any oil that may accumulate
there.
FIGURE 56—A combined

valve stem seal and SEAL
shield is shown here. This
type of seal fits over the
valve stem and is
pressed into the valve
RETAINER RING
guide.
Next, let’s look at what controls the opening of the valves in the
engine.
The Camshaft
The opening of the valves in an engine is primarily controlled by the
camshaft. A camshaft is a long metal shaft that has several irregularly
shaped surfaces called lobes machined into it. A typical automotive
camshaft is shown in Figure 57. Note that the shape of each lobe on the
camshaft is eccentric. An eccentric lobe is one that’s egg-shaped instead
of perfectly round. A typical camshaft has one lobe for each of the
valves in the engine.
During engine operation, the camshaft rotates. As the camshaft rotates,

so do its eccentric lobes. As the lobes rotate, they open and close the
valves. When a camshaft lobe is turned so that its highest point is in
contact with a valve, the valve is pushed open. When the cam lobe is
turned so that its lowest point is in contact with a valve, the valve is
closed by the pressure of the valve spring.
FIGURE 57—A typical automotive camshaft assembly is shown here.
Note that the camshaft shown in Figure 57 has a gear on its right-hand
side and an extra lobe on its left-hand side. These devices are used to
drive accessory equipment in the engine. The gear on the right-hand
side of the camshaft is used to operate the oil pump, while the extra lobe
on its left-hand side is used to operate a pump that delivers fuel to the
engine. Not all camshafts contain these particular components; however,
the camshaft is commonly used to drive other engine accessories.
A camshaft can operate the valves in a variety of ways, depending on

the engine’s design. In many cases, the camshaft operates the valves
indirectly through another component, such as push rods. In other
cases, the camshaft lobes open the valves directly by contacting a steel
adjustment disc which is placed over the top of the valve stem. A sim-
plified illustration of a cam lobe and a valve is shown in Figure 58A. In
this engine, the camshaft is mounted in the cylinder head directly over
the valves. As you can see in the figure, when the highest part of the cam
lobe is in contact with the valve adjustment disc, the pressure of the
valve spring is overcome and the valve is forced open. When the lowest
part of the cam lobe is in contact with the valve adjustment disc, the
valve spring closes the valve tightly against the valve seat (Figure 58B).
FIGURE 58—In Figure 58A, the highest part of the cam lobe is in contact with
the valve stem and the valve is forced open. In Figure 58B, the lowest part of
the cam lobe is in contact with the valve stem and the valve closes tightly
against the valve seat.
In Figure 58, the camshaft is mounted in the cylinder head directly

over the valves. However, this isn’t generally the case. The camshaft
can be mounted either in the engine block or in the cylinder head, de-
pending on the engine design. In all cases, the camshaft is mounted
lengthwise in the engine, parallel to the crankshaft.
Like the crankshaft, the camshaft must be able to rotate freely in the
engine. To accomplish this, journals are used to support the camshaft
in the engine, and bearing inserts are used to reduce the amount of
friction. The camshaft journals can be seen clearly in Figure 59. Note
that the camshaft journals are larger than the camshaft lobes. The cam-
shaft is made this way so that it can be inserted into the engine block
or cylinder head. When the camshaft is installed, the shaft is slid into
the machined holes in the block or the cylinder head. If the lobes were
bigger that the camshaft journals, the lobes wouldn’t fit through these
holes, so the camshaft couldn’t be installed. Therefore, the camshaft
journals are almost always made larger than the lobes.
FIGURE 59—The camshaft journals can be clearly seen in this illustration.
The Camshaft Bearings
The camshaft must be able to rotate freely in the engine to open and
close the valves at the proper time. To allow this rotation, bearings are
usually used with the camshaft to reduce the amount of friction. In
most cases, a camshaft uses bearing inserts similar to those used by the
crankshaft. However, the camshaft bearings are made in one piece and
are completely circular, rather than split in two pieces. The camshaft
bearing inserts are pressed into holes that are machined in the engine
block or cylinder head. Usually, a camshaft is supported by several
bearing journals, and each journal has its own camshaft bearing. A
typical camshaft bearing is shown in Figure 60. Note that this bearing
contains oil holes to allow lubrication by the oil pump system.
You may remember that bearing inserts are made of soft metal to re-
duce the friction produced by the rotating camshaft. Well, if an engine
has an aluminum cylinder head and the camshaft is mounted in the
cylinder head, the engine may not contain separate bearing inserts for
the camshaft. Instead, the soft aluminum of the cylinder head itself is
used as the camshaft bearing.

camshaft bearing is
shown here. Most en-
gines use full-circle
bearings to support
their camshafts.
Most camshafts also have some means to prevent them from moving
back and forth excessively as they rotate. One type of camshaft uses a
separate thrust plate that fits into a groove on its end. A second type of
camshaft contains a built-in thrust washer. A third type uses a stop
that’s mounted on its end to prevent it from moving out once it’s
installed.
The Camshaft Lobes
As you learned earlier, the eccentric or egg-type shape of the camshaft

lobe is the feature that allows it to open a valve as it rotates. The shape
of a camshaft lobe is carefully designed to open and close the valves
properly. The parts of a typical camshaft lobe are shown in Figure 61.
Note that a circle has been drawn as a reference so that you can clearly
see the egg shape of the cam lobe.
FIGURE 61—The parts of

a camshaft lobe are
shown here. The shape
of the cam lobes can
greatly affect engine
performance.
Look at the labeled parts of the cam lobe in the figure. The highest
point of the cam lobe is called the nose, and the lowest point of the lobe
is called the heel. Note the labeled distance in the figure that’s called
the rise. The rise is an important concern in the design of a camshaft.
Ultimately, this size of the rise determines how far a valve is opened.
The total distance that a valve is opened by a cam lobe is called the
valve lift. The valve lift is an important factor in engine performance.
Another important area on the cam lobe is the ramp. The ramp is the
area on each side of the cam nose. The shape of the ramp determines
how long a valve remains open. The length of time that the valve is
open is called the duration. If the ramp area is tapered, the valve opens
and closes slowly, so the duration is long. If the ramp is short, the
valve opens and closes quickly, so the duration is short. Just like valve
lift, duration can affect engine performance.
Both the valve lift and the duration are important factors that are care-
fully considered when a camshaft is designed for an engine. Altering
the shape of the cam lobes changes the valve lift and duration, which
can in turn improve engine performance. The manufacturer
will therefore design a camshaft to provide the best overall vehicle
performance.
Camshaft Drive Methods
In order to operate the valves properly, the camshaft rotation must be

timed to open and close the valves at the proper time in the engine cy-
cle. The opening and closing of the valves must coincide with the
proper position of the piston in each cylinder. For this reason, the cam-
shaft is always driven by the crankshaft, either directly or indirectly.
The camshaft must be designed to work hand in hand with the crank-
shaft in order to time the valve operation correctly.
Remember that an engine usually contains one cam lobe for each
valve. Each valve opens and closes once in each engine cycle, and each
cycle requires two complete crankshaft rotations. Since each valve
opens only once in each cycle, the camshaft needs to turn only one
time for every two crankshaft rotations. In other words, the crankshaft
needs to turn twice as fast as the camshaft in order for the valves to
work properly. Therefore, the drive assembly that connects the cam-
shaft to the crankshaft is designed to turn the camshaft half as fast as
the crankshaft.
The camshaft can be connected to, and driven by, the crankshaft in one
of several ways. The method that’s used depends on the engine design
and on the camshaft placement. The first method that you’ll learn
about is called a direct drive system. In this method, a gear is attached to
the end of the crankshaft. This gear, in turn, drives a gear that’s placed
on the end of the camshaft (Figure 62A). The teeth of the two gears
mesh together, so as the crankshaft rotates, the camshaft does also.
Small marks called timing marks are usually stamped on each of the
gears. In order to set the proper timing of the two shafts, these timing
marks must be aligned with each other when the gears are installed.
Also notice in Figure 62A that the camshaft gear is twice as large as the
crankshaft gear. This difference in size allows the camshaft to turn at
one-half the speed of the crankshaft.
In the example shown in Figure 62A, only two gears are present—one
on the crankshaft, and one on the camshaft. This system works well if
the camshaft is mounted in the engine block near the crankshaft. How-
ever, if the camshaft is mounted far away from the crankshaft (for ex-
ample, in the cylinder head), then several intermediate gears would be
needed to connect the two timing gears together. This method would
be somewhat complicated and inconvenient.
FIGURE 62—In the direct camshaft drive method shown in Figure 62A, a gear is attached to the end of the
crankshaft. This gear then drives another gear on the end of the camshaft. Note the position of the timing
marks on the gears. These marks must be aligned in order for the valve timing to be correct. In the indirect
drive method shown in Figure 62B, a sprocket is placed on the end of the crankshaft and on the end of the
camshaft. Then, a chain is placed around the sprockets and is used to drive the camshaft.
For this reason, when the camshaft and the crankshaft aren’t close to-
gether, the camshaft is usually driven indirectly by a metal chain called
a timing chain. This type of system is called an indirect drive system. In
this system, a sprocket is placed on the end of the crankshaft and on
the end of the camshaft. A timing chain is then placed around the
sprockets to drive the camshaft. Figure 62B shows an example of this
type of drive system. Notice how the camshaft sprocket is still twice
the size of the crankshaft sprocket. Therefore, just like the direct drive
system we looked at earlier, the camshaft will turn at one-half of the
crankshaft speed.
In the engine shown in Figure 62B, the length of the chain is short.
However, if the camshaft is mounted far away from the crankshaft (in
the cylinder head, for example) the chain would be quite long. In such
a situation, it’s common for the system to use an additional spring-
loaded sprocket or guide to keep the chain tension tight at all times.
This device is called a chain tensioner. The chain tensioner compensates
for any stretching that the chain experiences as it operates. If a tension-
ing device isn’t used, the chain could become so loose that it would
simply slip on the sprockets and not turn the camshaft. One common
chain tensioning device is illustrated in Figure 63.
You can also use a flexible rubber belt called a timing belt to drive a
camshaft. A timing belt is usually made of rubber and fiber, is about

tion shows one method
used to keep the chain
tension tight in an indi-
rect drive camshaft.
one inch wide, and has a series of teeth molded into it. A typical timing
belt is illustrated in Figure 64. The teeth on the belt are called cogs. The
cogs fit into special grooves in the pulleys that attach to the crankshaft
and camshaft. The belt is placed around the pulleys in the same way
that a timing chain is placed around sprockets.
A timing belt is usually used in engines in which the camshaft is

mounted in the cylinder-head area (Figure 65). As you can see in the
figure, the timing belt is quite long. Therefore, an additional adjustable
FIGURE 64—A typical timing belt is shown here. (Courtesy of Goodyear Replacement
Products)
FIGURE 65—This illustration shows how a timing belt is used to drive the cam-
shaft in an overhead camshaft engine.
sprocket is used to keep the proper tension on the belt at all times. Also
notice that the camshaft pulley is once again twice the size of the
crankshaft pulley, thus allowing the camshaft to turn at one-half the
crankshaft speed.
As you can see, no matter what drive method is used, the camshaft
will always turn at one-half the crankshaft speed. Also note that in
each drive method, timing marks are made on the crankshaft and cam-
shaft to ensure that the two components are correctly aligned. The
proper relationship of the camshaft and crankshaft speeds is called
valve timing. Valve timing is very important to the operation of an en-
gine. If the opening and closing of the valves and the up-and-down
motion of the pistons aren’t matched properly, the engine won’t run
properly and will produce only a small amount of power. In some
cases, the engine may not run at all. In addition, if a valve is open
when a piston rises to the top of a cylinder, the piston may actually
strike the valve head and cause serious engine damage.
The Valve Train Assembly

The valve train components are the components that connect the cam-
shaft lobes to the engine valves. Earlier, you looked at a simplified ex-
ample where the camshaft lobes push directly on the end of the valve
stem. Well, in actual engines, that doesn’t really occur. Instead, several
components are placed between the cam and the valve to allow it to
operate properly. The specific valve train components used in a
particular engine depends on the engine design and the camshaft
placement.
In general, if the camshaft is located in the engine block, then the en-
gine is called an overhead valve engine or OHV engine. If the camshaft is
located in the cylinder head of the engine, it’s normally called an over-
head cam engine or OHC engine. Since the valve train components will
vary for each type, let’s look at the overhead valve engine design first.
The Valve Train in an Overhead Valve Engine

In a typical overhead valve engine, the camshaft is placed in the engine
block near the crankshaft. The camshaft is usually driven by either a
direct drive method or a timing chain. The valves in this type of engine
are mounted in the cylinder head. Since the valves and the camshaft
are located far apart, a series of special valve train components are
needed to connect the camshaft lobes and the valves.
Figure 66 shows a typical overhead valve arrangement. Let’s take a

closer look at this example to gain an understanding of how the sys-
tem works. Let’s begin with the camshaft, which is located in the lower
right-hand part of the engine block. The camshaft has one lobe for each
of the valves in the engine. Riding on the camshaft lobe is a cylinder-
shaped part called a lifter. A lifter provides smooth surface that can
ride directly on the cam lobe. The lifter is held in holes that are ma-
chined in the engine block. This prevents the lifter from moving in any
direction except up and down. The lifter moves up and down as the
cam lobe rotates.
Resting on the top of the lifter is a long metal rod called a push rod. The
push rod is used to transmit the up-and-down motion of the lifter to
the top of the cylinder head. This push rod connects to a pivoting com-
ponent mounted at the top of the cylinder head. This pivoting compo-
nent is called a rocker arm. The rocker arm is designed to pivot back
and forth. One end of the rocker arm rests on the push rod, while the
other end rests on the end of the valve stem. As the cam lobe rotates
and pushes up on the valve lifter, the lifter in turn pushes up on the
push rod. The push rod then pushes up on the end of the rocker arm.
Since the rocker arm is designed to pivot back and forth, when you
FIGURE 66—A typical overhead valve arrangement is shown here.
push up on one end of the rocker arm, the other end of the rocker arm
pushes downward on top of the valve stem. When the rocker arm
pushes down on the valve stem, the valve opens. This process is illus-
trated in Figure 67. When the cam lobe rotates so that it no longer
pushes up on the lifter, the rocker arm moves away from the valve
stem, and the valve closes. Each valve in the engine has its own lobe,
lifter, push rod, and rocker arm.
An exploded view of the valve train components for an overhead

valve engine is shown in Figure 68. In most cases, the rocker arm is
held in place over a threaded stud in the top of the head, and then held
in place by a pivoting washer and a retaining nut.
The Valve Lifters
Now that you have a general idea of how an overhead valve engine
works, let’s look at each of the valve train components in detail. Let’s
begin with the valve lifter. A valve lifter is a cylindrical steel compo-
nent that rides directly on a camshaft lobe. (Lifters are also called tap-
pets or cam followers. In this study unit, however, we’ll use the term
lifter throughout.) A typical valve lifter is shown in Figure 69.
An OHV engine will contain one lifter for each valve. The lifter links
the cam lobe to the long, narrow push rod that extends to the top of the
cylinder head. The lifters fit into machined holes in the engine block

tion shows the opera-
tion of the push rod
and rocker arm.
FIGURE 68—An exploded view of the valve train components for an overhead valve engine is shown here.

valve lifter is shown
here.
FIGURE 70—This photo-

graph shows the ma-
chined holes in the
engine block that the
valve lifters fit into.
that are positioned directly over the camshaft. These holes are shown
in Figure 70.
Several different types of lifters are used in automotive engines. The

exact lifter that’s used in a particular engine is determined by the
manufacturer. No matter what type is used, the overall function is the
same—to transmit the movement of the cam lobe to the push rod.
Three types of valve lifters are commonly used in automotive engines:
the mechanical type, the hydraulic type, and the roller type. Let’s take
a closer look at these three types of lifters.
Mechanical Valve Lifters
Mechanical valve lifters are made in one solid piece—that is, they have
no internal moving parts. Instead, the lifter is simply a solid link be-
tween the cam lobe and the push rod. For this reason, mechanical lift-
ers are also called solid lifters. The larger surface of the lifter is used to
contact the cam lobe to reduce the amount of wear these components
receive. Mechanical lifters are efficient at transferring the movement
from the cam lobe to the push rod and are quite reliable. Thus, they’re
often used in automotive engines.
However, there’s one disadvantage to using mechanical lifters—they

can’t be adjusted. Refer back to the illustration of the OHV in
Figure 66. In the figure, you can see that the rocker arm must stop ap-
plying pressure to the top of the valve when the valve needs to close. If
the rocker arm continues to apply pressure to the valve, the valve
won’t be able to close all the way, and thus won’t properly seal the
combustion chamber area.
Since mechanical valve lifters are solid and nonadjustable, it’s often
preferable to use adjustable rocker arm assemblies. An adjustable
rocker arm assembly is shown in Figure 71. An adjustable rocker arm can
be set so a small space is left between it and the top of the valve when
the valve is in the closed position. This small space between the valve
and the rocker arm is called the valve clearance or the valve lash. The
valve clearance must be adjusted to the exact proper distance. If the
clearance is too small, the valve won’t be able to close properly; if the
valve clearance is too large, the valves may make a tapping noise each
time they open. This excessive looseness will eventually cause the
valve train components to fail.
FIGURE 71—An adjust-

able rocker arm as-
sembly is shown here.
Remember that the engine creates a lot of heat as it operates. As the en-
gine becomes warm, the parts inside the engine become warm, includ-
ing the valve train components. As the valve train components heat
up, they’ll expand. Therefore, the valve clearance must be set to take
this expansion into consideration. In fact, some engine manufacturers
recommend that you set the valve clearances when the engine is warm
to ensure that the proper clearance is set. The valve clearance is set by
turning the adjustment screw on the rocker arm until the proper clear-
ance is reached.
Mechanical lifters, however, will begin to cause problems over time.

After an engine has been operated for a while, the valve train compo-
nents begin to wear, particularly the area where the lifter contacts the
cam lobe. This metal-to-metal contact point will wear quite a bit over
time, even though the area receives oil from the lubrication system. As
the cam lobe and the lifter wear, the lifter will sit slightly lower in the
engine against the cam. Thus, the push rod end of the rocker will also
sit lower, raising the other end of the rocker slightly. This results in an
increased valve clearance.
Engines that contain mechanical lifters need to have their valve clear-
ances adjusted periodically to keep them operating properly. For this
reason, most of today’s engines use hydraulic lifters. Let’s take a closer
look at hydraulic lifters.
Hydraulic Valve Lifters
A hydraulic lifter is similar in shape to the mechanical lifter; however,

hydraulic lifters are hollow on the inside. The hole in the lifter comes
down from the top, but doesn’t extend all the way through. The bot-
tom part of the lifter still has a larger, round surface that contacts the
cam lobe. However, the push rod is attached to a small piston inside
the lifter instead of being placed directly onto the lifter.
A cutaway view of a typical hydraulic lifter is shown in Figure 72. The

piston that the push rod rides on can easily slide in and out of the
lifter. When the engine is operating, this piston rides on a flow of oil
that’s allowed to enter the lifter below the piston. This oil is provided
by the engine’s oil pump. The piston can move freely, so the oil pres-
sure under the piston will move the piston and the push rod upward
until all the valve clearance is removed. As the valve train components
wear, the oil pressure simply moves the piston up, continually taking
out any valve clearance that may exist. Thus, the hydraulic lifter actu-
ally adjusts itself, so no periodic adjustments to the valve train are
needed.
You may think that because the piston is pushed up by oil pressure, it
won’t allow the valve to close properly. However, the hydraulic lifter
includes a metering valve that monitors the amount of oil pressure
that’s used to move the piston. The valve reduces the oil pressure to an
amount large enough to hold the piston up in the lifter, but not so
large that it overcomes the valve spring pressure and holds the valve
open.
A typical hydraulic lifter also contains a check valve. The check valve al-
lows oil to enter the area below the lifter piston, but prevents any oil
from leaving this area. The check valve serves an important function
when the valve needs to be opened by the camshaft. When the cam-
shaft lobe begins to push up on the lifter to open the valve, the check
PUSH ROD SEAT

LIFTER BODY
RETAINER
PUSH SEAT
METERING
VALVE INNER PISTON
CHECK BALL
CHECK BALL
SPRING
CHECK BALL
RETAINER INNER PISTON
SPRING
FIGURE 72—A cutaway view of a typical hydraulic lifter is shown here.
valve closes so that the oil under the lifter piston can’t leak back out. If
the oil were allowed to leak out, the lifter would lift up, but the piston
would simply move down in the lifter, fail to push the push rod up,
and thus fail to open the valve. The check valve traps the oil under the
piston whenever the valve is opened. Since oil can’t be compressed,
the piston and push rod will simply move up with the lifter body, just
as if it were all one piece. Once the valve has opened and then is com-
pletely closed, the check valve will once again be open, so that addi-
tional oil can flow under the piston to make up for any wear that has
occurred.
As you can see, although a little more complex than a mechanical lifter,
the hydraulic lifter’s self-adjusting feature is a big advantage. By using
the hydraulic lifter, the valve train is always adjusted properly. How-
ever, even with proper adjustment, the camshaft lobes and the lifters
will wear over time. This brings us to another type of lifter that offers
some better wear characteristics. This type of lifter is called a roller
lifter.
Roller Valve Lifters
Whether the lifters used in an engine are the mechanical type or the
hydraulic type, the pressure that exists between the lifter and the cam
lobe can be quite high. Remember, as the valve is being opened,
enough force must be applied to overcome the pressure of the valve
spring. Therefore, all of this pressure is placed on the metal-to-metal
contact area between the cam lobe and the lifter. In addition, the valves
are opened and closed thousands of times a minute, and the bottom
surface of the lifter is always in direct contact with the cam lobe. All
of this creates wear on these components over time.
To help reduce the amount of wear on the cam and lifter, some mod-
ern engines use roller lifters. Roller lifters are a combined version of
mechanical and hydraulic lifters. In a roller lifter, the body may be
mechanical or hydraulic. However, the bottom of the lifter that con-
tacts the cam lobe is different. Instead of a flat metal surface that rides
directly on the cam lobe, a small metal wheel or roller is mounted to
the bottom of the roller lifter (Figure 73).
FIGURE 73—A small

metal wheel or roller is
mounted on the bot-
tom of a roller lifter.
This roller resembles a wheel caster on an office chair, and the action of
the wheel is similar. Without wheels, a chair has a lot of resistance and
is rather difficult to slide across the floor. With the wheels attached, the
chair will move across the floor easily with little resistance. The same is
true for the roller lifter. The roller on the end of the lifter is free to ro-
tate. Therefore, as the wheel rides along the camshaft lobe, the roller
simply rotates rather than sliding along the surface of the lobe like the
lifters you read about earlier. Because the lifter rolls along the surface,
very little friction is created, so the parts don’t wear as much.
Until recently, roller-type lifters were only used in high-performance

applications. However, they’re being used in regular passenger vehi-
cles more often because of their better wear characteristics.
Push Rods
As you’ve learned, push rods are used to transmit the movement of

the lifter to the rocker arm at the top of the cylinder head. A typical
push rod is shown in Figure 74A. Push rods are long, small-diameter
pieces of steel that are usually hollow. The engine’s lubrication system
transfers oil to the upper valve train components through the hole that
extends through the middle of the push rod. The ends of a push rod
are usually either rounded off or cup-shaped.
FIGURE 74—A typical push rod is shown in Figure 74A. The ends of a push rod
come in several shapes, as shown in Figure 74B, but are most often rounded
or cup-shaped.
A push rod is installed so that one end is in contact with the valve
lifter, while the other end is in contact with the rocker arm. Since
there’s very little clearance in the valve system once it’s installed and
adjusted, the push rod is simply placed between these two compo-
nents. Because of the shape of the push rod end, the push rod will be
trapped in place—there isn’t enough clearance for the push rod end to
fall out. Again, there will be one push rod for each valve in the engine.
Rocker Arms
A rocker arm in a typical engine is simply a pivoting lever that’s used

to open and close a valve. Since a rocker arm pivots back and forth, as
the push rod pushes up on one end of the rocker arm, the other end of
the rocker arm is pushed downward. As the end of the rocker arm
moves down, it pushes down on the top of the valve stem and opens
the valve.
In most rocker arms, one end is made of formed metal that accepts the
end of the push rod, while the other end has a smooth surface that can
push on the valve stem. Figure 75 shows a typical set of rocker arms
installed in an engine. All rocker arms perform the same basic func-
tion, but there are several different types. The differences between the
FIGURE 75—This illustration shows the location of a set of rocker arms installed in an engine. Note the posi-
tion of the other valve train components as well.

stud-mounted rocker
arm is shown here.
various types are the way in which they’re mounted to the head. Three
basic mounting methods are the stud-mount, the pedestal-mount, and the
shaft-mount. Let’s discuss each of these methods in a little more detail.
In a stud-mounted rocker arm, the rocker is mounted on a threaded

stud that sticks up from the cylinder head. The rocker is placed over
the threaded stud, a semiround washer is put in place to allow the
rocker to pivot, and a retaining nut is used to hold the rocker in place.
A typical stud-mounted rocker arm is shown in Figure 76.
A pedestal-mounted rocker arm is similar to the stud-mounted rocker

arm you just read about. However, a pedestal-mounted rocker arm sits
on a special raised area of the cylinder head. The rocker is attached to a
threaded hole in the top of the cylinder head with a pivot washer and
a bolt. Since a semiround pivoting washer is used, the rocker arm can
still pivot once it’s installed. A pedestal-mounted rocker arm is illus-
trated in Figure 77.
FIGURE 77—A
pedestal-mounted
rocker arm is illustrated
here.
In a shaft-mounted rocker arm, the rockers aren’t individually

mounted to the cylinder head. Instead, rockers are all mounted to a
single metal shaft, and the shaft is then mounted to the cylinder head.
The rockers are free to pivot on the shaft as necessary. A typical shaft-
mounted rocker arm is shown in Figure 78. In most cases, the rocker
arm shaft is simply held in place by several bolts that are threaded into
the cylinder head.

shaft-mounted rocker
arm is shown here.
Summary of the Overhead Valve Engine
So far, you’ve learned about the valve train components of an over-

head valve engine and how they work together to operate the valves.
Figure 79 shows a typical V-type engine. This example is an overhead
valve engine.
In most cases, the valve train components are located on one side of
the cylinder head. The V-type engine has two cylinder heads (one for
each side of the engine), so the valve train components are placed on
the inner sides of the cylinder heads. Note that the valve train compo-
nents for the V-type engine all end up at the very same point on the en-
gine block. The lifters for both sides of the engine are directly in the
middle of the engine block. Because of this design, V-type engine blocks
normally need only one camshaft to operate all the valves in the engine.
The placement of the lifters in the V-type engine block allows the same
camshaft to be used to operate the valves in both sides of the engine.
The Valve Train in an Overhead Camshaft Engine

In an overhead camshaft engine or OHC engine, the camshaft is mounted
in the cylinder head (rather than in the engine block, as in the OHV en-
gine). Because the camshaft is much closer to the valves in this type of
engine, fewer valve train components are needed. In most cases, the
camshaft is mounted directly to the top of the cylinder head. The cam-
shaft is mounted so that it’s free to rotate. As you just learned, the cam-
shaft is driven by the engine’s crankshaft. In most cases, the camshaft
drive mechanism is placed at the very front of the engine and attached
to a gear or pulley on the end of the camshaft.
There are many different variations of the overhead camshaft engine

design. In most cases, the differences in the designs are the way in
which the valves are opened and closed by the camshaft. In the
FIGURE 79—Figure 79 shows a typical V-type OHV engine. (Used by permission of

General Motors Corp.)
simplest OHC design, the camshaft is placed directly over the top of
the valve stems. To permit the valve clearance to be adjusted, a thin
metal cap is placed over the top of the valve stem and valve spring.
This cap is sometimes called a lifter bucket. A flat, round metal disk is
placed on the top of the cap to hold it in place. This metal disk then con-
tacts the camshaft lobe. The valve clearance can be adjusted by changing
the thickness of the disk. (The metal disks come in a variety of thick-
nesses.)
The operation of this system is quite simple. As the camshaft lobe ro-
tates, the lobe presses down on the lifter cap and pushes the valve
open. When the lobe rotates away from the valve, the valve closes. As
you can see, this method of operating the valves is quite simple; how-
ever, the use of the metal disks to adjust the valve clearance makes the
valve adjustment process lengthy and inconvenient. In addition, since
the system has no self-adjustment mechanism, the valves must be peri-
odically adjusted in this system.
In another OHC engine design, the camshaft is mounted to the side of

the cylinder head instead of directly over the valves. Rocker arms are
then used to connect the camshaft lobes to the top of the valves. In this
design, the end of the rocker arm actually rides directly on the cam-
shaft lobe, instead of being operated by a push rod. The other end of
the rocker contacts the top of the valve stem. Each rocker is free to
pivot back and forth. In most engines designed this way, a shaft-type
rocker arrangement is used.
During operation, the camshaft lobe presses up on the one end of the
rocker arm. Since the rocker pivots near its middle, pushing up on one
end of the rocker will cause the other end of the rocker to push down
on the top of the valve, thus opening the valve.
In most cases, the rockers used in this type of arrangement are

equipped with adjustment screws at the valve stem end of the rocker.
These adjustment screws allow the valve clearance to be adjusted as
necessary. Although this system still needs periodic adjustment, the
adjustment is made much easier by the use of adjustable rocker arms.
The final type of OHC engine you’ll learn about is one of the most
common designs used. In this design, a variation of the hydraulic lifter
is used to eliminate the need for periodic valve adjustment. In this type
of engine, the camshaft is mounted in the cylinder head. The camshaft
is usually mounted just to the side of the valve ends, and quite a bit
above the valves (Figure 80A).
This particular design uses a specially designed rocker arm. Instead of

being mounted to the cylinder head and pivoting in the middle, this
type of rocker arm forms a bridge between the top of the valve stem
and a hydraulic lifter. The cam lobe then rides directly on the top side
of the rocker arm.
(A) (B)
FIGURE 80—In the overhead cam engine shown in Figure 80A, the camshaft is mounted just to the side of
the valve ends, and quite a bit above the valves. Since the lifter end of the rocker in this design can’t move
down, the force of the cam lobe pushing on the top of the rocker forces the valve open, as shown in Figure
80B.
During operation, the cam lobe rotates around to open the valve. As
the cam lobe pushes down on the top of the rocker, the hydraulic lifter
end of the rocker arm won’t move. The check valve in the lifter closes,
preventing any movement of the lifter piston. Since the lifter end of the
rocker in this design can’t move down, the force of the lobe pushing on
the top of the rocker forces the valve open (Figure 80B).
Once the cam lobe rotates away from the rocker arm, the valve closes.
Now, since no pressure is being placed on the rocker arm, oil from the
lubrication system can enter the area below the piston in the lifter, thus
taking up any additional clearance caused by wear in the valve train.
This design is self-adjusting and therefore needs no periodic adjustment.
For this reason, most overhead cam engines today use a similar design
of a hydraulic lifter and a rocker arm.
Still another variation on the use of hydraulic lifters in an OHC engine

is shown in Figure 81. In this design, the intake and exhaust valves
are placed in the cylinder head at a slight angle to one another. The
camshaft is then mounted in the cylinder head between the valves.
Hydraulic lifters are placed in bores machined into the cylinder head,
directly on top of the camshaft lobes. These lifters ride directly on the
cam lobes. However, this type of engine doesn’t use push rods. Instead,
the lifters press directly onto shaft-mounted rocker arms that are
placed in the cylinder head. The lifter pushes on one end of the rocker
arm, and the other end of the rocker arm pushes on the valve stem.
FIGURE 81—In this engine design, the intake and exhaust valves are placed in the cylinder head at a slight
angle to one another. The camshaft is then mounted in the cylinder head between the valves.
When the cam lobe pushes up on the lifter, the lifter in turn pushes up
on the rocker arm. Since the rocker arm pivots near its middle, pushing
up on one end of the rocker will cause the other end of the rocker to
push downward, thus opening the valve. The operation of the lifter it-
self is the same as the hydraulic lifters we discussed earlier. Since this
design uses hydraulic lifters, it’s self-adjusting and doesn’t require pe-
riodic maintenance.
As you can see, a variety of different designs are used in overhead

camshaft engines. Figure 82 shows an example of an overhead cam-
shaft engine design. Figure 82 shows a typical six-cylinder V-6 engine.
Notice that the V-type engine actually needs two separate camshafts.
Remember that a V-type engine has a separate cylinder head for each
side of the engine. Since the camshaft in an overhead camshaft engine
is mounted in the cylinder head, a separate camshaft is needed for
each cylinder head. Thus, the engine contains two camshafts. When
two camshafts are used in a V-type engine, they’re usually driven by
the same timing chain or timing belt. The chain or belt, in turn, con-
nects the camshafts to the engine crankshaft.
FIGURE 82—One type of overhead camshaft engine is shown here. Figure 82

shows a V-type OHC engine. (Used by permission of General Motors Corp.)
Some engines actually have two camshafts in each cylinder head. In

these engines, one camshaft is used for the intake valves and a separate
camshaft is used for the exhaust valves. Engines that use two separate
camshafts for intake and exhaust valves are called double-overhead cam-
shaft (DOHC) engines (Figure 82). A typical DOHC engine is illustrated
in Figure 83. Again, both camshafts will be driven by the same timing
chain or timing belt.
FIGURE 83—A double-

overhead camshaft
engine is shown here.
In a DOHC design, each cylinder head has two camshafts. So, since an
in-line DOHC engine has one cylinder head, an in-line DOHC engine
has a total of two camshafts. A V-type DOHC engine has two cylinder
heads; thus, this type of engine has two camshafts for each cylinder
head, for a total of four camshafts.
The DOHC design is used in many modern engines. The most com-
mon use of this design is in engines that have more than two valves
per cylinder. Since these multiple-valve engines have many more
valves to open and close, having separate camshafts to operate the
valves is almost a necessity.
Now that you have a better understanding of how the cylinder head
and valves work, let’s look briefly at some items that attach to the
outside of the cylinder head.
The Manifolds
Remember that the cylinder head has passages called ports that allow
gases to enter and exit through the cylinder head. How do these gases
find their way into the cylinder head ports? Well, on most engines, ex-
ternal passageways called manifolds carry fuel into the cylinder and
exhaust gases out of the cylinder. The external passageway that at-
taches between the cylinder head port and the fuel system is called the
intake manifold. The passageway that connects between the cylinder
and the exhaust system is called the exhaust manifold. Now, let’s take a
closer look at each of these.
The Intake Manifold
The intake manifold is designed to provide air-and-fuel passages be-

tween the fuel-delivery system and the engine cylinders. These pas-
sageways should be smooth and have gentle curves. The type of
fuel-delivery system used on the engine, as well as the engine’s cylin-
der arrangement, determines the design of the intake manifold. Each
engine cylinder should get the same kind and amount of air-and-fuel
mixture.
Intake manifolds are designed to accommodate the engines in which

they’re installed. The manifolds are usually made of cast iron. The two
most common types of intake manifolds are the branch manifold and the
V-type manifold. The branch-type manifold is used in in-line engines.
The manifold is attached to the side of the cylinder head. A typical
branch-type manifold is shown in Figure 84.

branch-type intake
manifold is shown here.
This type of intake mani-
fold is used in in-line en-
gines.
In contrast, a V-type manifold is used in V-type engines. The V-type

manifold fits between the two cylinder heads and is attached to them.
Figure 85 shows a V-type intake manifold for a typical V-8 engine.
Each bore in the manifold feeds air-and-fuel mixture to the cylinders.
FIGURE 85—A V-type

intake manifold is used
in V-6 and V-8 engines.
The manifold fits be-
tween the two cylinder
heads.
To prevent vacuum leaks (air leaks into the intake manifold), a gasket
or sealant is always used between the manifold and the cylinder head.
Some intake manifolds contain passages called exhaust crossover pas-

sages at the bottom of the manifold. When the engine is cold, some of
the exhaust gases are diverted to the crossover passages. There, the
gases preheat the intake manifold to vaporize the fuel. This allows the
engine to run smoothly as it warms up.
The Exhaust Manifold
Exhaust manifolds are usually made of cast iron, which allows the
manifolds to stand up well under high temperatures and extreme tem-
perature changes. The manifold is designed to route the exhaust gases
through a minimum of sharp bends. A typical exhaust manifold is
shown in Figure 86.

exhaust manifold for a
V-type engine is shown
here. A V-type engine
usually uses two ex-
haust manifolds, one
for each cylinder head.
The exhaust manifold is fastened to the cylinder head in such a way

that the manifold can expand more than the cylinder head. Different
design features make this possible. The engine’s cylinder head is
cooled by the engine’s cooling system, but the exhaust manifold isn’t.
For this reason, the exhaust manifold will expand faster than the cylin-
der head. To allow for this expansion, space for movement must be al-
lowed between the parts. If the manifold can’t “stretch” or “swell” as
its temperature rises, it will warp or become otherwise distorted. To
permit the exhaust manifold to expand, the holes in the manifold
flanges are larger in diameter than the cap screws or studs. The mount-
ing cap screws or studs fit through these holes.
Most exhaust manifolds are secured to the engine by several bolts, and
a gasket is used to seal the connecting surfaces. However, some have
highly polished connecting surfaces that don’t require a gasket. Again,
you’ll need to check the manufacturer’s service manual to determine
the arrangement in a particular engine. When exhaust manifold gas-
kets are used, the gaskets generally have metal facings on at least one
side. This allows the manifold to slide as it expands faster than the cyl-
inder head. On models that don’t have a gasket, the highly machined
connecting surfaces allow the manifold to slide.
On some engine models, a light metal plate called a heat shield is lo-
cated between the exhaust manifold and the cylinder head.
The hold-down nuts or cap screws must be tightened in the exact pat-
tern recommended by the service manual, and the exact fastening
torque recommended must be used. This is very important in order to
prevent the manifold from being distorted. If the manifold is attached
too loosely, it will leak, and air may enter the cylinder head between
exhaust stages. This results in uneven cooling and warping of the ex-
haust valves. On the other hand, if the manifold’s hold-down nuts are
fastened too tightly, the manifold won’t be able to expand as much as
it normally does. This condition usually results in a warped manifold,
which can cause leaks, warped valves, and damaging stresses on the
cylinder head.
Once the exhaust manifold is properly fastened to the engine, periodic

maintenance isn’t usually required.
The Engine Covers

So far, you’ve learned about the major components of a typical engine.
You learned that an engine must be sealed so that the oil inside can’t
leak out and dirt can’t get in. You already know that the oil pan covers
the entire bottom of the engine block, and also serves as a sump to
hold the engine's oil supply. However, you should also be aware that
the top and front of the engine must also be sealed with covers. These
covers are called the valve cover and the front cover.
Valve covers are steel, plastic, or aluminum covers that fit over the
valve train components and attach to the cylinder head. The valve cov-
ers are placed over the top of each cylinder head to seal the top part of
the engine. Figure 87 shows the valve covers on a typical engine. An
engine has a valve cover for each cylinder head. Therefore, a V-type
engine has two separate valve covers, one for each head. In most cases,
a gasket is placed between the valve cover and the cylinder head to
prevent any leakage.
The front of an engine also needs to be sealed with a cover. An engine’s

front cover serves basically the same function as the valve cover, and is
made from similar materials. The front cover seals the area where the
timing gears, timing belt, or timing chain are located. In an overhead
camshaft engine, the front cover usually extends up and over the front
of the cylinder head.
Now, take a few moments to review what you’ve learned by complet-

ing Power Check 3.
FIGURE 87—The valve covers on a typical engine are shown here.
Power Check 3
1. The large passages that allow the fuel to enter and the gases to exit the combustion
chamber and cylinder are called _______.
2. A ______ is placed on a valve stem to limit the amount of oil that can leak down be-
tween the valve stem and the valve guide.
3. A cylinder head is attached to the top of an engine block with _______.
4. In a ______ cylinder head arrangement, the intake ports and exhaust ports are placed
on opposite sides of the cylinder head.
(Continued)
Power Check 3
5. A _______ must be placed between the bottom of the cylinder head and the top of the
engine block to form a complete seal between the two components.
6. The egg-shaped surfaces machined onto a camshaft are called the _______.
7. The highest point of a cam lobe is called the _______, and the lowest point of the lobe is
called the heel.
8. The length of time that a valve is open is called the _______.
9. In an indirect camshaft drive system, a spring-loaded sprocket called a _______ is used

to keep the chain tight at all times.
10. The proper relationship of the camshaft and crankshaft speeds is called _______.
11. In general, if an engine’s camshaft is located in the engine block, the engine is called an
overhead _______ engine.
12. Long metal rods called _______ are used to transmit the up-and-down motion of the
lifter to the rocker arms at the top of the cylinder head.
13. The small space between the top of a valve and a rocker arm is called the _______.
14. External passageways called _______ carry fuel into the cylinder and exhaust gases out
of the cylinder.
15. An engine’s _______ seals the area where the timing gears, timing belt, or timing chain
are located.
16. If an engine’s camshaft is located in the cylinder head, the engine is called an overhead
_______ engine.
17. A _______ is a pivoting lever that’s used to open and close a valve.
18. _______ covers are steel, plastic, or aluminum covers that fit over the valve train com-
ponents and attach to the cylinder head.
19. An engine that uses two separate camshafts in each cylinder head to operate the intake
and exhaust valves is called a _______.
(Continued)
Power Check 3
20–34: Indicate whether each of the following statements is True or False.
_____ 20. A cylinder head may house many vital engine components, including the crank-
shaft, spark plug, connecting rods, and camshaft.
_____ 21. An in-line engine contains two rows of cylinders and two cylinder heads.
_____ 22. In an aluminum cylinder head, the valve seats and valve guides are separate
steel parts that are pressed tightly into the head.
_____ 23. In most engines, the intake valve head is larger than the exhaust valve head.
_____ 24. A six-cylinder engine that contains four valves per cylinder would produce
more power than a six-cylinder engine that contains two valves per cylinder.
_____ 25. The valve seats and valve guides are usually machined directly into an alumi-
num cylinder head.
_____ 26. A V-type engine uses one cylinder head to cover all of its cylinders.
_____ 27. The connecting surfaces of the valve face and the valve seat are machined at
matching angles to help them form a tight seal.
_____ 28. The drive gear or sprocket on the crankshaft is always twice as large as the corre-
sponding gear or sprocket on the camshaft.
_____ 29. The camshaft is commonly used to drive engine accessories, such as oil pumps
or fuel pumps.
_____ 30. In order to set the proper timing of the camshafts and the crankshaft, the timing
marks must be aligned with each other.
_____ 31. The camshaft must turn at one-half the speed of the crankshaft in order to open
and close the valves properly.
_____ 32. In a direct drive system, a camshaft is driven by a timing chain.
_____ 33. A V-type, overhead camshaft engine contains four camshafts.
_____ 34. A V-type, double-overhead camshaft engine would contain four camshafts.
(Continued)
Power Check 3
_____ 35. Label the indicated engine parts in the illustration below.
SUMMARY
In this study unit, you learned the major parts of a typical automotive
engine. Even though the exact design of an engine varies depending
on its make or model, the parts that all engines contain are similar and
work in a similar fashion. In the next study unit, you’ll take a closer
look at the differences between various engine types and examine how
engines are identified and rated.
At this point in your course, it’s important to understand the function

of each engine part and how it works together with the other engine
components. The four engine stages—intake, compression, power, and
exhaust—are the heart of engine operation. Therefore, it’s important
that you understand these stages completely and how the parts actu-
ally work together to perform these stages.
Also, keep in mind that you haven’t read about every engine compo-
nent. There are many engine components that you have yet to dis-
cover. These components are part of several systems that work with
the engine’s basic parts to allow it to run and keep on running. These
systems include the fuel system, lubricating system, cooling system,
and ignition system.
An engine’s fuel system includes the components that are responsible

for providing the engine with a proper mixture of air and fuel. As
you’ve learned, in order for an engine to operate well, the proper mix-
ture of air and fuel must enter the cylinder at the proper time in the
engine cycle.
An engine’s lubricating system includes the components that provide

a continuous supply of lubricating oil to all the engine’s moving com-
ponents. Lubricating oil is needed for a variety of reasons, but mainly
to reduce friction between metal components and thus prevent the
parts from wearing.
You also learned that as an engine operates, a great deal of heat is pro-
duced. The burning of the air-and-fuel mixture inside the cylinders
causes the entire engine to become very hot. If this heat isn’t con-
trolled, the engine could become so hot that its components could be
damaged. Therefore, the engine’s cooling system is responsible for
controlling the removal of heat from the engine and maintaining it at a
proper operating temperature.
You now know that the air-and-fuel mixture isn’t the only thing that
an engine needs to operate—it must also have a way to ignite the mix-
ture once it’s compressed in the cylinder. An engine’s ignition system
is responsible for igniting the mixture in the cylinders. The ignition
system must not only create a spark at the spark plug to ignite the mix-
ture, but it must also do so at the proper time. It must also perform this
function thousands of times a minute! For this reason, the ignition sys-
tem is one of the most important systems in the engine.
In upcoming study units, you’ll take a detailed look at each of these

engine systems. As you progress through these lessons, you’ll see how
all the engine components work together to make an engine powerful
and reliable.
NOTES
97
Power Check Answers
1 10. blow-by
11. scrapers
1. cycle 12. Six or eight
2. top dead center (TDC) 13. connecting rods, engine block
3. power 14. crankshaft throw
4. combustion 15. firing order
5. stroke 16. torque converter
6. combustion chamber 17. bearing clearance
7. upper 18. main bearings
8. spark plug 19. end play
9. intake 20. flywheel
10. engine cycle 21. False
11. exhaust 22. True
12. lower end 23. False
24. True
2 25. False
26. True
1. even
27.
2. cylinder sleeve
3. cylinder bore
4. cylinder walls
5. piston pin or wrist pin
6. thrust face
7. tapered
8. ring end gap
9. compression
3 21. False
22. True
1. ports
23. True
2. valve seal
24. True
3. head bolts
25. False
4. cross-flow
26. False
5. head gasket
27. True
6. cam lobes
28. False
7. nose
29. True
8. duration
30. True
9. chain tensioner
31. True
10. valve timing
32. False
11. valve
33. False
12. push rods
34. True
13. valve clearance or valve lash
35.
14. manifolds
15. front cover
16. cam
17. rocker arm
18. Valve
19. double-overhead camshaft (DOHC)

engine
20. False
Examination 99
Automotive Engine Parts and Operation
EXAMINATION NUMBER:
00400300
Whichever method you use in submitting your exam
answers to the school, you must use the number above.
For the quickest test results, go to
http://www.takeexamsonline.com
When you feel confident that you have mastered the material in this study unit, go to
http://www.takeexamsonline.com and submit your answers online. If you don't have access
to the Internet, you can phone in or mail in your exam. Submit your answers for this examination
as soon as you complete it. Do not wait until another examination is ready.
Questions 1–23: Select the one best answer to each question.
1. An automotive engine’s camshaft rotates at

A. the same speed as the crankshaft. C. one-half the speed of the crankshaft.
B. one-quarter the speed of the crankshaft. D. twice the speed of the crankshaft.
2. The type of engine that contains one camshaft mounted in its cylinder head is called
A. an overhead valve engine. C. a double-overhead camshaft engine.
B. an overhead camshaft engine. D. a push rod engine.
3. The part of the poppet valve that contacts the valve seat is called the
A. face. C. margin.
B. stem. D. head.
4. Look at the engine block shown in Figure A-1. The engine shown in this figure is
A. a four-cylinder, in-line engine. C. a four-cylinder, horizontally opposed engine.
B. a six-cylinder, V-type engine. D. an eight-cylinder, V-type engine.
100 Examination
FIGURE A-1—Use this

illustration to answer
Question 4.
5. Which of the following components controls the opening and closing of the valves in an engine?
A. The crankshaft journals C. The rocker arms
B. The camshaft lobes D. The push rod
6. Look at the engine shown in Figure A-2. What type of valve system does the engine shown in this figure contain?
A. An overhead camshaft design with solid lifters C. An overhead camshaft design with hydraulic lifters
B. An overhead valve design with hydraulic lifters D. An overhead valve design with solid lifters
FIGURE A-2—Use this il-

lustration to answer
Question 6.
Examination 101
7. The crankshaft parts that are supported in the engine block by bearing inserts are called
A. rod journals. C. crankshaft throws.
B. main journals. D. lobes.
8. During an engine’s intake stage, what passages inside the cylinder head must the incoming air-and-fuel
mixture flow through in order to enter the cylinder?
A. The intake ports C. The valve guide
B. The exhaust manifold D. The cylinder bore
9. Which of the following components serves as both a cover for the bottom of the engine block and a reservoir
for engine oil?
A. The valve cover C. The front cover
B. The oil pan D. The lubrication retainer
10. Look at the illustration in Figure A-3. What method of driving a camshaft is shown in this figure?
A. A timing chain drive system C. A gear drive system
B. A timing belt drive system D. A direct drive system
FIGURE A-3—Use this

illustration to answer
Question10.
102 Examination
11. In most engines, the head of the intake valve is

A. slightly larger than the head of the exhaust valve. C. the same size as the head of the exhaust valve.
B. much smaller than the head of the exhaust valve. D. a different shape than the head of the exhaust valve.
12. In an automotive engine, the wrist pin connects

A. the connecting rod to the crankshaft. C. the piston to the connecting rod.
B. the crankshaft to the camshaft. D. the valve to the cylinder head.
13. Which of the following components helps to limit the front-to-back movement of the crankshaft?
A. The cam bearing C. The thrust bearing
B. The flywheel D. The vibration dampener
14. The up-and-down motion of the piston is converted to rotary motion by the
A. cylinder head and the valves. C. push rods and the rocker arms.
B. bearings and the piston rings. D. connecting rod and the crankshaft.
15. In a typical automotive engine, the piston contains _______ compression ring(s).
A. one C. three
B. two D. four
16. Which of the following components is an external passageway that connects an engine’s fuel system to a
cylinder head port?
A. The exhaust manifold C. The intake valve
B. The intake manifold D. The exhaust valve
17. Which of the following lists the stages of the four-stroke engine cycle in the correct order of operation?
A. Power, intake, exhaust, compression C. Exhaust, power, intake, compression
B. Intake, power, compression, exhaust D. Intake, compression, power, exhaust
18. The space between the top of the valve stem and the rocker arm is called the
A. valve clearance. C. bearing thrust.
B. end play. D. valve margin.
19. The component in the cylinder head that holds a valve in place and prevents the valve stem from moving side
to side is the
A. valve spring. C. valve cover.
B. valve guide. D. retainer clip.
20. The top of the cylinder head is sealed by the

A. valve cover. C. oil pan.
B. front cover. D. oil retainer.
21. The area in the cylinder head where the air-and-fuel mixture is burned is called the
A. combustion chamber. C. exhaust port.
B. intake port. D. valve guide.
Examination 103
22. A typical oil control ring consists of _______ separate part(s).

A. one C. three
B. two D. four
23. During engine operation, the total distance that a valve opens is called the
A. rise. C. duration.
B. lift. D. stroke.

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Study Unit

When you complete this study unit, you’ll be able to

· Explain the basic operation of the four-stroke engine

THE FOUR STAGES OF ENGINE OPERATION· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 1

THE LOWER-END ASSEMBLY · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 11

THE UPPER-END ASSEMBLY · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 50

POWER CHECK ANSWERS · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · 97

Automotive Engine Parts and Operation

THE FOUR STAGES OF ENGINE OPERATION

The engines used in automobiles, light trucks, and sport-utility vehi-

Review of the Basic Parts of an Engine

The piston is connected to the crankshaft by the connecting rod. When

In order to burn properly in an engine, fuel must be mixed with air.

Review of the Four Stages of Operation

FIGURE 1—A simplified

Piston stroke 1: Intake stage

Piston stroke 2: Compression stage

Piston stroke 3: Power stage

Piston stroke 4: Exhaust stage

EXHAUST VALVE (CLOSED)

When the air-and-fuel mixture is ignited, the burning gases expand

INTAKE VALVE (CLOSED)

pushing down on the pedals of a bicycle. This stage of burning the

INTAKE VALVE (CLOSED)

EXHAUST VALVE (OPEN)

FIGURE 6—An external view of a typical automotive engine is shown here.

Since an engine contains so many different parts, it's usually easier to

Now, take a few moments to review what you’ve learned by complet-

FIGURE 7—A disassembled view of an engine is shown here.

1–12: Fill in the blanks in each of the following statements.

4. The burning of the air-and-fuel mixture in the cylinder is called _______.

Check your answers with those on page 97.

THE LOWER-END ASSEMBLY

The Engine Block and the Cylinders

more unusual engines may contain up to twelve cylinders, but these

Since an engine block supports all the other engine components, it

Because aluminum is a very soft metal, each cylinder in an aluminum

Now, let’s take a moment to examine the engine’s cylinders. In very

1. By the number of cylinders the block has

2. By the way the cylinders are arranged in the block

Most of us have heard an engine described by the number of cylinders

Engine blocks are often classified according to the arrangement of their

opposed arrangement. Let’s take a look at each of these types of engine

An in-line engine (also called a straight engine) is an engine whose cyl-

In contrast to the in-line engine just described, the cylinders in a V-type

The final type of cylinder arrangement is the horizontally opposed

opposed engines are used widely by manufacturers such as Volks-

FIGURE 10—The parts of a

Most pistons aren’t perfectly round, although they may appear to be

Pistons aren’t only made slightly out-of-round, they’re also usually

FIGURE 12—The piston fits

The Piston Rings

FIGURE 13—A typical

As we just mentioned, compression rings seal in the pressure created

Compression rings are made in many different styles, depending on

FIGURE 15—Some typi-

(A) (B) (C)

Oil Control Rings

As you’ve learned, wear on the compression rings is reduced by the

Oil control rings are designed differently from compression rings. A

FIGURE 17—A typical oil

The Movement of the Connecting Rod and Crankshaft