TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS – A SERIES OF 10 ARTICLES

By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

1. Comparison of materials 6. Cost-saving designs

2. Material selection 7. General assembly technology
3. Wall thickness 8. Welding technology
4. Ribbing 9. Tolerances
5. Gate positioning 10. Check list

1. Comparison of materials

Plastic is not metal

Comparison of materials – Many plastic designs still continue to be derived from
“metal parts”. In the series commencing here the authors set out to describe the points
that require attention when designing in plastics rather than traditional materials.

Different basic material characteristics

The properties of plastics materials can vary over a far wider range than all other engineering
materials. Through the addition of fillers/reinforcing materials and modifiers the property profile of
virtually any base polymer can be radically altered. Most basic properties of plastics, however, form
a marked contrast to those of metals. For example, in a direct comparison, metals have higher

400
– density
Structural steel
– maximum service temperature
Zinc – rigidity/strength
Metals
300
– thermal conductivity and
Yield stress/tensile strength (N/mm2)

– electrical conductivity,
Aluminium

Magnesium while the

200

Reinforced thermoplastics
PA66GR30
PETGR30
– mechanical damping
PBTGR30
PA6GR30
– thermal expansion
100

PA66 PC
POM
PPGR30 – elongation at break and
PBT
PS
Unreinforced thermoplastics
– toughness
PA6 ABS
PP

1 10 100 1000
Tensile modulus (1000 N/mm2)

Strength/rigidity characteristics of different

materials (average values)

Fig. 1

of engineering thermoplastics are greater by orders of magnitude (see Fig. 1). To produce functional
parts in plastic and at the same time save costs, radical design modification is generally necessary if
the plastic is being used to replace metal. This process affords an opportunity for complete redesign
of the component with possible integration of functions and geometric simplification.

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Effects on
Type of stress Application example deformation behaviour Calculation characteristics

Static short-term stress Snap-fit hooks

Loadability to basic Stress-strain graph
strength Use of secant modulus
kg

Stress duration 1 sec < x < 10 min

Static long-term stress

(constant strain) Decrease in initial Creep strength graph
stress over time Use of relaxation modulus
(Relaxation)
kg
Encapsulation
Stress duration > 10 min of metal inserts

Static long-term stress

Increase in initial Creep strength graph
(constant stress)
strain over time Use of creep modulus
(Creep)
kg
Pipes under
Stress duration > 10 min internal pressure

Dynamic long-term stress Bellows

Significant reduction Wöhler curve
in endurable strains Attention to stressing range
kg and stresses (e.g. alternating tensile-
compressive stress range/
Repeated increasing and fluctuating tensile stress range)
decreasing stress

Sudden shock stress Airbag cover

Rubbery elastic materials Only very limited possibility
display tough to brittle for calculated estimation
deformation behaviour (practical trials necessary)
kg

Stress duration < 1 sec

Effect of type of stress on deformation behaviour

Fig. 2

Different material behaviour

Plastics sometimes exhibit completely different behaviour to that of metals under the same service
conditions. For this reason, a functionally efficient, economic design in cast metal can easily fail if
repeated in plastic with excessive haste. Plastics designers must therefore be familiar with the
properties of this group of materials.

Temperature and time dependence of deformation characteristics

The nearer the service temperature of a material is to its melting point, the more the material’s
deformation behaviour will be temperature- and time-dependent. Most plastics exhibit a change in
their basic mechanical properties at room temperature or on exposure to short-term stress. Metals,
on the other hand, usually display largely unchanged mechanical behaviour right up to the vicinity
of their recrystallization temperature (> 300 °C).
If the service temperature or deformation rate is varied sufficiently, the deformation behaviour of
engineering thermoplastics can change from hard and brittle to rubbery-elastic. An airbag cover,
for example, in its particular application involving explosive opening, exhibits completely different
deformation behaviour from that of a slowly assembled snap-fit element made of the same material
(Fig. 2). Similarly, this snap-fit element has to be assembled in a different way according to whether
the temperature conditions are hot or cold. The effect of temperature here is significantly greater
than the effect of loading rate.

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Factors influencing component properties

The characteristics of plastics are not purely material properties. The basic property level of a plastic
component can be changed by various factors (e.g. UV radiation, see Fig. 3) right up to the point of
unserviceability. A well designed moulded part can easily fail if the material is processed under
inappropriate conditions. Similarly, processors cannot generally eliminate moulding design faults
during processing. Only through a process of optimization that takes into account all influencing
factors (Fig. 4) can a good plastics component be guaranteed.
Since plastics are less tolerant of faulty design than metals, greater attention must be devoted to
correct material design in designing plastics components. Every design process must therefore start
with a thorough and precise analysis of all requirements and boundary conditions.

Material degradation as a result

of excessive UV radiation

Fig. 3

Production Stress
Orientation Deformation rate
(molecules, fillers and reinforcing Stress duration
materials) Type of stress
Internal stresses Force application
Degree of crystallization
Weld lines
Air occlusions
Processing conditions
(material degradation)

Service
environment
Temperature
Moulding geometry Chemicals
Sharp edges UV radiation
Wall thicknesses Moisture

Factors influencing component properties

Fig. 4

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

1. Comparison of materials 6. Cost-saving designs

2. Material selection 7. General assembly technology
3. Wall thickness 8. Welding technology
4. Ribbing 9. Tolerances
5. Gate positioning 10. Check list

2. Material selection

The right choice

Material selection – There is no such thing as a bad material-just the wrong material
for a particular application. It is therefore essential for designers to know the properties
of the competing materials inside out and to test them all carefully in relation to the
factors affecting the injection moulded part.

Conventional thermoplastics
The materials most frequently used in injection-moulding are thermoplastics. These may be
subdivided into amorphous and semi-crystalline plastics (Fig.1).
These two groups differ in molecular structure and in all the properties that are influenced by
crystallization (Fig. 2).
As a broad generalization, semi-crystalline thermoplastics are used mainly for components that are
exposed to high mechanical stresses, while amorphous thermoplastics are more often employed in
housings because of their lower tendency to warp.

Thermoplastics

amorphous semi-crystalline

PS Polystyrene POM Polyoxymethylene

(Polyacetal)
ABS Acrylonitrile-
butadiene-styrene PA6
PA66 Polyamide
PMMA Polymethyl PA11
methacrylate PA12
PVC Polyvinyl chloride PBT Polyester
PET

PC Polycarbonate PE Polyethylene

PP Polypropylene

Thermoplastics

Fig. 1

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Fillers and reinforcing materials

Thermoplastics are supplied in unreinforced, glass-fibre-reinforced and mineral- and glass-sphere-
filled forms. Glass fibres are used primarily to increase strength, rigidity and service temperature;
minerals and glass spheres have a lower reinforcing effect and are employed mainly to reduce
warpage.
Glass fibres affect processing, particularly a parts shrinkage and warpage behaviour. Fibre-reinforced
materials cannot therefore be replaced by unreinforced thermoplastics or materials with low
reinforcement content without dimensional changes occurring (Fig. 3). The orientation of the glass
fibres is determined by the flow direction. This produces a change in mechanical strength.

amorphous semi-crystalline

Mechanical properties O +

Tendency to creep + O

Chemical resistance – +

Flexural fatigue strength – +

Critical strain 0,4%-0,8% 0,5%-8%

Notch sensitivity – O

Service temperature O +

Onset of melting Softening range Precise melting point

Shrinkage 0,3% – 0,8% 1,0%-3%

+ favourable O satisfactory – unsatisfactory

Property comparison of thermoplastics

Fig. 2

Comparison of tensile stress at break values Comparison of elongation at break values

250 80
200
N/mm2

60
150
%

100 40
50 20
0 0
unreinforced 20% 30% 40% 50% unreinforced 20% 30% 40% 50%
Glass fibre reinforcement Glass fibre reinforcement

Comparison of thermal
Comparison of elastic modulus values stability values 1,8 MPa
15000
300
N/mm2

10000
200
°C

5000 100
0 0
unreinforced 20% 30% 40% 50% unreinforced 20% 30% 40% 50%
Glass fibre reinforcement Glass fibre reinforcement

Change in mechanical property values from unreinforced

to glass-fibre-reinforced material (PA 66)

Fig. 3

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

To demonstrate these effects, test bars were milled from injection moulded sheets in the longitudinal
and transverse directions and their mechanical property values were compared in a tensile testing
machine (Fig. 4).
In the case of 30% glass-fibre-reinforced PET, there was a strength loss transverse to the direction
of flow of 32 % for tensile strength, 43 % for flexural modulus and 53 % for impact strength.
These losses must be taken into account in strength calculation by incorporating safety factors.
A wide variety of reinforcing materials, fillers and modifiers are added to many different thermoplastics
to alter their property profiles. In material selection, the changes in properties produced by these
additives must be checked very carefully in brochures or databases (e.g. Campus) or, better still,
technical advice should be sought from specialists employed by the raw material manufacturers
(Fig. 5).

Test bar
Gate Flow direction

Test bars in Test bars transverse

the direction of flow to the direction of flow

Test bars in the flow direction

and transverse to the flow direction

Fig. 4

Additive Max. content Elastic Impact Dimensional Flame

(% w/w) modulus Strain strength stability retardancy

Glass fibres 60

Minerals 40

Aramid fibres 20

Elastomers 15

UV stabilizers 1

Flame retardants 20
organic

inorganic 40

Antistatic agents 5

Effects of additives

Fig. 5
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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Effect of moisture
Some thermoplastics, especially PA6 and PA66, absorb moisture. This may have considerable effect
on their mechanical properties and dimensional stability. Particular attention should be paid to this
property in material selection (Fig. 6 - 7).

Other selection criteria

Other requirements relate to processing considerations and assembly. It is also important to investigate
the possibility of integrating several functions in one component so saving costly assembly operations.
This measure can have a very beneficial effect on production costs. It can be seen that in price
calculations, it is not only the raw material price that is important. It should also be noted that
materials with higher rigidity permit thinner walls and so result in faster cycles.
It is important to list all the criteria for material selection and evaluate them systematically.
A rough material selection flow chart is shown in Fig. 8.

moist dry

Strength

Strain

Elastic modulus

Impact strength

Dimensions

Weight

Electrical properties

Effect of moisture

Fig. 6

Yield stress (N/mm2) Tensile strain at yield (%)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 0 5 10 15 20 25

Elastic modulus (N/mm2)

moist

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 dry

Effect of moisture on the mechanical

properties of PA66
(test bar 3,2 mm thick)

Fig. 7

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

List all essential Desirable

requirements requirements
specifications, stresses, tolerances, appearance, gloss
chemicals, service environment … would be an advantage if...

List and evaluate

possible materials
use Campus or other
material databases,
product literature …

Profitability analysis
Prototypes wall thickness and production time,
multifunctions,
mould, model
injection moulding conditions,
number of mould cavities,
predrying pellets,
Test methods recycling sprue waste …

Classification of Similar components

usable materials experience in operation,
by specialists
or raw material supplier

Material chosen for use

Material selection flow chart

Fig. 8

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

1. Comparison of materials 6. Cost-saving designs

2. Material selection 7. General assembly technology
3. Wall thickness 8. Welding technology
4. Ribbing 9. Tolerances
5. Gate positioning 10. Check list

3. Wall thickness

As much as necessary –
as little as possible
Wall thickness – In designing components made from engineering plastics, experience
has shown that certain design points arise time and again, and can be reduced to simple
design guidelines. One such point is wall thickness design, which has an important
influence on component quality.

Effect on specific component criteria

Changing the wall thickness of a component has a significant effect on the following key properties:
– component weight
– achievable flow lengths in the mould
– production cycle time of the component
– rigidity of the moulded part
– tolerances
– quality of the component in terms of surface finish, warpage and voids.

Ratio of flow path to wall thickness

At an early design stage, it is important to review the question whether the required wall thicknesses
can be achieved with the desired material. The ratio of flow path to wall thickness has a critical
influence on mould cavity filling in the injection-moulding process. If long flow paths combined
with low wall thickness are to be achieved in an injection mould, only a polymer with relatively low
melt viscosity (easy-flowing melt) is suitable. To gain an insight into the flow behaviour of polymer
melts, flow lengths can be determined using a special mould (Fig. 1-2).

Flexural modulus as a function of wall thickness

The flexural rigidity of a flat sheet is determined by the material-specific elastic modulus and the
moment of inertia of the sheet cross section. If wall thickness is automatically increased to improve
the rigidity of plastic components without any thought given to the consequences, this can very often
lead to serious problems with partially crystalline materials. In the case of glass-fibre-reinforced
materials, changing the wall thickness also influences the orientation of the glass fibres. Close to
the mould wall, the fibres are oriented in the direction of flow. On the other hand, in the centre of
the wall cross section, random fibre orientation occurs as a result of turbulent flow.
By increasing wall thickness, it is mainly the cross-sectional area of randomly oriented glass fibres

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

1200 Melt
temperature
290 °C
1000
Mould
Thickness 2,5 mm
temperature
Flow length (mm)

800 90 °C

600

Gate
400
Thickness 1,0 mm
PET 30% GR
200
PET 45% GR
0
60 80 100 120 140
Injection pressure (MPa)

Flow behaviour in a spiral mould

Fig. 1 high melt viscosity

medium melt viscosity
low melt viscosity

Flow lengths with different

melt viscosities

Fig. 2

that is enlarged. On the other hand, the thickness of the zone in which the fibres are oriented in the
direction of flow remains largely the same (Fig. 3).
This boundary zone, which critically determines component rigidity in the case of glass-fibre-
reinforced plastics, is thus reduced in proportion to the overall wall thickness. This explains the
decline in the flexural modulus (Fig. 4) when wall thickness is increased. The strength values
determined on standard test bars (3,2 mm) are not therefore directly applicable to wall thicknesses
deviating from this. To estimate component behaviour, it is essential to make use of safety factors.
So by increasing wall thickness without consideration of the consequences, material and production
costs are increased without a significant improvement in rigidity.

Increase wall thickness?

An increase in wall thickness not only crucially determines mechanical properties but also the
quality of the finished product. In the design of plastics components, it is important to aim for
uniform wall thickness. Different wall thicknesses in the same component cause differential
shrinkage which, depending on component rigidity, can lead to serious warpage and dimensional
accuracy problems (Fig. 6). To attain uniform wall thickness, thick-walled areas of the moulding
should be cored (Fig. 5). In this way it is possible to prevent the risk of void formation and reduce
internal stresses. Furthermore, the tendency to warp is minimized. Voids and microporosity in the
component severely reduce its mechanical properties by cross-sectional narrowing, high internal
stresses and in some cases notch effects.

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

S1 s1 s0 S0

S1 > S0 s1 > s0

Fibre orientation
Core zone/Edge zone

Fig. 3

20 000 Gate
bad
PET 55% GR

Gate
Flexural modulus (N/mm2)

10 000
adequate
PET 45% GR

Gate
good
Coring
5 000

Transition between
different wall thicknesses

Fig. 5
2 000

3,2 mm 6,35 mm 9,5 mm

Thicknesses

Flexural modulus as
a function of wall thickness

Fig. 4

Component warpage as a result

of badly designed wall thickness transitions

Fig. 6

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

1. Comparison of materials 6. Cost-saving designs

2. Material selection 7. General assembly technology
3. Wall thickness 8. Welding technology
4. Ribbing 9. Tolerances
5. Gate positioning 10. Check list

4. Ribbing

Optimum rib design

Ribs – To overcome the problems that can arise with thick walls, ribs are an effective
means of increasing rigidity while allowing wall thickness to be reduced.

Generally, the rigidity of a component can be increased the following ways:

– increasing the wall thickness
– increasing the elastic modulus (e.g. by increasing reinforcing fibre content)
– incorporating ribs into the design.
If the required rigidity cannot be achieved in a design, the recommended next step is to choose
a material with a higher elastic modulus than the original material. A simple way to increase the
elastic modulus is to increase the content of reinforcing fibre in a polymer. However, given the
same wall thickness, this measure produces only a linear increase in rigidity. A much more efficient
solution is to increase rigidity by providing optimally designed ribs. Component rigidity is improved
as a result of the increase in the moment of inertia. For optimum dimensioning of ribs, it is generally
necessary to take into account not only engineering design considerations as such but also technical
factors relating to production and aesthetic aspects.

Demoulding taper

T 0,5 T

R=T R max
3T

0,5 T

D1
D2
T

Imaginary Sink marks

circle
poor good

Rib design

Fig. 1

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Optimum rib dimensions

In rib design, a large moment of inertia can most easily be achieved by providing high, thick ribs.
However, with engineering thermoplastics, this approach usually creates serious problems such as
sink marks, voids and warpage. Furthermore, if rib height is too great, there is a risk that the rib
structure will bulge under load. For this reason, it is absolutely necessary to keep rib dimensions
within reasonable proportions (Fig. 1).
To ensure trouble-free ejection of the ribbed component, it is essential to provide a demoulding
taper (Fig. 2).

Restricting material accumulation

For components requiring a very high quality surface finish, such as hub caps, rib dimensioning
is important. Correct rib design reduces the tendency to form sink marks and thereby increases
component quality.
Material accumulation at the rib base is defined by the imaginary circle drawn in Fig. 1. By adhering
to the dimensional proportions recommended there, this “circle” can be made as small as possible
and sink marks can be avoided or reduced.
If the imaginary circle is too large in this area of material accumulation, voids can be formed and
mechanical properties drastically lowered as a result.

Shallow taper Steep taper

(less than (more than
25 mm deep) 25 mm deep)

POM 0 - 1/4° 1/2°

PA (unreinforced) 0 - 1/8° 1/4° - 1/2°

PA (GR) 0 - 1/2° 1/4° - 1°

PET / PBT (GR) 1/2° 1/2° - 1°

Demoulding tapers

Fig. 2

Stress concentration Corners

at sharp corners well rounded

Fig. 3

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Stress reduction at the rib base

If a ribbed component is exposed to applied loads, stresses may be created at the rib base. If no fillet
radii are provided in this area of the component, very high stress concentration peaks will build up
(Fig. 3), which not infrequently lead to cracking and failure of the component. The remedy is to
provide a sufficiently large fillet radius (Fig. 1) that will permit better stress distribution at the rib base.
Radii which are too large, on the other hand, will also increase the diameter of the imaginary circle,
which in turn can lead to the problems already mentioned.

Choice of rib structure

In plastics design, a cross-ribbed structure has proved successful because it can handle many different
loading permutations (Fig. 4). A cross-ribbed structure correctly designed for the anticipated stresses
ensures uniform stress distribution throughout the moulding. The nodes formed at the rib intersections
(Fig. 5) represent material accumulations but can be cored to prevent any problems. Care should
also be taken to ensure that undue material accumulation is avoided at the point where the rib joins
the edge of the component (Fig. 6)

1/2 T

1/2 T

Ribbed rocker cover Nodes at rib intersections

Fig. 4 Fig. 5

must be improved

good good

Rib junction with

edge of component

Fig. 6

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

1. Comparison of materials 6. Cost-saving designs

2. Material selection 7. General assembly technology
3. Wall thickness 8. Welding technology
4. Ribbing 9. Tolerances
5. Gate positioning 10. Check list

5. Gate positioning

Correct gate location

Gate positioning – Besides causing processing problems, the wrong choice of the type
of gating system and gate location can have a considerable effect on the quality of a
moulded part. Design departments should, therefore, not underestimate the importance
of gate location.

Apart from carrying out design calculations for plastics parts, designers must pay particular
attention to mould gating. They have to choose the correct gating system and the number and
location of gating points. The different types of gate and gating locations can have a considerable
effect on part quality.

160
PA66
GR30 (dry)
140 in the
direction
of flow
120
PA66
GR30 (dry)
100 at 45° to
Stress [N/mm]

the direction
of flow
80
PA66
60 GR30 (dry)
in the
transverse
40 direction

PA66
20 (dry)
in the flow
and transverse
0 directions
0 1 2 3 4 5
Strain [%]

Stress-strain values determined

on a component with 3 mm wall thickness

Fig. 1

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Fixing the gate location also determines the following characteristics of a plastics part:
– filling behaviour
– final part dimensions (tolerances)
– shrinkage behaviour, warpage
– mechanical property level
– surface quality (aesthetic appearance).

Moulders have little scope to rectify the undesirable consequences of incorrect gating by optimizing
processing parameters.

Orientation determines part properties

In the injection moulding process, the long polymer molecules and fibrous filling and reinforcing
materials are oriented mainly in the direction of flow of the polymer melt. This results in directional
dependency (anisotropy) of the part’s properties. For example, strength properties in the flow direction
are considerably higher than in the transverse direction (Fig. 1). Here the influence of the reinforcing
fibres is significantly greater than the effect on strength of molecular orientation alone. Fibre
orientation also causes differential shrinkage in the longitudinal and transverse directions, which
can lead to warpage.

Quality reduction as a result of weld lines and trapped air

Weld lines occur when two or more melt streams unite in the mould. This happens, for example,
when the melt has to flow around a mould insert or when parts are gated at several points (Fig. 2a+b).
In addition, different wall thicknesses in a part can also lead to separation of melt fronts and so
cause weld lines. Air entrapment (air bubbles) occurs when air that should be expelled from the
mould is enclosed by melt streams and cannot escape. Weld lines and air entrapment are often
manifested as surface defects. Apart from the fact that they are ugly, as a rule they also considerably
reduce the mechanical properties in the affected areas, particularly impact strength (Fig. 3-4).

defective part

Weld line in a
fastening boss

Fig. 2a

weld line micronotch

Fig. 2b

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Unsuitable gate positioning has adverse consequences

As gates always leave obvious marks, they should not be placed in areas which should have a high
surface quality. In any gating region, high material stress (shear) takes place that considerably
reduces the property levels of the plastics resin (Fig. 5). Unreinforced plastics have higher weld line
quality than reinforced plastics. The quality-reduction factors in the weld line area are highly dependent
on the type and content of filling and reinforcing material. Similarly, additives such as processing
aids or flame retardants can have a detrimental effect. It is therefore difficult to estimate how much
these factors will affect the part’s final strength. In addition, weld line areas with high load-bearing
capacity under tensile stress do not show equally good impact strength or fatigue endurance.
With fibre-reinforced materials, fibres in the weld line area are aligned transversely to the direction
of flow. This significantly lowers the mechanical properties of the part at this point (Fig. 6).

weld line
Decline in
properties relative
to initial level
gate

PA66 Amorphous 5-60

plastics 40-90

PA66GR30
Semi-crystalline 0-15
plastics 30-70
PA66GR30 impact-resistant

Glass-fibre- 20-80
PETGR30 reinforced plastics 50-80

Strength
PETGR45 Toughness
0 20 40 60 80 100%
PETGR55 Reduction factors
for weld line areas

0 20 40 60 80 100%
Fig. 4

Tensile strength Elongation at break

Initial property level without weld line: 100%

Strength reduction due

to the effect of a weld line (average values)

Fig. 3

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Correct gate positioning

Complex mouldings usually cannot be produced without weld lines. If the number of weld lines
cannot be reduced, they should be placed in non-critical parts of the moulding in terms of surface
quality and mechanical strength. This can be done by moving the gate location or by increasing/
reducing part wall thickness.

Basic design principles:

– do not gate parts in highly stressed zones
– avoid or minimise weld lines
– avoid leaving weld lines in highly stressed areas
– with reinforced plastics, gate location determines part warpage
– avoid air entrapment by providing adequate vents.

gate

void

Glass fibre orientation

in the weld line
Material defects
in the gate area Fig. 6

Fig. 5

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

1. Comparison of materials 6. Cost-saving designs

2. Material selection 7. General assembly technology
3. Wall thickness 8. Welding technology
4. Ribbing 9. Tolerances
5. Gate positioning 10. Check list

6. Cost-saving designs

Low-cost designs
Price as a Design Factor – The designer of a plastics component bears a large part of
the responsibility for its final cost. His decisions essentially predetermine the costs of
production, mould-making and assembly. Correction or optimization at a later stage is
generally costly or impracticable.

Influencing cost through material properties

Taking full advantage of specific properties of plastics materials can help to save costs in many ways:

Designs with multiple integrated functions

Reduction in the number of individual parts through integration of several functions in one part.

Use of low-cost assembly techniques

Snap-fits, welded assemblies, riveted assemblies, two-component technology, etc.

Exploitation of dry-running properties

Saves the need for additional or subsequent lubrication.

Elimination of surface treatments

Integral colour, chemical and corrosion resistance, electrical and thermal insulation properties.

Nucleation
Materials in the same product family can have different cycle times. The reason for this is
a nucleating additive that accelerates crystallization of the melt during the cooling phase.

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Magnesium

Aluminium
Zinc

PA66 30% GR

Material Mould costs Finishing

Energy Production costs Coating

Cost comparison broken down by

production cost components (based on weight)

Fig. 1

Influencing cost through finished-part design

Further cost reductions can be achieved, over and above those mentioned above, by observing the
following points:

Wall thickness
Optimized wall thickness distribution influences material costs and can reduce production time.

Moulds
Two-plate moulds, reduction in the number of splits, etc.

Tolerances
Excessively high tolerance requirements increase the reject rate and quality control costs.

Materials
Reducing cycle and cooling times through the choice of materials that set up rapidly, minimizing
warpage problems by using low-warpage polymers (e.g. optimization of the ratio of mineral to
glass-fibre reinforcement).

Cost comparison broken down according to production cost components

Injection-moulded parts should be ready for assembly as soon as they are ejected from the moulding
machine, without needing any additional finishing operations. If finishing operations are required,
the cost of plastics components often reaches that of metal designs (Fig. 1).

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TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Design determines production costs

A general increase in wall thickness will not always lead to the desired strength increase in a
component, but it will certainly mean a steep rise in production and material costs (Fig. 2).
Partially crystalline thermoplastics undergo volume shrinkage as they set up. This shrinkage must
be compensated for by continuing melt feed during the holding pressure phase. The approximate
holding pressure time per mm wall thickness is, for example:
– POM = 8 s
– PA66 unreinforced = 4-5 s
– PA66 reinforced = 2-3 s
(Applies up to wall thickness of 3 mm)

Original profile, material POM

140
Moment of inertia: 2520 mm4
Holding pressure time: about 95 s (100%)

Ribbed sheet, variant 1

4
9,2
28
2,8
140
Moment of inertia: 2520 mm4
Reduction of holding pressure time to about 35%
Material saving: 23%

Ribbed sheet, variant 2

2
11,2
28
1,4
140
Moment of inertia: 2520 mm4
Reduction of holding pressure time to about 15%
Material saving: 57%

Cost-saving potential through

use of ribbed design

Fig. 2

Examples of typical applications

In contrast to metal designs, which have to be machined and often pass through many assembly
stages to turn out a single functional part, plastics technology offers considerable savings potential.
In this example (Fig. 3), the guide and drive rods, spring, barbed-leg snap-fit element and bearing
arrangement are injection-moulded in one piece. The equivalent metal design would require not
only five individual parts that have to be assembled, but the rod would also need lubrication where
it comes into contact with the stop. Choice of a POM homopolymer in fact made lubrication
unnecessary at this point, too.

21
TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Barbed-leg snap-fit designs in combination with integral hinges reduce the number of individual
components, thus making assembly easier and thereby lowering costs. If brittle materials are used,
another barbed-leg snap-fit element takes over the locking function if the integral hinge breaks (Fig. 4).
In designing the part, the designer also necessarily defines the design of the mould cavity. He
therefore determines the ejection system and the number of splits required. By judicious
arrangement of undercuts, splits can be replaced by cores (Fig. 5).

Example of functional integration

(guide and drive rod made of POM)

Fig. 3
Example of simplified assembly
(cable clips with integral hinge)

Fig. 4

Low-cost mould design

Fig. 5

22
TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

1. Comparison of materials 6. Cost-saving designs

2. Material selection 7. General assembly technology
3. Wall thickness 8. Welding technology
4. Ribbing 9. Tolerances
5. Gate positioning 10. Check list

7. General assembly technology

The best assembly techniques –

Part I
General Assembly Technology – Snap-fit, press-fit and threaded assemblies are simple
techniques that allow designers to exploit great potential production savings through
simple, rapid assembly of components.

Assembly techniques can be divided into detachable and non-detachable types.

The following techniques come under the category of non-detachable assemblies:
– welding
– riveting
– adhesive bonding
– insert technology
– snap-fits with 90° retaining angle.

Detachable assemblies include:

– snap-fits with < 90° retaining angle
– threaded assemblies
– hub assemblies
– press-fit assemblies.

Material Permissible strain in %

POM homopolymer about 5-8

PA unreinforced (cond.) about 4-6

PA unreinforced (dry) about 3

PA66 GR (conditioned) about 0,9-1,5

PA66 GR (dry) about 0,8

PET GR about 0,5-0,8

PBT GR about 0,7-1,5

Permissible material strains

(Values are valid only for a single assembly operation)

Fig. 1

23
TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

F = 4,3 N F=7N

1
1
1,5
3

3
15 15
Stress curve in the barbed leg
40 40
30 30
N/mm2

N/mm2
20 20
10 10
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
mm mm

Stress distribution with

different cross sections

Fig. 2

Snap-fit Assembly Design

The great advantage of snap-fits is that with this technique no additional elements are needed to
make the assembly.

The most commonly used types of snap-fits in plastics technology are:

– barbed-leg-type snap-fits
– cylindrical snap-fits
– ball-and-socket snap-fits.

With all these snap-fit designs, designers must ensure that the geometry of the assembly allows the
components to be as stress-free as possible after assembly to avoid stress relaxation, which would
loosen the assembly with time.

100 DA
Wall can be over- Rib 0,4 t - 0,75 t
% of pull-out force

80 extended in this area dL

50
Lmin
20
0
0 500 1000
Time (hours)
Snap-fits: 80% of Material dL (mm) DA (mm) Lmin (mm)
original pull-out force POM 0,75 d 1,95 d 2,0 d
Press-fits: 50% of PET GR30 0,8 d 1,8 d 1,7 d
original pull-out force
PBT GR30 0,8 d 1,8 d 1,7 d
PA66 GR30 0,82 d 2,0 d 1,8 d
Effect of time
PA66 0,75 d 1,85 d 1,7 d
d = Nominal screw diameter
Fig. 3
Design recommendations
for EJOT PT screws

Fig. 4

24
TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Basic design principles

The design of a snap-fit assembly is determined by the permissible strain of the material to be used.
Care should be taken with polyamide, for example, because in the dry state this material generally
permits considerably lower strains than in the conditioned state. Glass fibre content also has an
important effect on the permissible strain of the material and thus also on the permissible deflection
of the barbed leg (Fig. 1).
In a barbed-leg-type snap-fit, tapering of the deflecting leg reduces stress (Fig. 2). This design
allows better stress distribution over the entire bending length. Stress concentration peaks at the
base of the leg are less and assembly forces are considerably reduced.
Failure to radius the junction between the base of the barbed leg and the main body of the component,
or to provide sufficiently large radii in this area, often results in weak points. In principle, a sufficiently
large radius should be provided to avoid stress concentration peaks. Cylindrical and ball-and-socket-
snap-fits often have to be slotted to facilitate assembly; in this case the slot end must not be designed
with a sharp edge.

Press-fit Assemblies
Press-fits enable high-strength assemblies to be made between plastic components at minimal cost.
As with snap-fit assemblies, the pull-out force of a press-fit assembly decreases with time as a result
of stress relaxation (Fig. 3). Design calculations must take this into account. In addition, tests with
the expected service temperature cycles must be carried out to confirm the feasibility of the design.

Use of a screw with a

Threaded Assemblies
tapered countersunk head Threaded assemblies can be produced with thread-cutting or
thread-forming screws, or by the use of integrally moulded
Resulting
forces cause
threaded inserts. The flexural modulus of the material to be
splaying used provides a good guide to the type of threaded assembly
that is most appropriate. For example, up to a flexural modulus
Bad of about 2800 MPa, thread-forming screws may be used.
Metal inserts must be used if metric screws are required or if
Use of a cheese-head screw the threaded assembly is intended to be undone several times.
To prevent premature component failure, it is important to
ensure correct dimensioning of the boss (Fig. 4). Screw
manufacturers give recommendations on this.
Good Screws with a tapered countersunk head should as a general
rule be avoided in plastics assembly technology since the
Use of a cheese-head
resulting forces (Fig. 5) cause the screw hole to “splay out”.
screw with insert
Metal insert
One possible result of such additional stress is that weld lines
can easily rupture.

Optimum

Threaded assemblies

Fig. 5

25
TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

1. Comparison of materials 6. Cost-saving designs

2. Material selection 7. General assembly technology
3. Wall thickness 8. Welding technology
4. Ribbing 9. Tolerances
5. Gate positioning 10. Check list

8. Welding technology

The Best Assembly Techniques –

Part II
Welding technology – In addition to the assembly techniques described in article 7 of
this series, many different welding methods can be used to join plastic parts. To ensure
low-cost, functionally efficient designs, it is necessary to select a suitable welding
method and give careful thought to the required joint geometry at an early stage in the
design process.

Hot-tool Vibration/Spin Ultrasonic

Principle

Welding cycle times 10-20 s 0,2-10 s 0,1-2 s

Advantages – unevennesses in the joint zone
(e.g. distortion) are melted away
– good reproducibility
of welding results
– best weld quality
– high degree of automation
possible
– suitable for welding
medium-sized to large parts
– suitable for welding plastics
sensitive to oxidation
– different variations possible
(riveting, flanging, insertion)
– shortest cycle times
– method can be readily automated
and integrated

Limitations – oxidation-sensitive plastics – position of the parts to be welded
– more flash relative to each other
– minimum rigidity required
(material/part geometry)
– defined relative movement required
– suitable only for welding small
to medium-sized parts
– near-field/far-field an additional
influencing factor

Examples air-intake hose air-intake pipe cigarette lighter

(inserts)

runner
joints
body

Comparison of different welding methods

Fig. 1
26
TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Welded joints are assemblies for permanently connecting plastics parts without additional assembly
elements. The choice of welding method depends on several criteria: the geometry of the moulded
part and on the materials used, on cost-effectiveness, suitability for integration into the overall
production cycle and the mechanical and aesthetic quality requirements for the assembly zone.

Different welding methods

There are many different, cost-effective welding methods suitable for industrial mass production.
The methods most frequently used for plastics engineering components are (Fig. 1):
– hot-tool welding
– spin welding
– vibration welding
– ultrasonic welding.

Other methods worth mentioning include:

– high-frequency welding
– induction welding
– hot-gas welding.

New methods are also being developed (e.g. laser welding), but these are not yet widely used in
industry.
In all these methods, the assembly operation is carried out by applying heat (melting the surfaces to
be joined) and pressure. Heat can be generated directly by contact or radiation, or indirectly by internal
or external friction, or by electrical effects.

w = 2-3 T T
T
3T
1,2 T

5°
30°
15°

15°

3-3,5 T 15°
Thick-walled parts Thin-walled parts

Weld design for vibration Weld design

welding/hot-tool welding for spin welding

Fig. 2 Fig. 3

w = 2-3 T
T

0.5 T

Examples of recesses
for absorbing flash

Fig. 4

27
TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Choosing the right method

To achieve good, reproducible weld quality, it is necessary to choose a suitable welding method,
optimize welding parameters and ensure that the parts to be assembled are correctly designed for the
welding method being used. Welding machinery manufacturers supply not only standard equipment
but also various special welding units to cater for a wide variety of welding tasks. Before deciding
on a welding method, it is advisable to consult the machinery manufacturers or resin suppliers.

Different welding properties

Theoretically, all thermoplastics are weldable, but the welding behaviour of plastics differs considerably
in some cases. Amorphous and semi-crystalline polymers cannot be welded together. Plastics that
absorb water (e.g. nylon) need to be pre-dried, since moisture leads to poor-quality welds. For best
results, nylon parts should either be welded immediately after injection-moulding or kept in a dry
state before welding. Resin additives such as glass fibres and stabilizers can also influence welding
results. Welded assemblies of unreinforced plastics can attain weld factors close to the strength of
the parent material, given suitable process parameters and part design. With glass-fibre-reinforced
plastics, loss of strength due to fibre separation or reorientation in the welding zone must be taken
into account.

Correct weld design

An essential requirement for high-quality welds is suitable design of the weld profile. The profiles
shown in Figures 2 and 3 have proved successful basic designs. If the weld zone additionally has to
meet high aesthetic specifications, then special geometry is needed. The diagrams show possible
ways of hiding flash by providing recesses to absorb the excess material (Fig. 4). Thin-walled parts
need to be designed with a guided fit into each other, so that the necessary welding pressure can be
applied without the walls moving out of alignment.

A: 0,4 mm with B = 1,5-3 mm A: 0,2-0,4 mm

B: wall thickness B: wall thickness
90° C: 0,5-0,8 mm
E: 1,25-1,5 B
B
B

E
B A

A
C

B
0,6 B
B

1,4 B
Butt weld with Shear weld
energy director

Butt and shear weld designs

for ultrasonic welding

Fig. 5

28
TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Special features of ultrasonic welding

Semi-crystalline polymers have a sharply defined melting point, i.e. on application of heat they pass
abruptly from the solid to the liquid phase. For ultrasonic welding of semi-crystalline plastics, it is
therefore preferable to use shear welds (Fig. 5). For welding amorphous plastics, which have a
softening range, the weld design is less critical. Fig. 6 shows diagrams of the near-field and far-field
welding methods. These differ in the distance between the contact point where the ultrasonic horn
transmits vibrations into the workpiece and the faces to be joined. Generally speaking, near-field
welding produces the best results with all plastics but it is essential to use the near-field method for
plastics with a low elastic modulus.

Transmission
of ultrasonic
vibrations

Near-field Far-field

Near-field and
far-field welding methods

Fig. 6

29
TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

1. Comparison of materials 6. Cost-saving designs

2. Material selection 7. General assembly technology
3. Wall thickness 8. Welding technology
4. Ribbing 9. Tolerances
5. Gate positioning 10. Check list

9. Tolerances

Hidden cost factors

Tolerances – Injection mouldings cannot be produced to the same tolerances as
machined parts. Although most people are aware of this, tolerances are continually
being specified that cannot be attained and/or make cost-efficient production
impossible.

Tolerances and their cost implications

A distinction is generally made between three quality classes: general-purpose injection moulding,
technical injection-moulding and high-precision injection-moulding. In the DIN 16901 standard,
these are specified in terms of general tolerances and dimensions with directly figured allowances
(ranges 1 and 2):
– “general-purpose” injection-moulding requires a low level of quality control and is characterised
by low reject rates and fast production cycles
– technical injection-moulding is considerably more costly, since it makes higher demands on the
mould and the production process, requires frequent quality control checks and is therefore likely
to have increased reject rates
– the third group, high-precision injection-moulding, requires precision moulds, optimum production
conditions and 100 % production monitoring with continuous quality control. This affects cycle
time and-through increased production and quality control costs-on the unit price.

Tolerances cost money!

Dimensional variations in
injection-moulded parts result from:
tolerances in mould-making
Unit price

tolerances in processing
usual value
tolerances due to the moulding material

warpage due to:

mould shrinkage / post-shrinkage /
part geometry / orientation / internal stresses /
different cooling conditions
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5
dimensional changes due to:
Tolerance: % deviation
from nominal dimension moisture absorption / thermal expansion

Unit price
versus tolerance Factors influencing
dimensional variations
Fig. 1
Fig. 2

30
TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Since designers play a key role in determining the costs of an injection-moulded part, they must
also ensure commercially viable tolerancing. The selected tolerances should not be as tight as
possible but as tight as necessary.
A commercially acceptable value for a production tolerance would be 0,25 to 0,3 % deviation from
the nominal dimension, but this must be checked against application requirements (Fig. 1).
It should be remembered that thermoplastics, which typically have high elongation and elasticity,
do not need to have the close tolerances that are specified for metals with their high rigidity, low
elongation and low elasticity.

Factors influencing tolerances

To avoid excessively close tolerances for plastics components, the many different factors that
influence the dimensional accuracy of an injection-moulded part (Fig. 2) must be kept in mind.
Tolerances in tool-making have to be observed relatively closely. Designers should not forget,
however, that demoulding tapers for easy, distortion-free ejection from the injection mould are vital
(Fig. 3).
Adherence to tolerances is a problem when moulding parts from different materials or with different
wall thicknesses. Mould shrinkage values are direction- and thickness-dependent. This behaviour
can be seen most clearly with glass-fibre-reinforced materials. Here, the orientation of the glass
fibres can produce significant differential shrinkage between the longitudinal and transverse directions,
and this can lead to dimensional inaccuracies.
The geometry of the moulded part can also have an effect on shrinkage and hence on tolerances
(Fig. 4).
If complex mouldings are to be produced to close tolerances, a prototype mould is essential to obtain
accurate information on the actual shrinkage value and warpage behaviour.

Production and operating tolerances

It is important to decide whether only a production tolerance is required or whether an operating
tolerance is also necessary, since thermoplastics are affected by their service environment. For example,
thermal expansion – which can be ten times more than for metals (Fig. 5) – and the marked tendency of
some polymers (e.g. nylons) to absorb moisture play a crucial role in the operational reliability of a part
in service.

α for:
amorphous: 1,5°- 3°
α semi-crystalline: 0,5°-3°
textured surfaces:
1,5° per 0,02 mm roughness height

Demoulding tapers

Fig. 3

31
TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

With semi-crystalline materials, post-shrinkage must also be taken into account. This phenomenon,
which is influenced mainly by injection moulding conditions, can lead to dimensional changes in
finished parts after demoulding.
Quality control must not be carried out immediately after demoulding. The DIN 16901 standard
specifies that quality control should be undertaken only after 16 hours’storage under standard
climatic conditions (23 °C, 50 % relative humidity) or after suitable pre-treatment.

Recommendations
The tolerances specified in DIN 16901 can be used as a starting point for cost-efficient production
of moulded parts. However, the improved technology of modern injection moulding machines
enables considerably closer tolerances to be attained than the values specified in this standard.
For high-precision injection mouldings, individual industry sectors have developed separate tolerance
tables because DIN 16901 is no longer adequate.
In any case, however, when close tolerances are needed, it is important to consult with the injection
moulder or material supplier to see if the required tolerances are technically feasible and commercially
appropriate (Fig. 6).

Bar Disk Sheet

127 x 12,7 x 3,2 mm 50 x 3,2 mm 152 x 76 x 3,2 mm
end gate central gate end gate

Mould shrinkage in: Length Diameter Length Width

PA66 1,5% 1,7% 1,7% 1,8%

PA66 30% GR 0,1% - 0,2 0,4% 0,4% 1,1%

PA66 43% GR 0,1% 0,2% 0,2% 0,5%

Shrinkage

Fig. 4

D = 100 mm
Semi-crystalline thermoplastics have higher
post-shrinkage values than amorphous thermoplastics

Reinforced thermoplastics shrink by different amounts

longitudinally (in the direction of the glass-fibre orientation)
and in the transverse direction

Thick walls lead to sink marks, dimensional variations

Material POM and warpage

Part design and processing conditions often play

Thermal expansion a decisive role in meeting specified tolerances
coefficient
α = 12 x E-5 (1/°C) Temperature fluctuations and moisture absorption
D = 100 mm at 23 °C result in dimensional changes that must be taken into
D = 100,3 mm at 50 °C account for operating tolerances

Thermal expansion Tolerance-related factors

Fig. 5 Fig. 6

32
TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

1. Comparison of materials 6. Cost-saving designs

2. Material selection 7. General assembly technology
3. Wall thickness 8. Welding technology
4. Ribbing 9. Tolerances
5. Gate positioning 10. Check list

10. Check list

Some Guidelines
Design check list – The aim of new product development or further development of an
existing product is to achieve a technically good design that can be produced at an
economic cost. The main design tasks involved here are material selection, choice of
a suitable production process, strength calculation and moulding design.
A high-quality, commercially viable moulding can be produced only by giving full consideration
to each of these design steps and following them through systematically. Design departments often
seek only a functional solution. It has to be stressed, however, that the functionality and cost-
effectiveness of a plastic component cannot be taken for granted unless designers pay proper
attention to developing the right solutions for the material and the production process.

A plastic’s properties are not immutable material constants

The property profiles of plastics can be influenced by the service environment, production process,
moulding design and operating conditions (Fig. 1). Plastics properties are determined in tests under
laboratory conditions. Test bars are produced in highly polished moulds with optimized parameters
and tested under standardized conditions with precisely defined stresses. In practice, however, plastic
components are never produced exactly under such conditions and are not exposed to precisely the
same stresses in service. For these reasons, when setting out on any plastics design project, the
exact requirements and boundary conditions must be carefully analysed and listed. A design check
list can provide useful assistance here (Fig. 2).

Effect of temperature Effect of time

T1 v1

T1<T2<T3 v1>v2>v3
σ
σ

Stress
Stress

T2 v2
T3 v3

Strain ε Strain ε

Effect of time and temperature

on deformation behaviour

Fig. 1 33
TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Production of prototypes
To develop a component from the design phase to market-readiness, it is generally necessary to
prepare prototypes for trials and modification. Care should be taken to ensure that the method used
to prepare the prototype is broadly similar to the intended full-scale production method. Prototypes
for parts that are to be produced by injection moulding should also be prepared by injection moulding.
If no mould is available, it is sometimes necessary to resort to machined trial components.
However, this is not always without its problems, for the following reasons:

– the effect of weld lines in the injection moulded part cannot be studied
– the grooves produced by machining can sometimes considerably reduce strength properties
compared with those of an injection moulded part
– the strength and rigidity of extruded bars and sheets can be higher than those of an injection
moulded part on account of higher crystallinity
– the effect of fibre orientation cannot be studied.

A. General
1. Function of the component
2. Possibilities for modification and integration
(increase in functionality)

B. Service conditions
1. Stresses: type, duration, level
- static, dynamic
- short-term, long-term, intermittent
- maximum and minimum values
2. Service temperature
- maximum and minimum values
- duration of exposure
3. Service environment
- air – water – humidity
- chemicals
- UV stress
- ...

C. Design requirements
1. Tolerances
2. Maximum permissible moulded-part deformation
3. Assembly – dismantling (joining techniques)
4. Specifications and approvals
- official regulations
- company's internal guidelines
5. Surface quality
- permissible markings

D. Test conditions
All test methods that can be used to determine
the performance and assess the quality
of the plastic part should be listed in detail.

E. Cost efficiency
1. System or part costs for the old component assembly
2. Production quantity

F. Other
1. Environmental regulations
2. Safety factors
3. All additional information permitting a complete understanding
of part functions and the service conditions, mechanical
and environmental stresses and possible misuse
that the part will have to withstand.

Design check list

Fig. 2
34
TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Light switch spring

made of POM

Spring Spring
machined from injection moulded
extruded material

Fig. 3

The machined prototype for a spring in a light switch, produced from an extruded material, withstood
180 000 stress cycles without fatigue. The same part, when injection moulded, showed fatigue
fracture after 80 000 stress cycles. The reason for the failure was the different crystalline structure
of the injection moulding (Fig. 3).

Prototype moulds
To produce prototypes, existing pressure-diecast moulds or prototype moulds made from easily
machinable or low-cost materials such as aluminium or brass are used. It should be kept in mind,
however, that important injection-moulding parameters such as temperature and pressure cannot be
reproduced with these moulds. In addition, their different cooling characteristics lead to different
shrinkage and warpage behaviour. Preliminary production moulds made from hardened steel are
recommended. These can be single-cavity moulds or a single mould cavity in a multi-cavity mould.

Testing plastics designs

With modern computer simulation techniques, such as strength analysis and flow analysis, potential
weak points in the design or in processing can sometimes be identified at a very early stage.
However, it is not possible to give a 100 per cent guarantee for the quality of the end product and its
behaviour under real-life operating conditions. The most reliable information is always obtained by
testing prototypes under real operating conditions. This type of testing should never be omitted with
engineering parts that have to meet high functional and quality requirements.
If it proves difficult to test under the actual operating conditions, tests under simulated service
conditions may also be used. The value of such tests, however, depends very much on how
accurately the operating conditions can be simulated.
Time-consuming series of tests to assess long-term behaviour under the effects of mechanical stress
or heat are sometimes impracticable or not commercially justifiable. On the other hand, predictions
as to long-term behaviour on the basis of accelerated tests under harsher conditions are not always
clear-cut and should be treated with extreme caution. The behaviour of a plastic under stress in a
long-term test may be completely different from that determined in a short-term, accelerated test.

35
TOP TEN DESIGN TIPS
By Jürgen Hasenauer, Dieter Küper, Jost E. Laumeyer and Ian Welsh

Innovating with plastics

Many different applications from all industrial sectors demonstrate that the future belongs to plastics.
If the material properties of polymers are intelligently exploited, then multi-functional components
can be produced that are commercially and functionally superior to previous designs.
Today’s designs require increasingly complex geometries and materials. Plastics can and will solve
many different types of problem. It is important, however, to match the plastic to the application
very carefully. Raw material (resin) manufacturers have extensive experience of this. Full use must
be made of their expertise to translate new plastics design ideas into reality.

Avoid material accumulations

Aim for uniform wall thickness
Design wall thicknesses as thin as possible
and only as thick as necessary
Use ribbing instead of greater wall thickness
Provide radiusing
Avoid flat areas
Provide demoulding tapers
Avoid undercuts
Do not design to greater precision than required
Design multi-functional components
Use economic assembly techniques
Gate mouldings on the thickest wall
When replacing metals,
redesign is always necessary.

Rules for designers

of plastics parts

Fig. 4

36
EUROPE/MIDDLE EAST/AFRICA Magyarország Ukraine ASIA-PACIFIC Crastin pbt ®
Tynex ®

DuPont Magyarország Kft. Du Pont de Nemours thermoplastic nylon monofilament

polyester resin
Belgique / België HU - 2040 Budaörs International S.A. Australia
Du Pont de Nemours (Belgium) Neuman J.u. 1 Representative Office DuPont (Australia) Ltd.
Delrin ® Vespel ®

Antoon Spinoystraat 6 Tel. +36 23 509 400 3, Glazunova Street 168 Walker Street acetal resin
parts and shapes
B-2800 Mechelen Telefax: +36 23 509 432 Kyiv 252042 North Sydney NSW 2060
Tel. +32 15 44 14 11 Tel. +380 44 294 96 33 / 269 13 02 Tel: +612 9923-6111
Hytrel ® Zytel ®

nylon resin
Telefax +32 15 44 14 09 Maroc Telefax +380 44 269 11 81 Fax: +612 9923 6011 thermoplastic
Deborel Maroc S.A. polyester elastomer
Bulgaria 40, boulevard d’Anfa – 10° United Kingdom Hong Kong/China Zytel htn ®

high performance
Serviced by MA-Casablanca Du Pont (UK) Limited DuPont China Ltd. Minlon
mineral reinforced
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polyamide
Biesterfeld Interowa GmbH & Co. KG. Tel. +212 227 48 75 Wedgwood Way 26/F, Tower 6, The Gateway, nylon resin
See under Österreich. Telefax +212 226 54 34 Stevenage 9 Canton Road Zenite lcp ®

Hertfordshire SG1 4QN Tsimshatsui, Kowloon, Hong Kong liquid crystal polymer
Ceská Republika a Norway / Norge Tel. +44 1438 734000 Tel: +852 2734 5345 Rynite
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pet
®

polyester resin
Slovenská Republika Distrupol Nordic Telefax ++44 1438 734109 Fax: +852 2724 4458 DuPont etpv ™

Du Pont CZ, s.r.o. Ostenssjoveien 36 thermoplastic rubber

that resists oil & heat
Pekarska 14/268 N-0677 Olso South Africa Shanghai/China Thermx pct ®

high performance polyester

CZ-155 00 Praha 5 – Jinonice
Tel. +42 257 41 41 11
Telefax +42 257 41 41 50-51
Danmark
Du Pont Danmark ApS
Skjøtevej 26
P.O. Box 3000
DK-2770 Kastrup
Telefax +45 32 47 98 05
Telefax +45 32 47 98 05
Deutschland
Du Pont de Nemours
(Deutschland) GmbH
DuPont Straße 1
D-61343 Bad Homburg
Tel. +49 6172 87 0
Telefax +49 6172 87 27 01
Egypt
Du Pont Products S.A.
Bldg no. 6, Land #7, Block 1
New Maadi
ET-Cairo
Tel. +202 754 65 80
Telefax +202 516 87 81
España
Du Pont Ibérica S.A.
Edificio L’Illa
Avda. Diagonal 561
E-08029 Barcelona
Tel. +34 227 60 00
Telefax +34 227 62 00
France
DuPont de Nemours (France) SAS
Défense Plaza
23/25 rue Delarivière Le Foullon
Défense 9
92 064 La Défense Cedex
Phone: +33 (0)1 41 97 44 00
Telefax +33 1 47 53 09 67
Hellas
Biesterfeld Hellas Intralink S.A.
Trading Establishment
149, AG. Triados Menidi Acharnes
GR-13671 Athens
Tel. +30 210 24 02 900
Telefax+30 210 24 02 141
Israël
Gadot Chemical Terminals (1985) Ltd.
16 Habonim Street
Netanya – South Ind. Zone
IL-42504 Netanya
Tel. +972 3 526 42 41
Telefax +972 3 528 27 17
Italia
Du Pont de Nemours Italiana S.r.L.
Centro Direzionale “Villa Fiorita”
Via Piero Gobetti, 2/A
20063 Cernusco s/N (MI)
Tel. +39 02 92629.1 (switchboard)
Fax +39 02 36049379
Tel. +47 23 16 80 62
Telefax +47 23 16 80 62
Österreich
Biesterfeld Interowa GmbH & Co. KG
Bräuhausgasse 3-5
P.O. Box 19
AT-1051 Wien
Tel. +43 1 512 35 71-0
Fax +43 1 512 35 71-31
e-mail: info@interowa.at
internet: www.interowa.at
Polska
Du Pont Poland Sp. z o.o.
ul. Powazkowska 44C
PL-01-797 Warsaw
Tel. +48 22 320 0900
Telefax +48 22 320 0910
Portugal
Biesterfeld Iberica S.L.
Rua das Matas
P-4445-135 Alfena
Tel. +351 229 698 760
Telefax +351 229 698 769
Romania
Serviced by
Biesterfeld Interowa GmbH & Co. KG.
See under Österreich.
Russia
DuPont Russia LLC.
ul. Krylatskaya 17/3
121614 Moscow
Tel. +7 495 797 22 00
Fax. + 7 495 797 22 01
Schweiz / Suisse / Svizzera
Biesterfeld Plastic Suisse GmbH
Dufourstrasse 21
Postfach 14695
CH-4010 Basel
Tel. +41 61 201 31 50
Telefax +41 61 201 31 69
Slovenija
Serviced by
Biesterfeld Interowa GmbH & Co. KG.
See under Österreich.
Suomi / Finland
Du Pont Suomi Oy
PO Box 54 (Keilaranta 12)
FI-02150 ESPOO
Tel: +358 207 890500
Fax: +358 207 890501
Sverige
Serviced by
Du Pont Danmark ApS.
See under Danmark.
Türkiye
Du Pont Products S.A.
Buyukdere Caddesi No. 122
Ozsezen Ismerkezi, A block, Kat: 3
Esentepe, 34394 Istanbul
Tel. +90 212 340 0400
Telefax +90 212 340 0430
DuPont de Nemours
Societe Anonyme
South African Branch Office
4th Floor Outspan House
1006 Lenchen Avenue North
Centurion
Pretoria 0046
Tel. +27 0 12 683 5600
Telefax +27 0 12 683 5661
NORTH AMERICA
USA
DuPont Engineering Polymers
Barley Mill Plaza, Building 26
P. O. Box 800026
Wilmington, Delaware 19880
Tel. +1 302 992 4592
Telefax +1 302 992-6713
DuPont Automotive
950 Stephenson Highway
P.O. Box 7013
Troy, MI 48007-7013
Tel. +1 248 583-8000
Canada
DuPont Engineering Polymers
P.O. Box 2200
Streetsville, Mississauga
Ontario, Canada L5M 2H3
Tel. +1 905 821-5953
Mexico
DuPont S.A. de C.V.
Homero 206
Col. Chapultepec Morales
11570 Mexico D.F.
Tel. + 525 557 221 000
SOUTH AMERICA
Argentina
Du Pont Argentina S.A.
Avda. Mitre y Calle 5
(1884) Berazategui-Bs.As.
Tel. +54 11 4239-3868
Telefax +54 11 4239-3817
Brasil
DuPont do Brasil S.A.
Al. Itapecuru, 506 Alphaville
06454-080 Barueri-Sao Paulo
Tel. + 5511 7266 8229
DuPont China Holding Co. Ltd.
15/F., Shui On Plaza
333 Huai Hai Road (Central)
Shanghai 200021
Tel: +86 21 6386 6366
Fax: +86 21 6386 6333 The DuPont Oval Logo, DuPont ™, The
miracles of science™, and Crastin®, Delrin®,
India DuPont™ ETPV, Hytrel®, Minlon®, Rynite®,
E.I. DuPont India Limited,
"Arihant Nitco Park" Sixth floor, Thermx®, Tynex®, Vespel®, Zytel®, Zenite® are
90, Dr. Radhakrishnan Salai, registered trademarks or trademarks of
Mylapore, DuPont or its affiliates.
Chennai 600 004
Tel: +91 44 28472800
Fax: +91 44 28473800
Japan
DuPont Kabushiki Kaisha
Sanno Park Tower, 11-1
Nagata-cho 2-chome
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-6111
Japan.
Tel: +81 3 5521 8500
Fax: +81 3 5521 2595
Korea
DuPont (Korea) Ltd.
4/5 Floor, Asia Tower
#726, Yeoksam-dong, Kangnam-Ku
Seoul 135-082
Tel: +822 2222-5200
Fax: +822 2222-5470
Singapore
Du Pont Company (S) Pte Ltd
1 HarbourFront Place #11-01
HarbourFront Tower One
Singapore 098633
Tel: +65 6586 3688 Publisher: Evelyne Schütz,
Fax: +65 6272 7494 DuPont Engineering Polymers,
2, ch. du Pavillon
Taiwan CH-1218 Le Grand-Saconnex
DuPont Taiwan Ltd. Geneva
Hung Kuo Building, 13th floor Switzerland
#167 Tun Hwa North Road Tel: +41 22 717 51 11
Taipei 105 Fax: +41 22 717 52 00
Tel: +8862 2719-1999
Fax: +8862 2719-0852 Editor: Andrew Wilkins
Thailand
DuPont (Thailand) Limited Layout & Johan Hedqvist,
6-7th Floor, M. Thai Tower production: Geneva
All Seasons Place
87 Wireless Road
Lumpini, Phatumwan Engineering Design is published in English,
Bangkok 10330 French, German, Italian, Spanish and Russian by
Tel : +66 2 659 4000 Du Pont de Nemours International S.A., P.O.
Fax : +66 2 659 4001 Box 50, CH-1218 Le Grand-Saconnex, Geneva,
Switzerland.
The information set forth herein is furnished
free of charge and is based on technical data
that DuPont believes to be reliable. It is
intended for use by persons having technical
skill at their own discretion and risk. DuPont
makes no warranties, express or implied, and
assumes no liability in connection with any
use of this information.
©2007 E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Company
Printed in Switzerland

L-13906

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