About Pressure Transmitters

Pressure transmitters translate low-level electrical outputs from pressure sensing devices
to higher-level signals that are suitable for transmission and processing. They use many
different sensing technologies and can measure the pressure of liquids and/or gases.
Mechanical deflection devices such as diaphragms, Bourdon tubes or bellows consist of
an elastic or flexible element that is deflected mechanically by a change in pressure.
Devices that use sealed pistons or cylinders are also available. Strain gauges are often
bonded to a larger structure that deforms as pressure changes. Piezoresistive devices
sense shifts of electrical charges within a resistor. Piezoelectric pressure transmitters
measure dynamic and quasi-static pressures. Their common modes of operation are
charge mode, which generates a high-impedance charge output; and voltage mode, which
uses an amplifier to convert the high-impedance charge into a low-impedance output
voltage. Thin film devices consist of an extremely thin layer of material, usually titanium
nitride or polysilicon, deposited on a substrate. Pressure transmitters that use
microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), variable capacitance, and vibrating elements
are also available.
Pressure transmitters are capable of performing various pressure measurements and
displaying amounts in different units. Absolute pressure is a pressure measurement that is
relative to a perfect vacuum. Typically, vacuum pressures are lower than the atmospheric
pressure. Gage pressure, the most common type of pressure measurement, is relative to
the local atmospheric pressure. By contrast, sealed gauge pressure is relative to one
atmosphere of pressure (oz) at sea level. Differential pressure reflects the difference
between two input pressures. Compound pressure instruments can display both positive
and negative pressures. Some pressure transmitters display values in pounds per square
inch, kilo pascals, bars or millibars, inches or centimeters of mercury, or inches or feet of
water. Other devices display measurements in ounces per square inch or kilograms per
square centimeter.
Performance specifications for pressure transmitters include working pressure range,
vacuum range, accuracy, and operating temperature. Working pressure is the maximum,
allowable pressure at which pressure transmitters are designed to operate. Typically,
devices should not exceed 75% of their maximum, rated range. Vacuum range, another
important measurement, covers the lowest vacuum pressure and the highest vacuum
pressure. Accuracy, the difference between the true value and the indication, is expressed
as a percentage of span. In cases where the accuracy differs between the middle span and
the first and last quarters of the scale, the largest percentage error is reported.
Pressure transmitters can produce several types of electrical signals, including analog
voltage and analog current. These output signals can be encoded via amplitude
modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), or some other modulation scheme such as
sine wave or pulse train. Common communication protocols include Ethernet,
DeviceNet, FOUNDATION Fieldbus, the process fieldbus (PROFIBUS®), and highway
addressable remote transmission (HART®). HART is a registered trademark of the HART
Communication Foundation. PROFIBUS is a registered trademark of PROFIBUS
International. Several serial and parallel interfaces for pressure instruments are available.
RS232 and RS485 are serial, digital protocols. Parallel protocols include the general-
purpose interface bus (GPIB), a standard which is also known as IEEE 488.
Pressure transmitters differ in terms of display types and features. Analog meters use a
simple visual indicator such as a needle. Digital displays present numeric or application-
specific values. Cathode ray tubes (CRT), liquid crystal displays (LCD), and other multi-
line displays are also available. In terms of features, some pressure transmitters include
temperature compensation or provide temperature measurement and negative pressure
outputs. Others include built-in audible or visual alarms and an output switch compatible
with transistor-transistor logic (TTL). Pressure transmitters that are rated for hazardous
materials are also available.

About Vacuum Gauges and Instruments

Vacuum gauges are devices for measuring vacuum or sub-atmospheric pressures. They
use several different technologies. Manometers are usually made of a transparent U-
shaped tube and partially filled with a liquid such as water, mercury or oil. The relative
amount of liquid displacement between the legs of the U indicates the excess of pressure
exerted on one side or the other. Thermocouple gauges measure changes in the thermal
conductivity of a residual gas within a gauge tube. These devices include a filament,
power supply for the filament, and moving coil meter for displaying the pressure. Hot
cathode ionization gauges initiate a constant electron flow from the cathode or electron
source to the anode or electron drain. These electrons hit a pressure-dependent quantity of
gas molecules, which become positive ions and cause a pressure-related current on the
ion collector. Cold cathode ionization gauges are also available. Because they do not
have active components such as hot filaments, cold cathode gauges can withstand sudden
or prolonged exposure to high-pressure gases.
Selecting vacuum gauges requires an analysis of display types, scale types and scale
units. Some devices include analog or digital meters. Others include a cathode ray tube
(CRT), liquid crystal display (LCD), or other multi-line video display. Single scale
devices display pressure in only one set of units. By contrast, dual scales devices display
pressure in two sets of units on the same dial face. There are many scale units for vacuum
gauges. Examples include pounds per square inch (psi), kilo pascals (kPa), atmospheres
(atm), bars, inches of mercury (inHg), centimeters of mercury (cmHg), inches of water
(inH2O), feet of water (ftH2O), kilograms per square centimeters (kg / cm2), and ounces
per square inch (oz / in2).
Specifications for vacuum gauges include vacuum range, operating temperature,
accuracy, and media. Accuracy, the difference between the true value and the indication
expressed as a percentage of the span, includes the combined effects of method, observer,
apparatus and environment. Typically, vacuum gauges use accuracy grades from the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and Deutsches Institut für Normung
(DIN), a German national organization for standardization. Examples include grades A,
B, C, and D as well as grade 1A (1% full scale), 2A (0.5% full scale), 3A (0.25% full
scale), and 4A (0.1% full scale). Some vacuum gauges measure the pressures of liquids.
Others measure the pressures of solids. Devices that are rated for hazardous duty or for
unlisted, specialized or proprietary materials are also available.
Vacuum gauges are available with a variety of features, signal outputs, and
communication protocols. Some devices include temperature measurement outputs or
temperature compensation to prevent measurement errors due to changes in temperature.
Other devices include audible or visual alarms, or an output switch that is compatible
with transistor-transistor logic (TTL). Typically, the output voltage is a linear function of
the measurement. Analog current is imposed on the output circuit proportional to the
measurement. Serial interfaces for vacuum gauges include RS232 and RS485. Parallel
interfaces are also available. Other communication protocols include DeviceNet,
Fieldbus, Ethernet, and PROFIBUS.