Submitted to:

Mr. Raul E. Garcia

Submitted by:
Katherine Anne C. Sanchez
 Aralin 1- Ang Pinagmulan ng Daigdig

Galaxy- A galaxy is a massive, gravitationally bound system that consists of

stars and stellar remnants, an interstellar medium of gas dust, and an
important but poorly understood component tentatively dubbed dark matter.
The name is from the ancient Greek word galaxias [γαλαξίας], literally
meaning "milky", a reference to the Milky Way galaxy. Typical galaxies
range from dwarfs with as few as ten million (107) stars, up to giants with a
hundred trillion (1014) stars, all orbiting the galaxy's center of mass. Galaxies
may contain many star systems, star clusters, and various interstellar clouds.
The Sun is one of the stars in the Milky Way galaxy; the Solar System
includes the Earth and all the other objects that orbit the Sun. Historically,
galaxies have been categorized according to their apparent shape (usually
referred to as their visual morphology). A common form is the elliptical
galaxy, which has an ellipse-shaped light profile. Spiral galaxies are disk-
shaped assemblages with dusty, curving arms. Galaxies with irregular or
unusual shapes are known as irregular galaxies, and typically result from
disruption by the gravitational pull of neighboring galaxies. Such
interactions between nearby galaxies, which may ultimately result in
galaxies merging, may induce episodes of significantly increased star
formation, producing what is called a starburst galaxy. Small galaxies that
lack a coherent structure could also be referred to as irregular galaxies.
Milky Way - The Milky Way galaxy, commonly referred to as just the
Milky Way, or sometimes simply as the Galaxy, is the home galaxy of the
Solar System, and of Earth. It is a barred spiral galaxy that contains 100-400
billion stars and an estimated 50 billion planets, 500 million of which could
be located in the habitable zone of their parent star. The Milky Way is part
of the Local Group of galaxies and is one of 100 billion galaxies in the
observable universe. The Solar System is located in the Milky Way galaxy
halfway out from the center, on the inner edge of the Orion–Cygnus Arm.
The Sun orbits around the center of the galaxy in a galactic year—once
every 225-250 million Earth years.

The "Milky Way" is a translation of the Latin Via Lactea, in turn translated
from the Greek Γαλαξίας (Galaxias), referring to the pale band of light
formed by stars in the galactic plane as seen from Earth. All the stars that the
eye can distinguish in the night sky are part of the Milky Way galaxy, but
aside from these relatively nearby stars, the galaxy appears as a hazy band of
white light arching around the entire celestial sphere. The light originates
from stars and other material that lie within the galactic plane. Dark regions
within the band, such as the Great Rift and the Coalsack, correspond to areas
where light from distant stars is blocked by dark nebulae. The Milky Way
has a relatively low surface brightness due to the interstellar medium that
fills the galactic disk, which prevents us from seeing the bright galactic
center. It is thus difficult to see from any urban or suburban location
suffering from light pollution. A total integrated magnitude of the whole
Milky Way stretching across the night sky has been estimated at −5.0.
 Aralin 2 – Ang pisikal na anyo ng daigdig

Alfred Wegener - Alfred Lothar Wegener (November 1, 1880 –

November 1930) was a German scientist, geophysicist, and
meteorologist.

He is most notable for his theory of continental drift

(Kontinentalverschiebung), proposed in 1912, which hypothesized that the
continents were slowly drifting around the Earth. However, Wegener was
unable to demonstrate a mechanism for continental drift, which, combined
with his mostly circumstantial evidence, meant that his hypothesis was not
accepted until the 1950s, when numerous discoveries provided evidence of
continental drift. Alfred Wegener first thought of this idea by noticing that
the different large landmasses of the Earth almost fit together like a jigsaw.
The Continental shelf of the Americas fit closely to Africa and Europe, and
Antarctica, Australia, India and Madagascar fit next to the tip of Southern
Africa. But Wegener only took action after reading a paper in Autumn 1911
and seeing that a flooded land-bridge contradicts isostasy. Wegener's main
interest was meteorology, and he wanted to join the Denmark-Greenland
expedition scheduled for mid 1912. So he hurried up to present his
Continental Drift hypothesis on 6 January 1912. But it wasn't considered to
be sufficient evidence in itself. He analyzed either side of the Atlantic Ocean
for rock type, geological structures and fossils. He noticed that there was a
significant similarity.
 Pangaea- The name was coined during a 1926 symposium discussing
Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift. In his book The Origin of
Continents and Oceans (Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane) first
published in 1915, he postulated that all the continents had at one time
formed a single supercontinent which he called the "Urkontinent", before
later breaking up and drifting to their present locations. The breaking up and
formation of supercontinents appear to be cyclical through Earth's 4.6 billion
year history. There may have been several others before Pangaea. The next-
to-last one, Pannotia, formed about 600 million years ago (Ma) during the
Proterozoic eon, and lasted until 540 Ma. Before Pannotia, there was
Rodinia, which lasted from about 1.1 billion years ago (Ga) until about 750
million years ago. Rodinia formed by the accretion and assembly of
fragments produced by breakup of an older supercontinent, called Columbia
or Nuna that was assembled in the period 2.0-1.8 Ga. The exact
configuration and geodynamic history of Rodinia are not nearly as well
understood as Pannotia and Pangaea. When Rodinia broke up, it split into
three pieces: the supercontinent of Proto-Laurasia and the supercontinent of
Proto-Gondwana, and the smaller Congo craton. Proto-Laurasia and Proto-
Gondwanaland were separated by the Proto-Tethys Ocean. Soon thereafter
Proto-Laurasia itself split apart to form the continents of Laurentia, Siberia
and Baltica. The rifting also spawned two new oceans, the Iapetus Ocean
and Paleoasian Ocean. Baltica was situated east of Laurentia, and Siberia
northeast of Laurentia.
 Aralin 3 – Ang heograpiya at kasaysayan

Nile- The Nile has two major tributaries, the White Nile and Blue Nile. The
latter is the source of most of the water and fertile soil. The former is the
longer. The White Nile rises in the Great Lakes region of central Africa,
with the most distant source in central Burundi. It flows north through
Rwanda, Tanzania, Lake Victoria, Uganda and southern Sudan. The Blue
Nile starts at Lake Tana in Ethiopia at 12°02′09″N 037°15′53″E /
12.03583°N 37.26472°E and flows into Sudan from the southeast. The two
rivers meet near the Sudanese capital of Khartoum. The northern section of
the river flows almost entirely through desert, from Sudan into Egypt, a
country whose civilization has depended on the river since ancient times.
Most of the population and cities of Egypt lie along those parts of the Nile
valley north of Aswan, and nearly all the cultural and historical sites of
Ancient Egypt are found along riverbanks. The Nile ends in a large delta that
empties into the Mediterranean Sea. In the ancient Egyptian language, the
Nile is called Ḥ'pī or iteru, meaning "great river", represented by the
hieroglyphs shown on the left (literally itrw, and 'waters' determinative) In
Coptic, the words piaro (Sahidic) or phiaro (Bohairic) meaning "the river"
(lit. p(h).iar-o "the.canal-great") come from the same ancient name. The
drainage basin of the Nile covers 3,254,555 square kilometres (1,256,591
sq mi), about 10% of the area of Africa. The two great tributaries join at
Khartoum. The White Nile starts in equatorial East Africa, and the Blue Nile
begins in Ethiopia. Both branches are on the western flanks of the East
African Rift, the southern part of the Great Rift Valley. Below this
confluence the only major tributary is the Atbara River, roughly halfway to
the sea, which originates in Ethiopia north of Lake Tana, and is around
800 kilometres (500 mi) long. The Atbara flows only while there is rain in
Ethiopia and dries very rapidly. During the dry period of January to June, it
typically dries up. It joins the Nile approximately 300 kilometres (200 mi)
north of Khartoum.
 .

Tigris Euphrates - The Tigris–Euphrates river system is part of the Tigris-

Euphrates alluvial salt marsh ecoregion of West Asia, and is characterized
by two large rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates. The rivers have several small
tributaries which feed into the system from shallow freshwater lakes,
swamps, and marshes, all surrounded by desert. The hydrology of these vast
marshes is extremely important to the ecology of the entire upper Persian
Gulf. Historically, the area is known as Mesopotamia. As part of the larger
Fertile Crescent, it saw the earliest emergence of literate urban civilization in
the Uruk period, for which reason it is often dubbed the "Cradle of
Civilization".In the 1980s, this ecoregion was put in grave danger as the
Iran–Iraq War raged within its boundaries. The wetlands of Iraq, which were
inhabited by the Marsh Arabs, were completely dried out, and only recently
have shown signs of recovery.

The Tigris-Euphrates Basin is primarily shared by Turkey, Syria and Iraq,

with many Tigris tributaries originating in Iran. Since the 1960s and in
1970s, when Turkey began the GAP project in earnest, water disputes have
regularly occurred in addition to the associated dam's effects on the
environment. In addition, Syrian and Iranian dam construction has also
contributed to political tension within the basin, particularly during drought.
 Aralin 4 – Ebolusyon ng tao

Reptile - Reptiles are animals in the (Linnaean) class Reptilia. They are
characterized by breathing air, laying shelled eggs, and having skin covered
in scales and/or scutes. Reptiles are classically viewed as having a "cold-
blooded" metabolism. They are tetrapods (either having four limbs or being
descended from four-limbed ancestors). Modern reptiles inhabit every
continent with the exception of Antarctica, and four living orders are
currently recognized. Unlike amphibians, reptiles do not have an aquatic
larval stage. As a rule, reptiles are oviparous (egg-laying), although certain
species of squamates are capable of giving live birth. This is achieved by
either ovoviviparity (egg retention) or viviparity (birth of offspring without
the development of calcified eggs). Many of the viviparous species feed
their fetuses through various forms of placenta analogous to those of
mammals, with some providing initial care for their hatchlings. Extant
reptiles range in size from a tiny gecko, Sphaerodactylus ariase, that grows
to only 1.6 cm (0.6 in) to the saltwater crocodile, Crocodylus porosus, which
may reach 6 m in length and weigh over 1,000 kg. The reptiles were from
the outset of classification grouped with the amphibians. Linnaeus, working
from species-poor Sweden, where the common adder and grass snake are
often found hunting in water, included all reptiles and amphibians in class
"III – Amphibia" in his Systema Naturæ. The terms "reptile" and
"amphibian" were largely interchangeable, "reptile" (from Latin repere, "to
creep") being preferred by the French. Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti was the
first to formally use the term "Reptilia" for an expanded selection of reptiles
and amphibians basically similar to that of Linnaeus.[ Today, it is still
common to treat the two groups under the same heading as herptiles.
 Charles Darwin - Charles Robert Darwin FRS (12 February 1809 –
19 April 1882) was an English naturalist. He established that all species of
life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the
scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a
process that he called natural selection. He published his theory with
compelling evidence for evolution in his 1859 book On the Origin of
Species. The scientific community and much of the general public came to
accept evolution as a fact in his lifetime. However, it was not until the
emergence of the modern evolutionary synthesis from the 1930s to the
1950s that a broad consensus developed that natural selection was the basic
mechanism of evolution. In modified form, Darwin's scientific discovery is
the unifying theory of the life sciences, explaining the diversity of life.
Darwin's early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at
the University of Edinburgh; instead, he helped to investigate marine
invertebrates. Studies at the University of Cambridge encouraged his passion
for natural science. His five-year voyage on HMS Beagle established him as
an eminent geologist whose observations and theories supported Charles
Lyell's uniformitarian ideas, and publication of his journal of the voyage
made him famous as a popular author.
 Aralin 5- Pag unlad ng kultura ng mga tao

Java Man-(Homo erectus erectus) is the name given to fossils discovered

in 1891 at Trinil - Ngawi Regency on the banks of the Solo River in East
Java, Indonesia, one of the first known specimens of Homo erectus. Its
discoverer, Eugène Dubois, gave it the scientific name Pithecanthropus
erectus, a name derived from Greek and Latin roots meaning upright ape-
man. Dubois' find was a very incomplete specimen, consisting of a skullcap,
a femur, and a few teeth. There is some dissent as to whether all these bones
represent the same species A second, more complete specimen was later
discovered in the village of Sangiran, Central Java, 18 km to the north of
Solo. This find, a skullcap of similar size to that found by Dubois, was
discovered by Berlin-born paleontologist GHR von Koenigswald in 1936.
Many more finds have subsequently been made at the Sangiran site,
although official reports remain critical of the site's "poor" presentation and
interpretation. The new date of the Mojokerto child, Dr. Swisher's group [of
the Institute of Human Origins in Berkeley] has determined, is about 1.81
million years, and the Sangiran fossils are about 1.66 million years old. The
oldest African Homo erectus fossils, found at Koobi Fora in Kenya, has been
dated at about the same age as the Mojokerto child.
 The Cro-Magnon (pronounced /kroʊˈmæɡnən/, French [kʁomaɲɔ̃]) were
the first early modern humans (early Homo sapiens sapiens) of the European
Upper Paleolithic. The earliest known remains of Cro-Magnon-like humans
are radiometrically dated to 35,000 years before present. The name derives
from the Abri de Cro-Magnon (French: rock shelter of Cro-Magnon, the big
cave in the local dialect) near the commune of Les Eyzies-de-Tayac-Sireuil
in southwest France, where the first specimen was found Being the oldest
known modern humans (Homo sapiens) in Europe, the Cro-Magnon were
from the outset linked to the well-known Lascaux cave paintings and the
Aurignacian culture that flourished in southern France and Germany . As
additional remains of early modern humans were discovered in
archaeological sites from Western Europe and elsewhere, and dating
techniques improved in the early 20th century, new finds were added to the
taxonomic classification. The term "Cro-Magnon" soon came to be used in a
general sense to describe the oldest modern people in Europe. By the 1970s
the term was used for any early modern human wherever found, as was the
case with the far-flung Jebel Qafzeh remains in Israel and various Paleo-
Indian in the Americas. However, analyses based on more current
dataconcerning the migrations of early humans have contributed to a refined
definition of this expression. Today, the term "Cro-Magnon" falls outside
the usual naming conventions for early humans, though it remains an
important term within the archaeological community as an identifier for the
commensurate fossil remains in Europe and adjacent areas. Current
scientific literature prefers the term "European Early Modern Humans"

Aralin 6 – Ang kabihasnan sa Mesopotamia

Hammurabi - Hammurabi (Akkadian from Amorite ʻAmmurāpi, "the kinsman is
a healer," from ʻAmmu, "paternal kinsman," and Rāpi, "healer"; (died c. 1750 BC))
was the sixth king of Babylon (that is, of the First Babylonian Dynasty) from 1792
BC to 1750 BC middle chronology (1728 BC – 1686 BC short chronology) He
became the first king of the Babylonian Empire following the abdication of his
father, Sin-Muballit, extending Babylon's control over Mesopotamia by winning a
series of wars against neighboring kingdoms. Although his empire controlled all of
Mesopotamia at the time of his death, his successors were unable to maintain his
empire. Hammurabi is known for the set of laws called Hammurabi's Code, one of
the first written codes of law in recorded history. These laws were written on a
stone tablet standing over eight feet tall (2.4 meters) that was found in 1901.
Owing to his reputation in modern times as an ancient law-giver, Hammurabi's
portrait is in many government buildings throughout the world. Hammurabi was a
First Dynasty king of the city-state of Babylon, and inherited the power from his
father, Sin-Muballit, in c. 1792 BC. Babylon was one of the many ancient city-
states that dotted the Mesopotamian plain and waged war on each other for control
of fertile agricultural land. Though many cultures co-existed in Mesopotamia,
Babylonian culture gained a degree of prominence among the literate classes
throughout the Middle East. The kings who came before Hammurabi had begun to
consolidate rule of central Mesopotamia under Babylonian hegemony and, by the
time of his reign, had conquered the city-states of Borsippa, Kish, and Sippar.
Thus Hammurabi ascended to the throne as the king of a minor kingdom in the
midst of a complex geopolitical situation. The powerful kingdom of Eshnunna
controlled the upper Tigris River while Larsa controlled the river delta. To the east
lay the kingdom of Elam. To the north, Shamshi-Adad I was undertaking
expansionistic wars, although his untimely death would fragment his newly
conquered Semitic empire.
 Fertile Crescent - The Fertile Crescent is a region in Western Asia. It
includes the comparatively fertile regions of Mesopotamia and the Levant,
delimited by the dry climate of the Syrian Desert to the south and the
Anatolian highlands to the north. The region is often considered the cradle of
civilization, saw the development of many of the earliest human
civilizations, and is the birthplace of writing and the wheel. The term
"Fertile Crescent" was first used by University of Chicago archaeologist
James Henry Breasted in his Ancient Records of Egypt, published in 1906.
The region was so named due to its rich soil and crescent shape.

Modern-day countries with significant territory within the Fertile Crescent

are Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria, besides the southeastern fringe
of Turkey and the western fringe of Iran. As crucial as rivers and marshlands
were to the rise of civilization in the Fertile Crescent, they were not the only
factor in the area's precocity. The area is important as the "bridge" between
Africa and Eurasia. This "bridging role" has allowed the Fertile Crescent to
retain a greater amount of biodiversity than either Europe or North Africa,
where climate changes during the Ice Age led to repeated extinction events
due to ecosystems becoming squeezed against the waters of the
Mediterranean Sea. Coupled with the Saharan pump theory, this Middle
Eastern land-bridge is of extreme importance to the modern distribution of
Old World flora and fauna, including the spread of humanity.

Aralin 7 – Iba pang Sibilisasyon sa Asya

 Iranian Plateau - The Iranian plateau (or in much less common use: the
Persian plateau, is a geological formation in Southwest Asia. It is the part of
the Eurasian Plate wedged between the Arabian and Indian plates, situated
between the Zagros mountains to the west, the Caspian Sea and the Kopet
Dag to the north, the Hormuz Strait and Persian gulf to the south and the
Indus River to the east in Pakistan. As a historical region, it includes Parthia,
Media and eastern Persia, the heartlands of Greater Iran (mainly Iran,
Afghanistan and Pakistan). The Zagros mountains form the plateau's western
boundary, and its eastern slopes may be included in the term. The
Encyclopedia Britannica excludes "lowland Khuzestan" explicitly and
characterizes Elam as spanning "the region from the Mesopotamian plain to
the Iranian Plateau".From the Caspian in the northwest to Baluchistan in the
south-east, the Iranian Plateau extends for close to 2,000 km. It encompasses
the greater part of Iran, Afghanistan and Pakistan, on an area roughly
outlined by the quadrangle formed by the cities of Tabriz, Shiraz, Peshawar
and Quetta containing some 3,700,000 square kilometres (1,430,000 sq mi).
In spite of being called a "plateau", it is far from flat but contains several
mountain ranges, the highest peak being Damavand in the Alborz at 5610 m,
and the Lut basin ast of Kerman in Central Iran falling below 300 m.
 Cyrus the Great - Cyrus the Great (Old Persian: IPA: [kʰuːruʃ], Kūruš,
Persian: ‫کوروش بزرگ‬, Kūrosh-e-Bozorg) (c. 600 BC or 576 BC – December 530
BC), also known as Cyrus II or Cyrus of Persia, was the founder of the Persian
Empire under the Achaemenid dynasty. Under his rule, the empire embraced all
the previous civilized states of the ancient Near East, expanded vastly and
eventually conquered most of Southwest Asia and much of Central Asia, parts of
Europe and Caucasus. From the Mediterranean sea and the Hellespont in the west
to the Indus River in the east, Cyrus the Great created the largest empire the world
had yet seen. The reign of Cyrus the Great lasted between 29 and 31 years. Cyrus
built his empire by conquering first the Median Empire, then the Lydian Empire
and eventually the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Either before or after Babylon, he led
an expedition into central Asia, which resulted in major campaigns that brought
"into subjection every nation without exception." Cyrus did not venture into
Egypt, as he himself died in battle, fighting the Massagetae along the Syr Darya in
December 530 BC. He was succeeded by his son, Cambyses II, who managed to
add to the empire by conquering Egypt, Nubia, and Cyrenaica during his short
rule.

Cyrus the Great respected the customs and religions of the lands he conquered. It
is said that in universal history, the role of the Achaemenid empire founded by
Cyrus lies in its very successful model for centralized administration and
establishing a government working to the advantage and profit of its subjects. In
fact, the administration of the empire through satraps and the vital principle of
forming a government at Pasargadae, were the works of Cyrus. Aside from his
own nation, Persia (modern Iran), Cyrus the Great also left a lasting legacy on the
Jewish religion through his Edict of Restoration, where because of his policies in
Babylonia, he is referred to by the people of the Jewish faith, as "the anointed of
the Lord" or a "Messiah."

Aralin 8 – Ang Sinaunang China

 The Yellow River or Huang He / Hwang Ho (simplified Chinese: 黄河;
traditional Chinese: 黃河; pinyin: Huáng Hé; Mongolian: Hatan Gol, Queen
river) is the second-longest river in China (after the Yangtze River) and the
sixth-longest in the world at the estimated length of 5,464 kilometers
(3,395 mi). Originating in the Bayan Har Mountains in Qinghai Province in
western China, it flows through nine provinces of China and empties into the
Bohai Sea. The Yellow River basin has an east-west extent of 1900 km
(1,180 mi) and a north-south extent of 1100 km (684 mi). Total basin area is
742,443 km² (290,520 mi²).The Yellow River is called "the cradle of
Chinese civilization", as its basin is the birthplace of ancient Chinese
civilizations and was the most prosperous region in early Chinese history.
But frequent devastating flooding largely due to the elevated river bed in its
lower course, has also earned it the unenviable names "China's Sorrow" and
"Scourge of the Sons of Han."

Early Chinese literature refers to the Yellow River simply as He , the word
that has come to mean simply "river" in modern language (in ancient times,
however, and were used in the meaning "river"). The first appearance of the
name "Yellow River" (黃河) is in the Book of Han (simplified Chinese: 汉
书; traditional Chinese: 漢書; pinyin: Hàn Shū) written in the Western Han
dynasty (206 BC–AD 9). The name "Yellow River" describes the perennial
ochre-yellow colour of the muddy water in the lower course of the river. The
yellow color comes from loess suspended in the water.

Sometimes the Yellow River is poetically called the "Muddy Flow"

(simplified Chinese:; traditional Chinese:; pinyin: Zhuó Liú). The Chinese
idiom "when the Yellow River flows clear" is used to refer to an event that
will never happen and is similar to the English expression "when pigs fly".
Laozi Chinese: pinyin: Lǎozǐ; Wade–Giles: Lao Tzu; also Lao Tse, Lao Tu, Lao-
Tzu, Lao-Tsu, Laotze, Laosi, Lao Zi, Laocius, and other variations) was a mystic
philosopher of ancient China, and best known as the author of the Tao Te Ching.
His association with the Tao Te Ching has led him to be traditionally considered
the founder of Taoism (also spelled "Daoism"). He is also revered as a deity in
most religious forms of the Taoist religion, which often refers to Laozi as
Taishang Laojun, or "One of the Three Pure Ones". Laozi translated literally from
Chinese means "old master" or "old one", and is generally considered honorific
According to Chinese tradition, Laozi lived in the 6th century BC. Historians
variously contend that Laozi is a synthesis of multiple historical figures, that he is
a mythical figure, or that he actually lived in the 4th century BC, concurrent with
the Hundred Schools of Thought and Warring States Period.

A central figure in Chinese culture, both nobility and common people claim Laozi
in their lineage. Throughout history, Laozi's work has been embraced by various
anti-authoritarian Laozi is traditionally regarded as the author of the Daodejing
(Tao Te Ching), though the identity of its author(s) and/or compiler(s) has been
debated throughout history.

The earliest reliable reference (circa 100 BC) to Laozi is found in the Records of
the Grand Historian (Shini) by Chinese historian Sima Qian (ca. 145–86 BC),
which combines a number of stories. In the first, Laozi was said to be a
contemporary of Confucius (551–479 BC). His surname was Li (李 "plum"), and
his personal name was Er (耳 "ear") or Dan (聃 "long ear"). He was an official in
the imperial archives, and wrote a book in two parts before departing to the West.
In the second, Laozi was Lao Laizi (老來子 "Old Master"), also a contemporary of
Confucius, who wrote a book in 15 parts. In the third, Laozi was the Grand
Historian and astrologer Lao Dan (老聃 "Old Long-ears"), who lived during the
reign (384–362 BC) of Duke Xian (獻公) of Qin).
 Aralin 9 – Ang sinaunang India

The Indus River (Sanskrit: Sarasvati, Sindhu; Avestan: Harauhuti; Urdu:

‫دریائے سندھ‬, daryā-e sindh; Sindhi: ‫ سنڌو‬Sindhu; Punjabi: ‫ سندھ‬Sindh; Hindko:
‫ سندھ‬Sindh; Avestan: Hapta Hindu; Pashto: ‫ اباسين‬Abāsin "Water of Sindh";
Pashto: ‫ السند‬Al-Sind; Tibetan: སེང་གེ།་གཙང་པོ; Wylie: Sênggê Zangbo "Lion
River"; Chinese: 森格藏布/狮泉河/印度河; pinyin: Sēngé Zàngbù/Shīquán
Hé/Yìndù Hé; Greek: Ινδός Indós; Turki: Nilab) is a major river which flows
through Pakistan. Originating in the Tibetan plateau of western China in the
vicinity of Lake Mansarovar in Tibet Autonomous Region, the river runs a
course through the Ladakh district of Jammu and Kashmir and then enters
Pakistan via the Northern Areas (Gilgit-Baltistan), flowing through the
North in a southerly direction along the entire length of Pakistan, to merge
into the Arabian Sea near the port city of Karachi in Sindh. The total length
of the river is 3,180 kilometers (1,976 miles) and it is Pakistan's longest
river.

The river has a total drainage area exceeding 1,165,000 square kilometers
(450,000 square miles). The river's estimated annual flow stands at around
207 cubic kilometers, making it the twenty-first largest river in the world in
terms of annual flow. Beginning at the heights of the world with glaciers, the
river feeds the ecosystem of temperate forests, plains and arid countryside.
Together with the rivers Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, Beas and two
tributaries from the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Afghanistan, the Indus forms
the Sapta Sindhu (Seven Rivers) delta of Pakistan.
 Reincarnation - Reincarnation is believed to occur when the soul or spirit,
after the death of the body, comes back to life in a newborn body. This
doctrine is a central tenet within the majority of Indian religious traditions,
such as Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism; the Buddhist concept of rebirth is
also often referred to as reincarnation. The idea was also fundamental to
some Greek philosophers and religions as well as other religions, such as
Druidism, and later on, Spiritism, and Eckankar. It is also found in many
small-scale societies around the world, in places such as Siberia, West
Africa, North America, and Australia. Although the majority of sects within
Judaism, Christianity and Islam do not believe that individuals reincarnate,
particular groups within these religions do refer to reincarnation; these
groups include the mainstream historical and contemporary followers of
Kabbalah, the Cathars, the Alawi, the Druze and the Rosicrucians. The
historical relations between these sects and the beliefs about reincarnation
that were characteristic of the Neoplatonism, Hermeticism, Manicheanism
and Gnosticism of the Roman era, as well as the Indian religions, is unclear.

In recent decades, many people in the West have developed an interest in

reincarnation. Feature films, such as Kundun, What Dreams May Come and
Birth, contemporary books by authors such as Carol Bowman and Vicki
Mackenzie, as well as popular songs, regularly mention reincarnation. Some
university researchers, such as Ian Stevenson and Jim B. Tucker, have
explored the issue of reincarnation and published reports of children's
memories of earlier lives in peer-reviewed journals and in books such as
Twenty Cases Suggestive of Reincarnation and Life Before Life. Skeptics are
critical of this work and Carl Sagan said that more reincarnation research is
needed.
 Aralin 10- ang sinaunang Egypt

Pyramid - A pyramid (from Greek "πυραμίς" – pyramis) is a structure

where the outer surfaces are triangular and converge at a point. The base of a
pyramid can be trilateral, quadrilateral, or any polygon shape, meaning that a
pyramid has at least three triangular surfaces (at least four faces including
the base). The square pyramid, with square base and four triangular outer
surfaces, is a common version. A pyramid's design, with the majority of the
weight closer to the ground, and with the pyramidion on top means that less
material higher up on the pyramid will be pushing down from above: this
distribution of weight allowed early civilizations to create stable
monumental structures.

For thousands of years, the largest structures on earth were pyramids: first
the Red Pyramid in the Dashur Necropolis and then the Great Pyramid of
Khufu, both of Egypt, the latter the only one of the Seven Wonders of the
Ancient World still remaining. Khufu’s Pyramid is built entirely of
limestone, and is considered an architectural masterpiece. It contains around
1,300,000 blocks ranging in weight from 2.5 tons to 15 tons and is built on a
square base with sides measuring about 230 m (755 ft), covering 13 acres.
Its four sides face the four cardinal points precisely and it has an angle of 52
degrees. The original height of the Pyramid was 146.5 m (488 ft), but today
it is only 137 m (455 ft) high, the 9 m (33 ft) that is missing is due to the
theft of the fine quality limestone covering, or casing stones to build houses
and Mosques in Cairo. It is still the tallest pyramid. The largest pyramid in
the world ever built, by volume, is the Great Pyramid of Cholula, in the
Mexican state of Puebla. This pyramid is still being excavated.
 Khufu (pronounced /ˈkuːfuː/, KOO-foo in English), also known as Cheops
(pronounced /ˈkiːɒps/ KEE-ops; Greek: Χέοψ, Kheops) or, in Manetho,
Suphis (pronounced /ˈsuːfɨs/ SOO-fis; Greek: Σοῦφις, Souphis), was a
Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt's Old Kingdom. He reigned from around 2589 to
2566 BC. Khufu was the second pharaoh of the Fourth Dynasty. He is
generally accepted as being the builder of the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of
the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Khufu's full name was "Khnum-
Khufu" which means "the god Khnum protects me. Khufu was the son of
King Sneferu and Queen Hetepheres I and brother of Princess Hetepheres.
Unlike his father, Khufu is remembered as a cruel and ruthless pharaoh in
later folklore. Khufu had nine sons, one of whom, Djedefra, was his
immediate successor. He also had fifteen daughters, one of whom would
later become Queen Hetepheres II. Several of Khufu's sons are known from
the papyrus Westcar, while other children are merely known from their
tombs in Giza. Cemetery G 7000 contains several of the mastabas of these
royal children. Khufu came to the Egyptian throne in his twenties, and
reigned for about 23 years, which is the number ascribed to him by the Turin
King List. Other sources from much later periods suggest a significantly
longer reign: Manetho gives him a reign of 63 years, and Herodotus states
that he reigned for 50 years. Since 2000, two dates have been discovered
from his reign. An inscription containing his highest regnal year, the "Year
of the 17th Count of Khufu", first mentioned by Flinders Petrie in an 1883
book and then lost to historians, was rediscovered by Zahi Hawass in 2001
in one of the relieving chambers within Khufu's pyramid. Secondly, in 2003,
the "Year after the 13th cattle count" of Khufu was found on a rock
inscription at the Dakhia Oasis in the Sahara. He started building his
pyramid at Giza, the first to be built there. Based on inscriptional evidence,
it is also likely that he led military expeditions into the Sinai, Nubia and
Libya.

Aralin 11 – ang sinaunang Greece

Crete (Greek: Κρήτη) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands
and the fifth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. It forms a significant
part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece; while it retains its own
local cultural traits (such as its own dialect, poetry, and music). Crete was
the center of the Minoan civilization (circa 2700–1420 BC), the first
civilization in Europe and the first European country with a palace (at
Knossos). Crete is the largest island in Greece and the second largest in the
eastern Mediterranean Sea (after Cyprus). It is located in the south of the
Aegean Sea separating the Aegean from the Libyan Sea. The island has an
elongated shape: it spans 260 km (160 mi) from east to west, is 60 km
(37 mi) at its widest point, and narrows to as little as 12 km (7.5 mi) (close
to Ierapetra). Crete covers an area of 8,336 km2 (3,219 sq mi), with a
coastline of 1,046 km (650 mi); to the north, it broaches the Sea of Crete
(Greek: Κρητικό Πέλαγος); to the south, the Libyan Sea (Greek: Λιβυκό
Πέλαγος); in the west, the Myrtoan Sea, and toward the east the Karpathion
Sea. It lies approximately 160 km (99 mi) south of the Greek mainland.
Under Roman rule, in Classical Latin, the island was called Creta. Under
Venetian rule, it was known as Candia (sometimes anglicized as 'Candy'), a
Venetian adaptation of the earlier Greek name Chandax (Greek: Χάνδαξ,
"moat") or Chandakas (Greek: Χάνδακας), which in turn came from the
Arabic rabḍ al-ḫandaq 'castle of the moat'. Under Ottoman rule, in Turkish,
it was called Girit.
 Zeus - In Greek mythology Zeus /ˈzuːs/ or /ˈzjuːs/; Ancient Greek: Ζεύς;
Modern Greek: Δίας, Dias) is the "Father of Gods and men"[3] who ruled the
Olympians of Mount Olympus as a father ruled the family. He was the god
of sky and thunder in Greek mythology. His Roman counterpart was Jupiter
and his Etruscan counterpart was Tinia. Zeus was the child of Cronus and
Rhea, and the youngest of his siblings. In most traditions he was married to
Hera, although, at the oracle of Dodona, his consort was Dione: according to
the Iliad, he is the father of Aphrodite by Dione. He is known for his erotic
escapades. These resulted in many godly and heroic offspring, including
Athena, Apollo and Artemis, Hermes, Persephone (by Demeter), Dionysus,
Perseus, Heracles, Helen, Minos, and the Muses (by Mnemosyne); by Hera,
he is usually said to have fathered Ares, Hebe and Hephaestus As Walter
Burkert points out in his book, Greek Religion, "Even the gods who are not
his natural children address him as Father, and all the gods rise in his
presence." For the Greeks, he was the King of the Gods, who oversaw the
universe. As Pausanias observed, "That Zeus is king in heaven is a saying
common to all men".[6] In Hesiod's Theogony Zeus assigns the various gods
their roles. In the Homeric Hymns he is referred to as the chieftain of the
gods.

His symbols are the thunderbolt, eagle, bull, and oak. In addition to his Indo-
European inheritance, the classical "cloud-gatherer" also derives certain
iconographic traits from the cultures of the Ancient Near East, such as the
scepter. Zeus is frequently depicted by Greek artists in one of two poses:
standing, striding forward, with a thunderbolt leveled in his raised right
hand, or seated in majesty.
 Aralin 12 – Ang Athens at Spartans

Athens - Athens ( /ˈæθɪnz/; Modern Greek: Αθήνα, Athína, IPA: [aˈθina],

Katharevousa: Ἀθῆναι, Athine, Ancient Greek: Ἀθῆναι, Athēnai ), is the
capital and largest city of Greece. Athens dominates the Attica periphery and
it is one of the world's oldest cities, as its recorded history spans around
3,400 years.

The Greek capital has a population of 745,514 (in 2001) within its
administrative limitsand a land area of 39 km2 (15 sq mi). The urban area of
Athens extends beyond the administrative city limits with a population of
3,130,841 (in 2001) and a land area of 412 km2 (159 sq mi). According to
Eurostat, the Athens Larger Urban Zone (LUZ) is the 7th most populous
LUZ in the European Union (the 4th most populous capital city of the EU)
with a population of 4,013,368 (in 2004).

A cosmopolitan metropolis, modern Athens is central to economic, financial,

industrial, political and cultural life in Greece and it is rated as an alpha-
world city. In 2008, Athens was ranked the world's 32nd richest city by
purchasing power and the 25th most expensive in a UBS study.

Classical Athens was a powerful city-state. A centre for the arts, learning
and philosophy, home of Plato's Academy and Aristotle's Lyceum, it is
widely referred to as the cradle of Western civilization and the birthplace of
democracy, largely due to the impact of its cultural and political
achievements during the 5th and 4th centuries BC on the rest of the then
known European continent.
 Sparta (Doric Σπάρτα; Attic Σπάρτη Spartē) or Lacedaemon, was a
prominent city-state in ancient Greece, situated on the banks of the River
Eurotas in Laconia, in south-eastern Peloponnese.[1] It emerged as a political
entity around the 10th century BC, when the invading Dorians subjugated
the local, non-Dorian population. From c. 650 BC it rose to become the
dominant military land-power in ancient Greece.

Given its military pre-eminence, Sparta was recognized as the overall leader
of the combined Greek forces during the Greco-Persian Wars. Between 431
and 404 BC, Sparta was the principal enemy of Athens during the
Peloponnesian War, from which it emerged victorious, though at great cost.
Sparta's defeat by Thebes in the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC ended Sparta's
prominent role in Greece. However, it maintained its political independence
until 146 BC, when the Romans conquered Greece.

Sparta was unique in ancient Greece for its social system and constitution,
which completely focused on military training and excellence. Its inhabitants
were classified as Spartiates (Spartan citizens, who enjoyed full rights),
Mothakes (non-Spartan free men raised as Spartans), Perioikoi (freedmen),
and Helots (state-owned serfs, enslaved non-Spartan local population).
Spartiates underwent the rigorous agoge training and education regimen, and
Spartan phalanxes were widely considered to be among the best in battle.
Spartan women enjoyed considerably more rights and equality to men than
elsewhere in the classical world.

Sparta was the subject of fascination in its own day, as well as in the West
following the revival of classical learning. Sparta continues to fascinate
Western Culture; an admiration of Sparta is called laconophilia.
 Aralin 13 – Mga digmaan sa Greece

Greece also known as Hellas and officially the Hellenic Republic

(Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, Ellīnikī́ Dīmokratía, IPA: [eliniˈki ðimokraˈtia]), is a
country in southeastern Europe. Situated on the southern end of the Balkan
Peninsula, Greece has land borders with Albania, the Republic of Macedonia
and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea lies to the
east of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea to the west, and the Mediterranean
Sea to the south. Greece has the tenth longest coastline in the world at
14,880 km (9,246 mi) in length, featuring a vast number of islands
(approximately 1400, of which 227 are inhabited), including Crete, the
Dodecanese, the Cyclades, and the Ionian Islands among others. Eighty
percent of Greece consists of mountains, of which Mount Olympus is the
highest at 2,917 m (9,570 ft). Modern Greece traces its roots to the
civilisation of ancient Greece, generally considered the cradle of Western
civilization. As such, it is the birthplace of democracy, Western philosophy,
the Olympic Games, Western literature and historiography, political science,
major scientific and mathematical principles, and Western drama, including
both tragedy and comedy. This legacy is partly reflected in the 17 UNESCO
World Heritage Sites located in Greece. The modern Greek state was
established in 1830, following a victorious uprising against Ottoman rule.
 The Aegean Sea (Greek: Αιγαίο Πέλαγος, Egeo Pelagos [eˈʝeo ˈpelaɣos] ;
Turkish: Ege Denizi) is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea
located between the southern Balkan and Anatolian peninsulas, i.e., between
the mainlands of Greece and Turkey. In the north, it is connected to the
Marmara Sea and Black Sea by the Dardanelles and Bosporus. The Aegean
Islands are within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery,
including Crete and Rhodes. The Aegean Region consists of nine provinces
in southwestern Turkey, in part bordering on the Aegean Sea. The sea was
traditionally known as Archipelago (in Greek, Αρχιπέλαγος), the general
sense of which has since changed to refer to the Aegean Islands and,
generally, to any island group because the Aegean Sea is remarkable for its
large number of islands. The Aegean Sea covers about 214,000 square
kilometres (83,000 sq mi) in area, and measures about 610 kilometres
(380 mi) longitudinally and 300 kilometres (190 mi) latitudinally. The sea's
maximum depth is 3,543 metres (11,624 ft), east of Crete. The Aegean
Islands are found within its waters, with the following islands delimiting the
sea on the south (generally from west to east): Kythera, Antikythera, Crete,
Kasos, Karpathos and Rhodes. The word archipelago was originally applied
specifically to the Aegean Sea and its islands. Many of the Aegean Islands,
or chains of islands, are actually extensions of the mountains on the
mainland. One chain extends across the sea to Chios, another extends across
Euboea to Samos, and a third extends across the Peloponnese and Crete to
Rhodes, dividing the Aegean from the Mediterranean.
 Aralin 14 – Ang Kulturang Hellenitik

The Iliad (sometimes referred to as the Song of Ilion or Song of Ilium) is an epic poem
in dactylic hexameters, traditionally attributed to Homer. Set in the Trojan War, the ten-
year siege of Ilium by a coalition of Greek states, it tells of the battles and events during
the weeks of a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles. Although the
story covers only a few weeks in the final year of the war, the Iliad mentions or alludes to
many of the Greek legends about the siege.
Along with the Odyssey, also attributed to Homer, the Iliad is among the oldest extant
works of Western literature, and its written version is usually dated to around the eighth
century BC. The Iliad contains over 15,000 lines, and is written in Homeric Greek, a
literary amalgam of Ionic Greek with other dialects. After an invocation to the Muses, the
story launches in medias res towards the end of the Trojan War between the Trojans and
the besieging Greeks. Chryses, a Trojan priest of Apollo, offers the Greeks wealth for the
return of his daughter Chryseis, a captive of Agamemnon, the Greek leader. Although
most of the Greek army is in favor of the offer, Agamemnon refuses. Chryses prays for
Apollo's help, and Apollo causes a plague throughout the Greek army. After nine days of
plague, Achilles, the leader of the Myrmidon contingent, calls an assembly to solve the
plague problem. Under pressure, Agamemnon agrees to return Chryseis to her father, but
also decides to take Achilles's captive, Briseis, as compensation. Angered, Achilles
declares that he and his men will no longer fight for Agamemnon, but will go home.
Odysseus takes a ship and brings Chryseis to her father, whereupon Apollo ends the
plague. In the meantime, Agamemnon's messengers take Briseis away, and Achilles asks
his mother, Thetis, to ask Zeus that the Greeks be brought to the breaking point by the
Trojans, so Agamemnon will realize how much the Greeks need Achilles. Thetis does so,
Zeus agrees, and sends a dream to Agamemnon, urging him to attack the city.
Agamemnon heeds the dream but decides to first test the morale of the Greek army by
telling them to go home.
 Sophocles c. 497/6 BC – winter 406/5 BC) is one of three ancient Greek tragedians
whose plays have survived. His first plays were written later than those of Aeschylus, and
earlier than those of Euripides. According to the Suda, a 10th century encyclopedia,
Sophocles wrote 123 plays during the course of his life, but only seven have survived in a
complete form: Ajax, Antigone, Trachinian Women, Oedipus the King, Electra,
Philoctetes and Oedipus at Colonus. For almost 50 years, Sophocles was the most-fêted
playwright in the dramatic competitions of the city-state of Athens that took place during
the religious festivals of the Lenaea and the Dionysia. He competed in around 30
competitions, won perhaps 24, and was never judged lower than second place. Aeschylus
won 14 competitions, and was sometimes defeated by Sophocles, while Euripides won
only 4 competitions. Sophocles has a crater on the surface of Mercury named after him.
The most famous tragedies of Sophocles feature Oedipus and Antigone: they are
generally known as the Theban plays, although each play was actually a part of a
different tetralogy, the other members of which are now lost. Sophocles influenced the
development of the drama, most importantly by adding a third actor, thereby reducing the
importance of the chorus in the presentation of the plot. He also developed his characters
to a greater extent than earlier playwrights such as Aeschylus.
Sophocles, the son of Sophilus, was a wealthy member of the rural deme (small
community) of Colonus Hippius in Attica, which was to become a setting for one of his
plays, and he was probably born there. He was born a few years before the Battle of
Marathon in 490 BC: the exact year is unclear, although 497/6 is the most likely.
Sophocles' first artistic triumph was in 468 BC, when he took first prize in the Dionysia
theatre competition over the reigning master of Athenian drama, Aeschylus. According to
Plutarch the victory came under unusual circumstances. Instead of following the usual
custom of choosing judges by lot, the archon asked Cimon and the other strategi present
to decide the victor of the contest. Plutarch further contends that following this loss
Aeschylus soon left for Sicily.[ Although Plutarch says that this was Sophocles' first
production, it is now thought that his first production was probably in 470 BC.
Triptolemus was probably one of the plays that Sophocles presented at this festival.
 Aralin 15 - Ang Pananalakay sa Greece at ang Kulturang
Hellenistik

Macedonia or Macedon (from Greek: Μακεδονία, Makedonía) was an ancient

kingdom, centered in the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, bordered by Epirus to
the west, Paeonia to the north, the region of Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south.
The rise of Macedon, from a small kingdom at the periphery of Classical Greek affairs, to
one which came to dominate the entire Hellenic world, occurred under the reign of Philip
II. For a brief period, after the conquests of Alexander the Great, it became the most
powerful state in the world, controlling a territory that included the former Persian
empire, stretching as far as the Indus River; at that time it inaugurated the Hellenistic
period of Ancient Greek civilization. The lands around Aegae, the first Macedonian
capital, were home to various peoples. Macedonia was called Emathia (from king
Emathion) and the city of Aiges was called Edessa, the capital of fabled king Midas.
According to legend, Caranus, accompanied by a multitude of Greeks came to the area in
search for a new homeland took Edessa and renamed it to Aegae. Subsequently, he
expelled Midas and other kings off the lands and he formed his new kingdom. According
to Herodot, it was Dorus, the son of Hellen who led his people to Histaeotis, whence they
were driven off by the Cadmeians into Pindus, where they settled as Macedonians. Later,
a branch would migrate further south to be called Dorians. It seems that the first
Macedonian state emerged in the 8th or early 7th century BC under the Argead Dynasty,
who, according to legend, migrated to the region from the Greek city of Argos in
Peloponnesus (thus the name Argead). The Macedonian tribe ruled by the Argeads, was
itself called Argead (which translates as "descended from Argos").

The kingdom was situated in the fertile alluvial plain, watered by the rivers Haliacmon
and Axius, called Lower Macedonia, north of the mountain Olympus. Around the time of
Alexander I of Macedon, the Argead Macedonians started to expand into Upper
Macedonia, lands inhabited by independent Macedonian tribes like the Lyncestae and the
Elmiotae and to the West, beyond Axius river, into Eordaia, Bottiaea, Mygdonia, and
Almopia, regions settled by, among others, many Thracian tribes. To the north of
Macedonia lay various non-Greek peoples such as the Paeonians due north, the Thracians
to the northeast, and the Illyrians, with whom the Macedonians were frequently in
conflict, to the northwest. To the south lay Thessaly, with whose inhabitants.
 Alexander III of Macedon (20/21 July 356 – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly
known as Alexander the Great (Greek: Μέγας Ἀλέξανδρος, Mégas Aléxandros),
was a king of Macedon or Macedonia (Greek: Βασιλεύς Μακεδόνων), a state in the
north eastern region of Greece, and by the age of thirty was the creator of one of
the largest empires in ancient history, stretching from the Ionian sea to the
Himalaya. He was undefeated in battle and is considered one of the most
successful commanders of all time. Born in Pella in 356 BC, Alexander was
tutored by the famed philosopher Aristotle. In 336 BC he succeeded his father
Philip II of Macedon to the throne after he was assassinated. Philip had brought
most of the city-states of mainland Greece under Macedonian hegemony, using
both military and diplomatic means. Upon Philip's death, Alexander inherited a
strong kingdom and an experienced army. He succeeded in being awarded the
generalship of Greece and, with his authority firmly established, launched the
military plans for expansion left by his father. In 334 BC he invaded Persian-ruled
Asia Minor and began a series of campaigns lasting ten years. Alexander broke the
power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most notably the battles of Issus and
Gaugamela. Subsequently he overthrew the Persian king Darius III and conquered
the entirety of the Persian Empire. The Macedonian Empire now stretched from
the Adriatic sea to the Indus River.

Following his desire to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea", he invaded
India in 326 BC, but was eventually forced to turn back by the near-mutiny of his troops.
Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BC, without realizing a series of planned campaigns
that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following Alexander's
death a series of civil wars tore his empire apart which resulted in the formation of a
number of states ruled by the Diadochi - Alexander's surviving generals. Although he is
mostly remembered for his vast conquests, Alexander's lasting legacy was not his reign,
but the cultural diffusion his conquests engendered.

Aralin 16 – Ang Sinaunang Rome

 The Alps (German: Alpen; Italian: Alpi; Lombard: Alp; French: Alpes;
Occitan: Aups/Alps; Romansh: Alps; Slovene: Alpe) is one of the great
mountain range systems of Europe, stretching from Austria and Slovenia in
the east through Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Germany to France in
the west.

The highest mountain in the Alps is Mont Blanc, at 4,810.45 metres (15,782
ft), on the Italian–French border. All the main peaks of the Alps can be
found in the list of mountains of the Alps and list of Alpine peaks by
prominence. The highest mountain in the Alps is Mont Blanc, at
4,810.45 metres (15,782 ft), on the Italian–French border. All the main
peaks of the Alps can be found in the list of mountains of the Alps and list of
Alpine peaks by prominence.

The English name Alps was taken via French from Latin Alpes, which may
be ultimately cognate with Latin albus ("white"). The German Albe, Alpe or
Alp (f., Old High German alpâ, plural alpûn), the Occitan Alp/Aupand the
French Alpage or Alpe in the singular mean "alpine pasture", and only in the
plural may also refer to the mountain range as a whole.

The Alps is generally divided into the Western Alps and the Eastern Alps.
The division is along the line between Lake Constance and Lake Como,
following the rivers Rhine, Liro and Mera. The Western Alps is higher, but
the central chain is shorter and curved; It is located in Italy, France and
Switzerland. The Eastern Alps (main ridge system elongated and broad)
belongs to Italy, Austria, Switzerland, Germany, Liechtenstein and Slovenia.
 The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean
surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by
land: on the north by Anatolia and Europe, on the south by North Africa, and
on the east by the Levant. The sea is technically a part of the Atlantic Ocean,
although it is usually identified as a completely separate body of water.
The name Mediterranean is derived from the Latin mediterraneus, meaning
"inland" or "in the middle of the earth" (from medius, "middle" and terra,
"earth"). It covers an approximate area of 2.5 million km² (965,000 sq mi),
but its connection to the Atlantic (the Strait of Gibraltar) is only 14 km
(8.7 mi) wide. In oceanography, it is sometimes called the Eurafrican
Mediterranean Sea or the European Mediterranean Sea to distinguish it
from mediterranean seas elsewhere.

The Mediterranean Sea has an average depth of 1,500 m (4,900 ft) and the
deepest recorded point is 5,267 m (17,280 ft) in the Calypso Deep in the
Ionian Sea.

It was an important route for merchants and travelers of ancient times that
allowed for trade and cultural exchange between emergent peoples of the
region — the Mesopotamian, Egyptian. Phoenician, Carthaginian, Iberian,
Greek, Macedonian, Illyrian, Thracian, Levantine, Gallic, Roman, Albanian,
Armenian, Arabic, Berber, Jewish, Slavic and Turkish cultures. The history
of the Mediterranean region is crucial to understanding the origins and
development of many modern societies. "For the three quarters of the globe,
the Mediterranean Sea is similarly the uniting element and the centre of
World History

Aralin 17 – Ang Pagwawakas ng Republikang Romano

 Gaius Julius Caesar (13 July 100 BC– 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and
statesman. He played a critical role in the gradual transformation of the Roman Republic
into the Roman Empire. In 60 BC, Caesar entered into a political alliance with Crassus
and Pompey that was to dominate Roman politics for several years. Their attempts to
amass power for themselves through populist tactics were opposed within the Roman
Senate by the conservative elite, among them Cato the Younger with the frequent support
of Cicero. Caesar's conquest of Gaul extended Rome's territory to the North Sea, and in
55 BC he conducted the first Roman invasion of Britain. In 60 BC, Caesar entered into a
political alliance with Crassus and Pompey that was to dominate Roman politics for
several years. Their attempts to amass power for themselves through populist tactics were
opposed within the Roman Senate by the conservative elite, among them Cato the
Younger with the frequent support of Cicero. Caesar's conquest of Gaul extended Rome's
territory to the North Sea, and in 55 BC he conducted the first Roman invasion of Britain.
These achievements granted him unmatched military power and threatened to eclipse
Pompey's standing. The balance of power was further upset by the death of Crassus in 53
BC. Political realignments in Rome finally led to a stand-off between Caesar and
Pompey, the latter having taken up the cause of the Senate. Ordered by the senate to stand
trial in Rome for various charges, Caesar marched from Gaul to Italy with his legions,
crossing the Rubicon in 49 BC. This sparked a civil war from which he emerged as the
unrivaled leader of the Roman world. After assuming control of government, he began
extensive reforms of Roman society and government. He centralised the bureaucracy of
the Republic and was eventually proclaimed "dictator in perpetuity". A group of senators,
led by Marcus Junius Brutus, assassinated the dictator on the Ides of March (15 March)
44 BC, hoping to restore the constitutional government of the Republic. However, the
result was a series of civil wars, which ultimately led to the establishment of the
permanent Roman Empire by Caesar's adopted heir Octavius (later known as Augustus).
Much of Caesar's life is known from his own accounts of his military campaigns, and
other contemporary sources, mainly the letters and speeches of Cicero and the historical
writings of Sallust. The later biographies of Caesar by Suetonius and Plutarch are also
major sources.
 The Law of the Twelve Tables (Leges Duodecim Tabularum, or,
informally, Duodecim Tabulae) was the ancient legislation that stood at the
foundation of Roman law. The Law of the Twelve Tables formed the
centerpiece of the constitution of the Roman Republic and the core of the
mos maiorum (custom of the ancestors). The Twelve Tables must be
distinguished from the unrelated — and much older — "twelve shields" of
King Numa Pompilius. According to traditional, semi-legendary historical
accounts preserved in Livy, during the earliest period of the Republic the
laws were kept secret by the pontifices and other representatives of the
patrician class, and were enforced with untoward severity, especially against
the plebeian class. A plebeian named Terentilius proposed in 462 BC that an
official legal code should be published, so that plebeians could not be
surprised and would know the law.

Patricians long opposed this request, but around 451 BC, the first
Decemvirate (board of "Ten Men") was appointed to draw up the first ten
tables. They allegedly sent an embassy to Greece to study the legislative
system of Athens, known as the Solonian Constitution, but also to find out
about the legislation of other Greek cities. Modern scholars believe that a
Roman assembly most likely visited the Greek cities of Southern Italy, and
did not travel all the way to Greece. In 450 B.C. the second decemviri
started work on the last 2 tables.

Aralin 18 – Ang Imperyong Romano

 Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) is
considered the first emperor of the Roman Empire, which he ruled alone from 27
BC until his death in AD 14. Born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, he was adopted
posthumously by his great-uncle Gaius Julius Caesar in 44 BC via his last will and
testament, and between then and 27 BC was officially named Gaius Julius Caesar.
In 27 BC the Senate awarded him the honorific Augustus ("the revered one"), and
thus consequently he was Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus. Because of the various
names he bore, it is common to call him Octavius when referring to events
between 63 and 44 BC, Octavian (or Octavianus) when referring to events
between 44 and 27 BC, and Augustus when referring to events after 27 BC. In
Greek sources, Augustus is known as Ὀκτάβιος. The young Octavius came into
his inheritance after Caesar's assassination in 44 BC. In 43 BC, Octavian joined
forces with Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in a military dictatorship
known as the Second Triumvirate. As a triumvir, Octavian ruled Rome and many
of its provinces.[note 3] The triumvirate was eventually torn apart under the
competing ambitions of its rulers: Lepidus was driven into exile, and Antony
committed suicide following his defeat at the Battle of Actium by the fleet of
Octavian commanded by Agrippa in 31 BC. After the demise of the Second
Triumvirate, Octavian restored the outward facade of the Roman Republic, with
governmental power vested in the Roman Senate, but in practice retained his
autocratic power. It took several years to determine the exact framework by which
a formally republican state could be led by a sole ruler; the result became known
as the Roman Empire. The emperorship was never an office like the Roman
dictatorship which Caesar and Sulla had held before him; indeed, he declined it
when the Roman populace "entreated him to take on the dictatorship".
 Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (November 16, 42 BC – March 16, AD
37), born Tiberius Claudius Nero, was Roman Emperor from 14 AD to 37
AD. Tiberius was by birth a Claudian, son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and
Livia Drusilla. His mother divorced his father and was remarried to
Augustus in 39 BC, making him a step-son of Octavian Tiberius was one of
Rome's greatest generals, conquering Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and
temporarily Germania; Tiberius was one of Rome's greatest generals,
conquering Pannonia, Dalmatia, Raetia, and temporarily Germania; laying
the foundations for the northern frontier. But he came to be remembered as a
dark, reclusive, and somber ruler who never really desired to be emperor;
Pliny the Elder called him tristissimus hominum, "the gloomiest of men."
Tiberius is considered to have lacked the political ability of his predecessor
Augustus and was a jealous emperor; particularly distrustful of his popular
general Germanicus. After the death of Tiberius’ son Drusus Julius Caesar in
23, the quality of his rule declined and ended in a terror. In 26, against better
judgement, Tiberius exiled himself from Rome and left administration
largely in the hands of his unscrupulous Praetorian Prefects Sejanus and
Macro. Caligula, Tiberius' grand-nephew and adopted grandson, succeeded
the emperor upon his death.
The subsequent emperors after Tiberius would continue this blended dynasty
of both families for the next forty years; historians have named it the Julio-
Claudian dynasty. In relations to the other emperors of this dynasty, Tiberius
was the stepson of Augustus, great-uncle of Caligula, paternal uncle of
Claudius, and great-great uncle of Nero

Aralin 19 – Ang Kulturang Romano

 The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre
(Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio or Colosseo), is an
elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest
ever built in the Roman Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of
Roman architecture and Roman engineering. Occupying a site just east of
the Roman Forum, its construction started in 72 AD under the emperor
Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus, with further
modifications being made during Domitian's reign (81–96). The name
"Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both Vespasian's and Titus's family
name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).

Capable of seating 50,000 spectators, the Colosseum was used for

gladiatorial contests and public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal
hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous battles, and dramas based on
Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the
early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing,
workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian
shrine.

Although in the 21st century it stays partially ruined because of damage

caused by devastating earthquakes and stone-robbers, the Colosseum is an
iconic symbol of Imperial Rome. It is one of Rome's most popular tourist
attractions and still has close connections with the Roman Catholic Church,
as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession
that starts in the area around the Colosseum.
 Marcus Tullius Cicero (pronounced /ˈsɪsɨroʊ/; Classical Latin: [ˈkikeroː];
January 3, 106 BC – December 7, 43 BC; sometimes anglicized as "Tully"), was a
Roman philosopher, statesman, lawyer, political theorist, and Roman
constitutionalist. He came from a wealthy municipal family of the equestrian
order, and is widely considered one of Rome's greatest orators and prose stylists
He introduced the Romans to the chief schools of Greek philosophy and created a
Latin philosophical vocabulary (with neologisms such as humanitas, qualitas,
quantitas, and essentia) distinguishing himself as a linguist, translator, and
philosopher. An impressive orator and successful lawyer, Cicero thought that his
political career was his most important achievement. Today, he is appreciated
primarily for his humanism and philosophical and political writings. His
voluminous correspondence, much of it addressed to his friend Atticus, has been
especially influential, introducing the art of refined letter writing to European
culture. Cornelius Nepos, the 1st century BC biographer of Atticus, remarked that
Cicero's letters contained such a wealth of detail "concerning the inclinations of
leading men, the faults of the generals, and the revolutions in the government" that
their reader had little need for a history of the period. Cicero's speeches and letters
remain some of the most important primary sources that survive on the last days of
the Roman Republic. During the chaotic latter half of the 1st century BC marked
by civil wars and the dictatorship of Gaius Julius Caesar, Cicero championed a
return to the traditional republican government. However, his career as a
statesman was marked by inconsistencies and a tendency to shift his position in
response to changes in the political climate. His indecision may be attributed to his
sensitive and impressionable personality; he was prone to overreaction in the face
of political and private change. "Would that he had been able to endure prosperity
with greater self control, and adversity with more fortitude!" wrote C. Asinius
Pollio, a contemporary Roman statesman and historian. Cicero became an enemy
of Mark Antony, attacking him in a series of speeches. He was proscribed as an
enemy of the state by the Second Triumvirate and subsequently murdered in 43
BC.

Aralin 20 – Ang Imperyong Byzantine

Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (c. 22 December 244 – 3 December
311), commonly known as Diocletian, was a Roman Emperor from 284 to
305.

Born to an Illyrian family of low status in the Roman province of Dalmatia,

Diocletian rose through the ranks of the military to become cavalry
commander to the emperor Carus. After the deaths of Carus and his son
Numerian on campaign in Persia, Diocletian was proclaimed emperor. The
title was also claimed by Carus' other surviving son, Carinus, but Diocletian
defeated him in the Battle of the Margus. With his accession to power,
Diocletian ended the Crisis of the Third Century. Diocletian separated and
enlarged the empire's civil and military services and reorganised the empire's
provincial divisions, establishing the largest and most bureaucratic
government in the history of the empire. He established new administrative
centers in Nicomedia, Mediolanum, Antioch, and Trier, closer to the
empire's frontiers than the traditional capital at Rome had been. Building on
third-century trends towards absolutism, he styled himself an autocrat,
elevating himself above the empire's masses with imposing forms of court
ceremonial and architecture. Bureaucratic and military growth, constant
campaigning, and construction projects increased the state's expenditures
and necessitated a comprehensive tax reform. From at least 297 on, imperial
taxation was standardized, made more equitable, and levied at generally
higher rates.
Constantinople (Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολις, Latin: Constantinopolis, Turkish:
Kostantiniyye or İstanbul) was the imperial capital of the Roman Empire, the
Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire, the Latin Empire and the Ottoman Empire.
Throughout most of the Middle Ages, Constantinople was Europe's largest and
wealthiest city. The Turks have called the city Istanbul since they conquered it in
1453. However, many Westerners continued to call it Constantinople. Not until the
20th century did the Turks formally object, and ask that others use the same name
they did. This took place through the Turkish Postal Service Law, as part of
Atatürk's national reforms. This name in turn derives from the Greek and Slavic
colloquial name Stambol; see Names of Istanbul for fuller discussion.
Constantinople was founded by the Roman emperor Constantine I on the site of an
already-existing city, Byzantium, settled in the early days of Greek colonial
expansion, probably around 671-662 BC. The site lay astride the land route from
Europe to Asia and the seaway from the Black Sea to the Mediterranean, and had
in the Golden Horn an excellent and spacious harbour. Constantine had altogether
more colorful plans. Having restored the unity of the Empire, and, being in course
of major governmental reforms as well as of sponsoring the consolidation of the
Christian church, he was well aware that Rome was an unsatisfactory capital.
Rome was too far from the frontiers, and hence from the armies and the Imperial
courts, and it offered an undesirable playground for disaffected politicians. Yet it
had been the capital of the state for over a thousand years, and it might have
seemed unthinkable to suggest that the capital be moved to a different location.
Nevertheless, he identified the site of Byzantium as the right place: a place where
an emperor could sit, readily defended, with easy access to the Danube or the
Euphrates frontiers, his court supplied from the rich gardens and sophisticated
workshops of Roman Asia, his treasuries filled by the wealthiest provinces of the
Empire.

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