SECTION - I

NETWORK ANALYSIS

1. What is Voltage and Current Sources?

Ans. Real voltage sources can be represented as ideal voltage sources in series with a
resistance r, the ideal voltage source having zero resistance. Real current sources can be
represented as ideal current sources in parallel with a resistance r, the ideal current source
having infinite resistance.
2. Define Mutual- and Self-Induction ?
Ans. The changing magnetic field created by one circuit (the primary) can induce a changing
voltage and/or current in a second circuit (the secondary).
The mutual inductance, M, of two circuits describes the size of the voltage in the secondary
induced by changes in the current of the primary:
change in I (primary)
V(secondary) = - M * ----------------------
change in time
The units of mutual inductance are henry, abbreviated "H".
A circuit can create changing magnetic flux through itself, which can induce an opposing
voltage in itself. The size of that opposing voltage is
change in I
V(opposing) = - L * -------------
change in time
where L is the self-inductance of the circuit, again measured in henries
3. Define bandwidth quality factor (Q)?
Ans. The BANDWIDTH of an accelerometer refers to it's useful range of operating frequencies.
This is usually defined by the frequency where the amplitude ratio falls to 0.5, the 3 dB point.
A system's QUALITY FACTOR, Q, describes the sharpness of the system's response. Q is
equal to the ratio of the center frequency to the bandwidth. Q is also used to describe the
amplitude of the resonant response, which is roughly equal to resonant frequency divided by the
driving frequency.
4. Brief explanation about Independent & Dependent Voltage & current Sources?

Ans. Independent Voltage Sources

An ideal independent voltage source is a two-terminal circuit element where the voltage across it
a) is independent of the current through it
b) can be specified independently of any other variable in a circuit.

Independent current Sources

In contrast to ideal independent voltage sources, an ideal independent current source is a two-
terminal circuit element where the current passing through it
a) is independent of the voltage across it
b) can be specified independently of any other variable in a circuit.

Dependent Voltage & current source

voltage or current source whose value is proportional to some other voltage or current in the
circuit. Thus, there are four different kinds of dependent sources; to describe an op-amp, weneed
a voltage-dependent voltage source. However, the standard circuit-theoretical model for a
transistor contains a current-dependent current source. Dependent sources do not serve as inputs
to a circuit like independent sources. They are used to model active circuits: those containing
electronic elements. The RLC circuits we have been considering so far are known as passive
circuits.
5. Maximum Power Transfer Theorem?
Ans. Any complex circuit or network can be replaced by a single energy source in series with a
single internal source resistance, RS. Generally, this source resistance or even impedance if
inductors or capacitors are involved is of a fixed value in Ohm´s. However, when we connect a
load resistance, RL across the output terminals of the power source, the impedance of the load
will vary from an open-circuit state to a short-circuit state resulting in the power being absorbed
by the load becoming dependent on the impedance of the actual power source. Then for the load
resistance to absorb the maximum power possible it has to be "Matched" to the impedance of the
power source and this forms the basis of Maximum Power Transfer.
Maximum Power Transfer is another useful analysis method to ensure that the maximum
amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance when the value of the load resistance is
exactly equal to the resistance of the power source. The relationship between the load impedance
and the internal impedance of the energy source will give the power in the load.
6. What is H - Parameters for two-port network?

Ans. A two-port network (a kind of four-terminal network or quadripole) is an

electrical network or device with two pairs of terminals connected together
internally by an electrical network. Two terminals constitute a port if they satisfy
the essential requirement known as the port condition: the same current must
enter and leave a port.

A two-port network makes possible the isolation of either a complete circuit or part of it and
replacing it by its characteristic parameters. Once this is done, the isolated part of the circuit
becomes a "black - box" with a set of distinctive properties, enabling us to abstract away its
specific physical buildup, thus simplifying analysis. Any linear circuit with four terminals can be
transformed into a two-port network provided that it does not contain an independent source and
satisfies the port conditions.
There are a number of alternative sets of parameters that can be used to describe a linear two-
port network, the usual sets are respectively called z, y, h, g, and ABCD parameters, each
described individually below. These are all limited to linear networks since an underlying
assumption of their derivation is that any given circuit condition is a linear superposition of
various short-circuit and open circuit conditions.
7. What is Laplace Transform?

Ans. By applying the Laplace transform, one can change an ordinary differential equation into an
algebraic equation, as algebraic equation is generally easier to deal with. Another advantage of
Laplace transform is in dealing the external force is either impulsive , (the force lasts a very shot
time period such as the bat hits a baseball) or the force is on and off for some regular or irregular
period of time
The Laplace transform of a function f(t), defined for all real numbers t ≥ 0, is the function F(s),
defined by:

The parameter s is a complex numbers:

with real numbers σ and ω.

The meaning of the integral depends on types of functions of interest. A necessary condition for
existence of the integral is that ƒ must be locally integrable on [0,∞). For locally integrable
functions that decay at infinity or are of exponential type, the integral can be understood as a
(proper) Lebesgue integral. However, for many applications it is necessary to regard it as a
conditionally convergent improper integral at ∞. Still more generally, the integral can be
understood in a weak sense, and this is dealt with below.
One can define the Laplace transform of a finite Borel measure μ by the Lebesgue integral

An important special case is where μ is a probability measure or, even more specifically, the
Dirac delta function. In operational calculus, the Laplace transform of a measure is often treated
as though the measure came from a distribution function ƒ. In that case, to avoid potential
confusion, one often writes

where the lower limit of 0− is short notation to mean

This limit emphasizes that any point mass located at 0 is entirely captured by the Laplace
transform. Although with the Lebesgue integral, it is not necessary to take such a limit, it does
appear more naturally in connection with the Laplace–Stieltjes transform.

8. What is M-derived filter?

Ans. M-derived filters or m-type filters are a type of electronic filter designed using the image
method. They were invented by Otto Zobel in the early 1920s. This filter type was originally
intended for use with telephone multiplexing and was an improvement on the existing constant k
type filter.[2] The main problem being addressed was the need to achieve a better match of the
filter into the terminating impedances. In general, all filters designed by the image method fail to
give an exact match, but the m-type filter is a big improvement with suitable choice of the
parameter m. The m-type filter section has a further advantage in that there is a rapid transition
from the cut-off frequency of the pass band to a pole of attenuation just inside the stop band.
Despite these advantages, there is a drawback with m-type filters; at frequencies past the pole of
attenuation, the response starts to rise again, and m-types have poor stop band rejection. For this
reason, filters designed using m-type sections are often designed as composite filters with a
mixture of k-type and m-type sections and different values of m at different points to get the
optimum performance from both types.

CONTROL SYSTEMS
1. what is Open Loop and closed loop control systems?
Ans. In Open-Loop control, no feedback loop is employed and system variations which cause
the output to deviate from the desired value are not detected or corrected.
A Closed-Loop system utilizes feedback to measure the actual system operating parameter being
controlled such as temperature, pressure, flow, level, or speed. This feedback signal is sent back
to the controller where it is compared with the desired system setpoint. The controller develops
an error signal that initiates corrective action and drives the final output device to the desired
value. In the DC Motor Drive illustrated above, the tachometer provides a feedback.

2. Transfer Function of DC Servo motor?

Ans. I have recreated the servo system in the first diagram on the main power servo page here:

In this block diagram, I have represented the DC motor and the potentiometer attached to its
shaft as the transfer function G(s), and the amplifier with gain A. We will determine what the
allowable range of A is to keep the system stable. The input of G(s) is the armature voltage of the
motor, ea, and its output is the motor shaft angular position, θm.
From the block diagram,

The closed loop transfer function of this system is

3. Define Steady state response?

Ans. The terms transient response arise naturally in the context of sine wave analysis. When the
input sine wave is switched on, the filter takes a while to ``settle down'' to a perfect sinewave at
the same frequency. The filter response during this ``settling'' period is called the transient
response of the filter.

4. Define stability of a system?

Ans. The stability of a system relates to its response to inputs or disturbances. A system which
remains in a constant state unless affected by an external action and which returns to a constant
state when the external action is removed can be considered to be stable.
A systems stability can be defined in terms of its response to external impulse inputs..

Definition
A system is stable if its impulse response approaches zero as time approaches infinity
The system stability can also be defined in terms of bounded (limited) inputs.

Definition
A system is stable if every bounded input produces a bounded output.

5. What is Gain margin?

Ans. The gain margin is the amount of gain increase required to make the loop gain unity at the
frequency where the phase angle is –180°. In other words, the gain margin is 1/g if g is the gain
at the –180° phase frequency. Similarly, the phase margin is the difference between the phase of
the response and –180° when the loop gain is 1.0. The frequency at which the magnitude is 1.0 is
called the unity-gain frequency or crossover frequency. It is generally found that gain margins of
three or more combined with phase margins between 30 and 60 degrees result in reasonable
trade-offs between bandwidth and stability.

6. What is Nyquist Plots?

Ans. There are a number of polar graph options for studying control systems including the
nyquist, inverse polar plot and the nichols plot. The nyquist open loop polar plot indicates the
degree of stability, and the adjustments required and provides stability information for systems
containing time delays. Polar plots are not used exclusively because,without powerful
computing facilities, they can be difficult to generate at a detailed level and they do not directly
yield frequency values.
7. What is lead–lag compensator ?
Ans. A lead–lag compensator is a component in a control system that improves an undesirable
frequency response in a feedback and control system. It is a fundamental building block in
classical control theory.
Both lead compensators and lag compensators introduce a pole–zero pair into the open loop
transfer function. The transfer function can be written in the Laplace domain as

where X is the input to the compensator, Y is the output, s is the complex Laplace transform
variable, z is the zero frequency and p is the pole frequency.

8. What is state variables?

Ans. In Control Engineering and other areas of science and engineering, state variables are used
to represent the states of a general system. The state variables can be used to describe the state
space of the system. The equations relating the current state and output of a system to its current
input and past states are called the state equations. The state equations for a linear time invariant
system are expressed with Coefficient matrices.
 COMPUTER
ORGANIZATION

1. What are Functional units?

Ans. In order to carry out the operations like accepting data or instructions by way of input, to
stores data, to process data as required by the user, to gives results in the form of output, and to
controls all operations inside a computer, the computer allocates the task between its various
functional units. The computer system is divided into three separate units for its operation. They
are 1) arithmetic logical unit, 2) control unit, and 3) central processing unit.
2. What is Stack organization in CPU?

Ans. A stack is a storage device that stores information in a last-in-first-out(LIFO) fashion. Only
two type of operations are possible in a stack, namely push and pop operations. Push places data
onto the top of the stack, while pop removes the topmost program and in some cases the
operating can be used explicitly for execution of a program.

3. What is Control memory?

Ans. Control memory is a random access memory (RAM) consisting of addressable storage
registers. It is primarily used in mini and mainframe computers. It is used as a temporary storage
for data. Access to control memory data requires less time than to m a in memory; this speeds up
CPU operation by reducing the number of memory references for data storage and retrieval.
Access is performed as part of a control section sequence while the master clock oscillator
is running. The control memory addresses are divided into two groups: a task mode and
an executive (interrupt) mode.

4. What is decimal arithmetic unit ?

Ans. A decimal arithmetic unit is a digital function that performs decimal micro-operations. It
can add or subtract decimal numbers, usually by forming the 9's or 10'scomplement of the
subtrahend. The unit accepts coded decimal numbers and generates results in the same adopted
binary code. A single-stage decimal arithmetic unit consists of nine binary input variables and
five binary output variables, since a minimum of four bits is required to represent each coded
decimal digit. Each stage must have four inputs for the augend digit, four inputs for the addend
digit, and an input-carry. The outputs include four terminals for the sum digit and one for the
output-carry. Of course, there is a wide variety of possible circuit configurations dependent on
the code used to represent the decimal digits.

5. What is Cache Memory?

Ans. A CPU cache is a cache used by the central processing unit of a computer to reduce the
average time to access memory. The cache is a smaller, faster memory which stores copies of the
data from the most frequently used main memory locations. As long as most memory accesses
are cached memory locations, the average latency of memory accesses will be closer to the cache
latency than to the latency of main memory.

When the processor needs to read from or write to a location in main memory, it first checks
whether a copy of that data is in the cache. If so, the processor immediately reads from or writes
to the cache, which is much faster than reading from or writing to main memory.
6. What are Peripheral devises?
Ans. Peripheral devise are the computer devices that are connected to the computer externally
such as printer, scanner, keyboard, mouse, tape device, microphone and external modem. They
can be internal such as CD-ROM or internal modem and external as the scanner, printer and Zip
drive. Peripheral devices can be classified according to their functions.
Input: Input devices are the type of the computer devices that are used to provide the control
signals to the computer. Keyboard and the Mouse are the examples of the input devices.
Output: Output devices are the devices that are used to display the results. Printer, scanner,
speaker and the monitor are the examples of the output devices.
Storage: A storage device is a device that is used to store the input.
7. What is Parallel processing?
Ans. Parallel processing is the simultaneous processing of the same task on two or
more microprocessors in order to obtain faster results. The computer resources can include a
single computer with multiple processors, or a number of computers connected by a network, or
a combination of both. The processors access data through shared memory. Some
supercomputer parallel processing systems have hundreds of thousands of microprocessors.

8. What is Interconnection Structures?

Ans. A computer consists of a set of components (CPU, memory, I/O) that communicate with
each other.
The collection of paths connecting the various modules is call the Interconnection Structures.
The design of this structure will depend on the exchange that must be made between
Modules.
 MICROPROCESSORS
AND INTERFACING

1. What are Macros?

Ans. Macro is a group of instruction. The macro assembler generates the code in the program
each time where the macro is called. Macros are defined by MACRO & ENDM directives.
Creating macro is similar to creating new opcodes that can be used in the program

• INIT MACRO

• MOV AX, data

• MOV DS

• MOV ES, AX

• ENDM
2. What is Branch Instruction?
Ans. Branch instructions perform a test by evaluating a logical condition and depending on the
outcome of the condition modify the program counter to take the branch or continue to the next
instruction.
Branch instructions are always relative to the current program counter. That is, the next
instruction is obtained by adding a signed offset to current program counter:
PC += (int)offset
Branches are inherently relocatable. That is, the program can be moved to any other block of
memory and still execute correctly. Jump instructions, by contrast, specify an absolute memory
reference. If the underlying program is moved in memory, those jump memory references
pointing to the interior of the moved block must be changed.

3. What is the Need for Direct-Memory Access (DMA)?

Ans. Computers often require rapid transfers of large amounts of data from one part of the
system to another part.

E.g., disk controllers, video controllers, network controllers, etc.

The Problem: to be transferred, using programmed or minute more than a Large files could
take interrupt I/O.

The Solution: Allow the Peripheral I/O device communicate directly with memory, commonly
called a Direct-Memory Access. With DMA data transfer rates of 10-50 million bytes per second
can be achieved.
4. What is 8255 PPI - Programmable Peripheral Interface?

Ans. PPI - Programmable Peripheral Interface

The 8255A programmable peripheral interface (PPI) implements a general-purpose
I/O interface to connect peripheral equipment to a microcomputer system bus. The
core's functional configuration is programmed by the system software so that external
logic is not required to interface peripheral devices.
Features
• Three 8-bit Peripheral Ports - Ports A, B, and C
• Three programming modes for Peripheral Ports: Mode 0 (Basic Input/Output),
Mode 1 (Strobed Input/Output), and Mode 2 (Bidirectional)
• Total of 24 programmable I/O lines
• 8-bit bidirectional system data bus with standard microprocessor interface
Controls.

5. What is Interrupt & what is the purpose of interrupt?

Ans. The meaning of ‘interrupts’ is to break the sequence of operation.While the cpu is
executing a program,on ‘interrupt’ breaks the normal sequence of executionof instructions,
diverts its execution to some other program called Interrupt Service Routine (ISR).After
executing ISR , the control is transferred back again to the main program.
Purpose of Interrupts

Interrupts are particularly useful when interfacing I/O devices that provide or require data at

relatively low data transfer rate.

6. What is synchronous data transfer?

Ans. It is a data method which is used when the I/O device and the microprocessor match in
speed. To transfer a data to or from the device, the user program issues a suitable instruction
addressing the device. The data transfer is completed at the end of the execution of this
instruction.

7.What is RISC?

Ans. RISC: Reduced Instruction Set Computer

Small, highly optimized set of instructions,

Every instruction is executed in a single clock after it is fetched and decoded,
Very fast execution,
Less power consumption,
The Advantages of RISC:
RISC instructions, being simple, can be hard- wire,
Processor can work at a high clock frequency and thus yields higher speed,
On-chip MMU, Floating point arithmetic units,
Chip cost is low,
More devises can place on chip,
Compilers produce more efficient codes in RISC µp &
Loading and decoding of instructions in a RISC processor is simple and fast.

8. Register Set of 8051-SFR?

Ans. Register Set of 8051-SFR

TH0-TL0 and TH1-TL1
 16 bit timer registers
P0-P3 – port latches
SP, PSW, IP – Interrupt Priority, IE – enable
TCON – timer/counter control reg to turn on/off the timers, interrupt control flags for ext. int
like INT1 and INT0
TMOD – modes of operation of timer/counter
SCON – serial port mode control reg
SBUF – serial data buffer for transmit and receive
PCON – Power control reg – power down bit, idle bit
 MICRO CONTROLLERS
AND APPLICATIONS

1. What are 8051 microcontroller’s Internal and External memories?

Ans. The 8051 has three very general types of memory. To effectively program the 8051 it is
necessary to have a basic understanding of these memory types.
The memory types are illustrated in the following graphic. They are: On-Chip Memory, External
Code Memory, and External RAM.
On-Chip Memory refers to any memory (Code, RAM, or other) that physically exists on the
microcontroller itself. On-chip memory can be of several types, but we'll get into that shortly.
External Code Memory is code (or program) memory that resides off-chip. This is often in the
form of an external EPROM.
External RAM is RAM memory that resides off-chip. This is often in the form of standard static
RAM or flash RAM.

2. 8051 microcontroller Arithmetic instructions?

Ans. Arithmetic Operations:
Mnemonic Description Byte Cycle
ADD A,Rn Add register to accumulator 1 1
ADD A, Direct Add direct byte to accumulator 2 1
ADD A, @Ri Add indirect RAM to accumulator 1 1
ADD A,#data Add immediate data to accumulator 2 1
ADDC A, Rn Add register to accumulator to carry flag 1 1
ADDC A, Direct Add direct byte to A with carry flag 2 1
ADDC A, @Ri Add indirect RAM to A with carry flag 1 1
ADDC A, #data Add immediate data to A with carry flag 2 1
SUBB A, Rn Subtract register from A with borrow 1 1
SUBB A, Direct Subtract direct byte from A with borrow 2 1
SUBB A, @Ri Subtract indirect RAM from A with borrow 1 1
SUBB A #data Subtract immediate data from A with borrow 2 1
INC A Increment Accumulator 1 1
INC Rn Increment register 1 1
INC direct Increment direct byte 2 1
INC @Ri Increment indirect RAM 1 1
DEC A Decrement accumulator 1 1
DEC Rn Decrement register 1 1
DEC direct Decrement direct byte 2 1
DEC @Ri Decrement indirect RAM 1 1
INC DPTR Increment data pointer 1 2
MUL AB Multiply A and B 1 4
DIV AB Divide A by B 1 4
DA A Decimal adjust accumulator 1 1

3. 8051 microcontroller interrupts?

Ans. 8051 provides 5 vectored interrupts. They are -

1.
2. TF0
 3.
4. TF1
5. RI/TI

Out of these, and are external interrupts whereas Timer and Serial port interrupts are
generated internally. The external interrupts could be negative edge triggered or low level
triggered. All these interrupt, when activated, set the corresponding interrupt flags. Except for
serial interrupt, the interrupt flags are cleared when the processor branches to the Interrupt
Service Routine (ISR). The external interrupt flags are cleared on branching to Interrupt Service
Routine (ISR), provided the interrupt is negative edge triggered. For low level triggered external
interrupt as well as for serial interrupt, the corresponding flags have to be cleared by software by
the programmer.
4