Offshore geohazards

Summary Report
Research institution-based strategic project 2002 - 2005

Salt diapirs, Gulf of Mexico (Courtesy of USGS)

NGI-Report 20021023-2
8 December 2005

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 SUMMARY
This report summarises the Research institution-based strategic project (SIP) -
Offshore Geohazards. The project was performed during the period 2002-2005, by
the Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI) and funded by The Research Council
of Norway. The project was carried out in close co-operation with the International
Centre for Geohazards (ICG) at NGI.

The main objective of the SIP “Offshore Geohazards” has been to improve,
develop and verify methodologies and techniques to reduce the risk associated with
offshore geohazards. Geohazards are defined as local and/or regional site and soil
conditions having a potential of developing into a failure or accidental event
causing loss of life or damage to health, environment or assets.

Offshore geohazards that may have to be considered during development oil and gas fields

During the 1990s petroleum exploration and field development activities expanded
Geohazards are to continental deepwater slopes and into water depths larger than 1000 m.
defined as local Offshore exploration and field development were also initiated in tectonically
and/or regional site active areas like the Caspian Sea. These were new areas with potential geohazards,
and soil conditions and little experience was available regarding geotechnical soil conditions,
having a potential of geological processes and human activity that could affect oil and gas field
developing into a development. Seabed deformations and instability, mass movements, gas and
failure or accidental water flow generated by natural processes or human activity, may cause damage to
event causing loss of and loss of platform wells and risers, foundations and anchors, subsea structures,
life or damage to pipelines and control cables.
health, environment
or assets. Submarine slides or mass movements have been the central scientific topic in the
SIP. Slide scars and debris deposits from enormous submarine slides have been
observed along the continental slopes around the world at slope angles less than
three degrees. Several slides are of Holocene age (<10,000 yrs BP). With

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 increasing seismic mapping of the slopes an increasing number of older slides
(paleoslides) buried by more recent sediments have been found. Large scale slide
events have generated tsunami waves impacting coastal areas. Rapid deposition of
sediments and tectonic compression generate high excess pore pressures, causing
reduced soil strength and thus increased likelihood of seabed instability, both at
large scale and locally. Excess pore pressure also contributes to active faulting and
formation of salt and mud diapirism, mud volcanoes and fluid escape features like
pockmarks. Human activities like drilling and production and installation of
structures may also alter the conditions locally, and trigger mass movements.

The SIP has contributed greatly to the understanding and assessment of offshore
geohazards. The benefits include improvements in:
Reduced risk
• the understanding of seabed instability mechanisms
• the modelling of mass flow and fluid and gas transport
• the tools and methods for the assessment of material properties and design
parameters
• the quantification of uncertainties and frequency of geohazard events
• the assessment of the consequences of offshore geohazards

This new knowledge will enable a more rational assessment of geohazard risk and
give valuable assistance for:
The SIP has
strengthened NGIs • identification of geohazards
position as a • production of geohazard maps and optimisation of field lay-out to minimise
leading actor in hazard and risk
research and • evaluation of measures to reduce risk of damage to wells, field installations and
consulting work environment
related to offshore
geohazards By combining research with consulting work, NGI is able to apply results to
practical situations. NGI has used the results of the SIP research to develop best
practice guidelines. The SIP has thus strengthened NGIs position as a leading actor
in research and consulting work related to offshore geohazards.

NGI wishes to thank its clients in the oil and gas industry for giving NGI the
opportunity to participate in challenging and rewarding offshore geohazard studies.
The results of the SIP could not have been accomplished without these studies.

This report is also NGI extends its gratitude to all individuals, companies, institutions and
available on the universities that contributed to the successful completion of this SIP!
NGI WEB site
www.ngi.no

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CONTENTS
1 OBJECTIVES 5

2 ORGANISATION 6
2.1 Budget and schedule 6
2.2 Co-operation and education 6

3 SCIENTIFIC TOPICS 7
3.1 System definition - Mapping, monitoring and soil
investigation techniques 9
3.2 Geohazard identification - Triggering mechanisms and
failure scenarios 9
3.3 Geohazard risk estimation - Consequence analysis 10

4 SUMMARY OF RESULTS 11
4.1 Mapping, monitoring and soil investigation techniques11
4.2 Triggering mechanisms and failure scenarios 16
4.3 Consequence analysis 18
4.4 Best practice 21

5 BENEFITS 21

6 REFERENCES 22
6.1 Published papers 22
6.2 Published lectures and presentations 25
6.3 NGI-reports 29
6.4 Press and media coverage 31

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 1 OBJECTIVES

The objective for a research • mapping of large areas with

institution-based strategic project potential geohazards
(SIP) funded by The Research
Council of Norway, is to create high- Understanding of the physical
calibre research groups in their processes and material behaviour
spheres of responsibility or to build related to sub-marine slides or mass
up new communities in areas of movements, for example
strategic significance through basic • triggering sources and
research, applied research, retrogressive sliding mechanisms
competence building or restructuring • mechanical behaviour of
(www.forskningsradet.no). submarine sediments and effects
of gas and gas hydrates
The main objective of The main objective of the SIP
this SIP has been to “Offshore Geohazards” proposed by Analysis methods and numerical
improve, develop and NGI in 2001 and funded by The models for
verify methodologies Research Council of Norway during • slope stability analysis
and techniques to the period 2002-2005 has been to • simulation and animation of
reduce the risk improve, develop and verify submarine mass movements
associated with methodologies and techniques • evaluation of consequences, for
offshore geohazards. required for assessment of offshore instance run-out distance and
geohazards. During the project period impact forces on structure
this objective has been met by
developing improved:

Mapping, monitoring and soil

investigation methods and techniques
for
• detection and monitoring of
potentially unstable areas, slide
triggering sources and special
geological features with potential
for damaging wells and field
installations
• quantification of soil properties,
pore pressure conditions, gas
content as well as presence and
stability of gas hydrates
Seabed bathymetry from the Storage slide scar at Storneset
(Courtesy of Hydro)

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2 ORGANISATION
2.1 Budget and schedule
The SIP has been conducted during
the period 2002 to 2005 with a total
funding of 14 million NOK from The
Research Council of Norway and 2.8
million NOK from NGI.
2.2 Co-operation and
education
An Advisory Group has been active in
the project period to promote
interaction among the different
contributing partners and other
interested parties. An important
function for this group has been to
enable possible adjustment of the
research aims during the project. The
Advisory Group has advised NGI on
the aims and directions of the work,
given feedback on the obtained results
obtained and provided information
and opinions on the needs of the
industry. The groups’ members have
included:
• Are Birger Carlson, The Research
Council of Norway
• Anders Elverhøi, University of
Oslo
• Steinar Nordal, Norwegian
University of Science and
Technology (NTNU)
• Stein Bondevik, University of
Tromsø
• Tor Inge Tjelta, Statoil
• Tom Guttormsen, Hydro
The SIP has been carried out in close
co-operation with the Centre of
Excellence; ICG. NGI is the host
organisation for ICG, and the SIP has
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been a step-stone and an important
contribution to ICG.
The research activities conducted in
the project have involved co-
operation with many companies,
institutions and universities:
• AP van den Berg, Netherlands
• BP, UK
• Brit Survey (Fugro), UK
• Geological Survey of Norway
(NGU), Norway
• Hydro, Norway
• IFREMER, France
• Imperial College, UK
• Institute for Geotechnical
Engineering, ETH Zurich,
Switzerland
• Lankelma, UK
• NaDesCoR (Natural Disasters
Consulting and Research),
Switzerland
• NORSAR, Norway
• Norwegian University of Science
and Technology (NTNU),
Norway
• PLAXIS BV, Netherlands
• SINTEF, Norway
• Statoil, Norway
• Total, France
• University of Bologna, Italy
• University College Dublin, Ireland
• University of Massachusetts, USA
• University of Oslo, Norway
• University of Tromsø, Norway
• University of Washington, USA
Two PhD students, both employees of
NGI, have been connected to the
project. In addition, several post
doctoral candidates and visiting
researchers have been involved in the
SIP research work.
 3 SCIENTIFIC TOPICS
Slide scars and debris deposits from components. The quantitative risk
Geohazards are
enormous submarine slides have assessment frameworks proposed in
defined as local
been observed along the continental the literature have the common
and/or regional site
slopes around the world. The objective of answering the following
and soil conditions
explanation for the slide activity in questions:
having a potential of
the deep waters and the risk
developing into a
failure or accidental
assessment related to instability of • What are the probable
the remaining slide scarps are dangers/problems? [hazard
event causing loss of
important aspects of geohazards identification]
life or damage to
evaluations. Large submarine slides • What is the magnitude of
health, environment
may generate tsunami waves that can dangers/problems? [hazard
or assets.
devastate the coastline areas. The analysis]
understanding the large scale • What are the consequences
geological processes is therefore and/or elements at risk?
important for the evaluation of these [consequence/elements at risk
effects on development of oil and gas identification]
fields. • What might be the degree of
damage in elements at risk?
The geohazard risk assessment in the [vulnerability analysis]
The NORSOK
SIP uses a risk analysis framework • What is the probability of
framework for risk
according to international standards damage? [risk
analysis has been
and terminology. Risk management quantification/estimation]
used
is an integrated process, with several • What is the significance of
levels, back-steps and iterative loops. estimated risk? [risk evaluation]
Most risk assessment frameworks
• What should be done? [risk
contain: hazard identification, hazard
management]
analysis, consequence or elements at
risk identification, vulnerability
The process to determine offshore
analysis, risk quantification or
geohazard risk may be illustrated by
estimation, risk evaluation and risk
the flow diagram based on the
management.
NORSOK standard Z-013 for risk
management shown in the figure
There are two approaches to risk
below. The sections of the process
assessment, a qualitative and a
where the geological and
quantitative. In qualitative risk
geotechnical aspects are major are
assessment, the components of risk
marked with pink colour: System
are expressed verbally and the final
definition, Geohazards identification,
result is ranked or given as verbal
Geohazards risk estimation and
risk levels. Quantitative risk
Geohazards risk evaluation. The SIP
assessment involves quantification of
has focused on the three first
hazard and risk components and
sections.
computation of risk from these

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Offshore geohazard risk assessment process, based on NORSOK Z-013

The SIP has been organised in three main parts:

1. System definition - Mapping, monitoring and soil investigation techniques

2. Geohazard identification - Triggering mechanisms and failure scenarios
3. Geohazard risk estimation - Consequence analysis, slide run-out, impact forces
and tsunamis

The scientific content and results from each project part are summarised in the
following sections.

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 3.1 System definition - Mapping, monitoring and soil
investigation techniques
Field description is part of the system amounts of available geological data
definition. Elements like geological are needed.
history, evaluation of case studies,
Research connected site investigation and field To be able to determine input
to improving field instrumentation are included. In this parameters for different analyses,
and laboratory quantitative geohazard evaluation field investigations and
methods and stage, the engineer is always faced measurements, including laboratory
interpretation with limited data about the area of experiments, are used extensively.
techniques is interest. Representative geometry Research connected to improving
essential and have and input parameters for engineering field and laboratory methods and
been included in this calculations within the study area interpretation techniques is essential
SIP. have to be selected. Methods to map and have been included in this SIP.
and describe areas with large

3.2 Geohazard identification - Triggering mechanisms and

failure scenarios
Evaluation of trigger mechanisms vital to be able to evaluate possible
and failure scenarios are part of the trigger mechanisms and failure
geohazard identification phase. scenarios. Slope stability is
Offshore geohazard identification traditionally investigated by using
requires the integration of geological some form of limiting equilibrium
and geotechnical knowledge and method. However, many soil
methods. Geological processes materials, such as sensitive soft clay,
explain the preserve of geohazards may display strain-softening, or a
and their potential danger. decrease in shear strength with
Continuous sedimentation processes further deformation after peak
take place on continental slopes strength has been reached. Strain-
The ability to
altering soil properties like the soil softening has a negative effect on
describe soil
strength. Rapid sedimentation may in stability and causes progressive
material behaviour
some cases cause high excess pore failure development.
during a submarine
pressures.
sliding process, is
Understanding of pore pressure and
vital to be able to
The ability to describe soil material gas effects and mechanisms is also
evaluate trigger
behaviour and strength during essential for geohazard identification.
mechanisms and
loading or deformation, for example
failure scenarios.
during a submarine sliding process, is

Model of progressive failure in a long natural slope with strain-softening soft sensitive clay

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 3.3 Geohazard risk estimation - Consequence analysis
Consequence analysis is part of the Reliable methods for predicting the
geohazard risk estimation. dynamic evolution of mass
movements or slides are needed. At
In traditional geotechnical the start of the movement, the soil
engineering, the mathematical slope has low mobility; but during a sliding
stability model is valid until the soil process the soil may become more
reaches failure. The result of the mobile and liquid-like, forming a
analysis is the capacity of the soil. In debris flow or turbidity current.
It is important to be connection with geohazard risk Modelling submarine slides in clayey
able to calculate the estimation it is important to be able soils through all these phases of
velocity of which a to continue the failure analysis in sliding is a challenging task.
slide moves, the soil order to calculate the velocity of
volume and the area which a slide moves, the soil volume Submarine slides may generate
involved, as well as and the area involved, as well as the tsunamis with devastating effects in
the run-out distance. run-out distance. Numerical coastal areas. Reliable methods for
simulation of submarine mass flow is modelling of tsunami generation are
thus essential when evaluating slide needed to predict sea level rise and
consequences. run-up heights.

Tsunami impact from the Storegga slide (colours show wave height)

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 4 SUMMARY OF RESULTS
4.1 Mapping, monitoring and soil investigation techniques

Geophysical mapping methods

Drilling into sand bodies containing
Results from the water under high pressure may cause
SIP were major problems. The “shallow water
presented at a flows” that may arise from such
number of punctures will discharge subsurface
international fluids into the ocean and may
conferences, damage equipment and delay drilling
workshops and in programs considerably. Methods for
the press localising these over-pressured areas
(see references) prior to drilling is therefore of great
value to the petroleum industry.
Evidence of gas hydrates are
traditionally detected by seismic
imaging. However, seismic imaging
alone cannot estimate the hydrate
concentration. Studies performed in
the SIP show that it is possible to
detect gas hydrates by means of
seabed logging.

The benefits of using a seismic shear

wave technique for offshore
geohazard mapping have been
demonstrated. The technique may be
used in connection with detection of
Papers and reports
over-pressured zones, gas hydrates
produced in the
and “weak” layers. The differences in
project are listed in
reflection from compressional and
the reference list of
shear waves in over-pressured sand
this report
bodies were characterised by seismic
modelling. The results show that
over-pressured sand bodies in many
cases will most probably produce
large shear wave reflections, but only
small compressional wave
reflections.
Comparison of reflection from compressional (left) and shear
(right) waves identifying an over-pressured sand body
“Weak” layers are important in slope
stability studies. However, these are
often thinner than the typical seismic
resolution of a few metres. Tools for
Read more about:
processing seismic data were
streamlined for geohazard studies in • Seabed shear wave seismics
order to improve the identification of • Shear wave seismic source.
Tools and methods Prototype testing offshore
these layers. To improve
for indentification of • Using electromagnetic (EM)
interpretation of site investigation
weak layers have waves for mapping gas hydrates
data, geotechnical and geological
been improved. • Seismic tools for geohazard
data as well as the traditional
wireline logging data, have been studies
combined in the seismic sections (see
figure next page).

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 Resistivity
Seismics shown together with data from geotechnical site investigation
Field monitoring and instrumentation techniques
A ”Best Practice" manual for the
design of subsea and offshore
instrumentation systems has been
produced based on 30 years of NGI
Improved technology experience. The manual contains a
for pore pressure summary of relevant measuring
measurement techniques as well as
reduces costs recommendations for the selection of
sensor technology and system
solutions. Technologies and
techniques for further development
and implementation in subsea
geohazard monitoring systems at
locations without existing
infrastructure have been evaluated
during the project.
The multilevel piezometer string
developed during the project
provides measurement of pore
pressure in soil sediments at several
discrete depths within a single
boring. The sensor is constructed as a
modular unit, allowing variation in
the number and location of the
sensing points along the string. The
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CPT
Probable debris
flow deposits
BSR
sensor provides important material
parameters for geotechnical analysis,
as well as significant cost savings as
fewer subsea borings will be required
to obtain the necessary pore pressure
information.
Improved methods and equipment to
provide knowledge and control of
situations with release of gas close to
subsea structures or production
platforms are needed by the oil and
gas industry. Concepts for
equipment monitoring the
concentration of dissolved gas
leaking from the seabed as well as
from the subsoil have been studied
and evaluated in the SIP. In some
cases free gas bubbles can be
observed in the field. The amount of
released gas (bubbles) among others
provides important information.
Outlines for a subsea bubble counting
instrument to detect release of gas
have been developed.
 Logger Pore pressure reading

Piezometer

Layer with

excess pressure

Hydrostatic
pressure
Piezometer

Multilevel piezometer

Read more about:

• Subsea instrumentation 'Best
Practice'
• Multilevel piezometer
• Monitoring gas charged seabed
and hydrates
• Real time monitoring –
contactless serial interface
Detail from subsea instrument
• Miniature subsea logger

Soil investigation techniques

The SIP has contributed to the
A new seabed development of a new seabed
sampler taking 25 m sampler (DWS). The DWS can take
long samples has up to 25 m long high quality soil
been tested samples in water as deep as
2000 m. A prototype of the DWS
has been built and tested both
onshore and offshore. High quality
of the samples has been confirmed by
field and laboratory testing.
The input to an improved quantitative
framework to characterise soft
offshore shallow sediments
associated with deep water
developments by use of situ testing
methods have been provided.
Read more about:
• Geotechnical optimalisation and
design criteria of seabed sampler
• Characterisation of soft soils in
deep water by in situ tests

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 Laboratory methods
Soil samples are disturbed by
transportation from the field,
handling in the laboratory and during
preparation for testing. Because of
this, the material parameters
measured in the laboratory may not
be representative of the actual
properties in situ. A procedure for
adjusting the soil parameters has
therefore been proposed in the SIP. A
good determination of the
preconsolidation stress obtained from
disturbed soil samples was found
decisive for the reliability of the
proposed correction method.

Area for offshore geohazard evaluation

– Caspian Sea

σa' [kPa]
10 100 1000

0 5.0

Interpreted pre-consolidation stress

indicated by an arrow
5
4.0

10
p'0

3.0
15
Mt [MPa]
εa [kPa]

20
Onsøy, 14.2 m
Undisturbed, Block 2.0
Disturbed, 54 mm

25

Interpreted pre-consolidation stress 1.0 Onsøy, 14.2 m

indicated by an arrow Undisturbed, Block
30 Disturbed, 54 mm

35 0.0

0 100 200 300 400

σ'a [kPa]

Left: Stress strain relationship from CRSC testing on disturbed and undisturbed material
Right: Tangent modulus values versus axial stress

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The remoulded shear strength is an
important parameter for offshore
slope stability analyses. Several
methods are used to measure and
determine the remoulded shear
strength. Consequently, the shear
strength values used for design can
vary significantly. A database
containing remoulded shear strength
data has been established in the SIP.
The measurement of suction in soil
samples as a mean to explain
anomalies in measured shear strength
values and to evaluate sample
disturbance have been investigated.
Different laboratory techniques were
compared and tested. The results
show that such data give an
indication of sample quality, but the
uncertainties are substantial, and
results are recommended to be used
only in conjunction with other soil
parameters.
Correlations of geotechnical index test data
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Read more about:
• Correction methods for
oedometer testing
• Measurement of remoulded
undrained shear strength
• Suction in clay samples
Databases
Databases for geotechnical offshore
borings, geotechnical laboratory data,
field data, slide and offshore
geohazards incidents have been
established during the SIP. The
purpose of the databases is among
others to facilitate the study of large
areas and to gather information from
for example studies in the same
geographical area and similar case
studies.
The in situ conditions with combined
high pore fluid salinity and excess
pore pressures make the Caspian Sea
sites unique. An index parameter
database from the Caspian Sea has
been compiled. The database may be
used to study correlations between
index test data and material
properties obtained from more
sophisticated test techniques.
Read more about:
• Correlations between index and
soil design parameters
• Offshore geotechnical borings
• Geotechnical data
• Information system for
geotechnical laboratory data
• Improved field monitoring
• Slides and offshore geohazards
4.2 Triggering mechanisms and failure scenarios

Migration of gas
Shallow gas may influence the
stability of sediments and cause
difficulties in drilling operations
especially 500 to 700 metres below
seabed. The ability to predict the
presence and the effects of shallow
gas in the vicinity of offshore
structures has been improved in the
SIP. Basic mechanisms for gas flow
and migration in shallow sediments
have been identified. Possible
methods to simulate gas migration Numerical model of gas flux through sediment
and flow have been investigated.

Read more about:

• Gas migration mechanisms

Simulation of water displacing gas

Pore pressure build-up during process. Both one- and two-

sedimentation dimensional (1D/2D) subsea
sedimentation processes have been
Reliable prediction of the pore studied.
pressure distribution in the sediments
is essential for the evaluation of slide Read more about:
hazard. Pore pressure build-up • Pore pressure during
depends on the sedimentation sedimentation

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Progressive failure
mechanisms in soft clay
Failure mechanisms in deep water
with clayey sediments have been
studied in the SIP. A progressive
failure mechanism in a natural slope
with soft, sensitive clays following
strain-softening behaviour were
successfully modelled and found to Failure using interface elements in shear
cause large-scale failures. Shear bands
bands with strain concentration
develop during this kind of failure.
An interface element has been
developed to model this behaviour Read more about:
and the element has been • Material instability and
successfully implemented in the development of slides
widely used geotechnical finite • Progressive failure in soft clay
element programme PLAXIS.

τp

τ0 τ (x )
τr

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Distance along clay layer (m)
Shear bands in a slope failure with strain softening material

Earthquake analysis
The computational model NonSSI
(Non-linear Soil - Structure - Read more about:
Interaction) has been developed • Earthquake response analyses
during the SIP. NonSSI improves the • Material model for earthquake
seismic analysis of structures. loading
Material models for earthquake
loading have also been developed.

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 4.3 Consequence analysis

Slide run-out analysis

Development of numerical models gives an example of results from a
describing soil behaviour when a computational fluid dynamic analysis
submarine slide is triggered has been using the CFX code. The flow shows
given large emphasis in the SIP. the formation of shear bands.
Concentrated strain softening
The best practice method in material may be observed together
geohazards slide risk assessment with wedges of nearly intact material.
studies has been strengthened by
using the computational fluid
dynamics code CFX. This code is an
enhanced tool for numerical
simulation of mass flow. The code

Different rheologic models for ϕ

submarine slides were implemented
in CFX. The strain-softening visco-
plastic flow model reproduces a Physical slide flow model
retrogressive sliding mechanism
impressively well. The figure below

Numerical simulation of a submarine slide in soft sensitive clay at different time steps after initial slide release
(time increases from the top and downwards)

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 Turbidity currents are an important
mechanism in submarine mass
transport. These currents are
suspensions of sediment particles in
turbulent water flow. Once
developed, turbidity currents can
flow independently from the
originating mud/debris flow for long
distances while entraining mass from
the seafloor. A turbidity current
material model has been
implemented in CFX.

Read more about:

• Slide dynamics. Modelling tools
• Erosion mechanisms
Simulation of a slide moving as turbidity • Slush flow model

Tsunami analysis
Submarine slides may generate
tsunamis with devastating effect in
coastal areas.
Tsunamis resulting from submarine
mass movements are often modelled
using a fixed shaped slide block as
the source. However, submarine
slides like the Storegga slide, develop
during a continuous retrogressive
process.
NGI has developed a model and a
computer programme capable of
calculating tsunami surface
elevations caused by a variety of
submarine slide sources, i.e. fixed
shaped slides, deformable slides and
retrogressive slides. This model has
for example been used to model the
earthquake that triggered the tsunami
in the Indian Ocean 26 December
2004, and provided results very close
to observations.

Read more about:

• Tsunami analysis

Modell of tsunami in Indian Ocean, 26 December 2004

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 Visualisation/GIS
Different visualisation and GIS
methods were investigated to
facilitate and support evaluation of
offshore hazards. Visualisation is a
powerful tool to gain understanding
of the problem and to provide
answers. Visualisation of slides helps
to simplify numerical analysis and
improve the interpretation.

Special visualisation modules have

been used to show 3D geodata
integrated with Geographical
Information Systems (GIS). To be
able to use such techniques data from
site investigations must be stored in Visualisation of geotechnical soil data by colouring
databases. scales

Seabed or bathymetric have been

used to show the location of borings,
soundings and installations. Read more about:
Parameter variation of, for example • Visualisation of slides
water content and shear strength, has • GIS applications
been illustrated by use of colour
intensity scales (see figure).
Snapshots of 3D models have been
used to visualise interpreted soil
layering and material parameters.

Risk management
The NORSOK Z-013 standard forms
the basis for the best practice risk
management developed by the SIP. A
framework for integrated risk
assessment including a glossary of
terms has been established. Several
case studies were used to illustrate
and extend this framework. A risk
assessment for offshore geohazards
at Ormen Lange was presented in
terms of the framework. Distribution
functions for input parameters as well
as uncertainties in soil properties and
material behaviour have been
evaluated.

Read more about:

• Risk management
Combined presentation of historic records, simulation results
and mitigation measures

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NGI has used the
results of the SIP to
develop best practice
guidelines for offshore
geohazards
4.4 Best practice
NGI has used the results of the SIP to develop best practice guidelines for the
assessment of offshore geohazards. The best practice is documented in a report
and published as a WEB-site providing a dynamic tool that NGI intends to update
continuously. The “Best practice WEB site” is available via the NGI home page:
www.ngi.no

5 BENEFITS
The SIP has contributed greatly to
Reduced risk the understanding and assessment of
offshore geohazards. The benefits This new knowledge will enable a
include improvements in: more rational assessment of
geohazard risk and give valuable
• the understanding of seabed assistance for:
instability mechanisms
• the modelling of mass flow and • identification of geohazards
fluid and gas transport • production of geohazard maps
• the tools and methods for the and optimisation of field lay-out
assessment of material properties to minimise hazard and risk
and design parameters • evaluation of measures to reduce
• the quantification of uncertainties risk of damage to wells, field
and frequency of geohazard installations and environment
events
• the assessment of the
consequences of offshore
geohazards

Valve
Valve opens and
gas is released
Tmin
filling

Tmax
V

Venting
holes

Outlines of subsea bubble counter for monitoring leakage of free gas

( 21 )
6 REFERENCES
Papers, published presentations, lectures and reports on offshore geohazards
produced during the SIP period 2002-2005 are listed. They were fully or partly
financed by the SIP, or produced in connection with projects financed by NGIs
clients in the oil and gas industry.
6.1 Published papers
Andresen, L., Jostad, H.P.
(2002)
Capacity analyses of
anisotropic and strain-
softening clays
Proc. Num. Mod.
Geomech.-NUMOG VIII,
Rome, Italy, 2002, pp. 469-
474
Andresen, L., Jostad, H.P.
(2002)
Numerical procedure for
assessing the capacity of
anisotropic and strain-
softening clay.
Proc. 5th World Congr.
Comp. Mech.- WCCM V,
Vienna, Austria, 2002,
wccm.tuwien.ac.at
Andresen, L.; Jostad, H.P.
(2002)
Undrained bearing capacity
of anisotropic strain-
softening clay
Proc. 5th European Conf.
Num. Meth. in Geotech.
Eng.-NUMGE 2002, Paris,
France, 2002.
Andresen L.
and Jostad, H.P. (2004).
Modelling of shear band
propagation in clays using
interface elements with
finite thickness.
Proc. NGM 2004 - NUMOG
IX, 2004, Ottawa, Canada,
2004.
Andresen, L. and
Jostad, H.P. (2004)
Analyses of progressive
failure in long natural
slopes.
Proc. Num. Mod. Geomech.
- NUMOG IX, Ottawa,
Canada, 2004.
Berg, K., Solheim, A. and
Bryn, P. (2005)
The Pleistocene to recent
geological development of
the Ormen Lange area.
Marine and Petroleum
Geology. (Ormen Lange
Special Issue) Vol. 22, No.
1/2, pp. 45-56.
Best, A.I., Clayton, C.R.I.,
Longva, O. and Szuman,
M. (2003).
The role of free gas in the
activation of submarine
slides in Finneidfjord.
Submarine Mass
Movements and Their
Consequences, 1st
International Symposium,
Editors: Locat, Meinert and
Boisvert, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, pp. 491-498.
Biscontin, G., Pestana, J.M.
and Nadim, F. (2003).
Seismic triggering of
submarine slides in soft
cohesive soil deposits.
Marine Geology, (Special
issue on landslide
generated tsunamis) Vol.
203, No. 3/4, pp. 341-354.
Bondevik, S., Løvholt, F.,
Harbitz, C.B., Mangerud, J.,
Dawson, A. and Svendsen,
J.I. (2005)
The Storegga slide tsunami
- comparing field
observations with numerical
simulations.
Marine and Petroleum
Geology, (Ormen Lange
Special Issue) Vol. 22, No.
1/2, pp. 195-208.
Bryn, P., Solheim, A., Berg,
K., Lien, R., Forsberg, C.F.,
Haflidason, H., Ottesen, D.
and Rise, L. (2003).
The Storegga slide
complex: repeated large
scale sliding in response to
climatic cyclicity.
In: Locat, J. and Mienert, J.
(eds.). Submarine mass
movements and their
consequences, Nice,
France, vol. 19, pp. 215-
222. ISBN: 1-4020-1244-6.
Bryn, P., Berg, K.,
Forsberg, C.F., Solheim, A.
and Kvalstad, T.J. (2005)
Explaining the Storegga
slide.
Marine and Petroleum
Geology. (Ormen Lange
Special Issue.) Vol. 22, No.
1/2, pp. 11-19
( 22 )
Bryn, P.; Berg, K.; Stoker,
M.S.; Haflidason, H.;
Solheim, A. (2005)
Contourites and their
relevance for mass wasting
along the Mid-Norwegian
margin.
Marine and Petroleum
Geology, (Ormen Lange
Special Issue) Vol. 22, No.
1-2, pp. 85-96.
Bøe R, L. Prøsch-
Danielsen, A. Lepland, M.
Høgestøl, P. Gauer and
C.B. Harbitz (2006)
A possible Early Holocene
(ca. 10 000 - 9800/9700
14C yrs BP) slide-triggered
tsunami at the Galta
settlement sites, Rennesøy,
SW Norway. Norwegian J.
Geology (NGT).
International Centre for
Geohazards publ. no. 88.(in
review).
DeBlasio, F.V., Issler, D.,
Elvehøi, A., Harbitz, C.H.,
Ilstad, T., Bryn, P. and Lien,
R. (2002)
Dynamics and material
properties of the gigant
Storegga slide as
suggested by numerical
simulations
Abstract to EG (Euro
Graphics) 2002.
DeBlasio, F.V., Issler, D.,
Elverhøi, A., Harbitz, C.B.,
Ilstad, T., Bryn, P., Lien, R.
and Løvholt, F. (2003).
Dynamics, velocity and run-
out of the giant Storegga
slide.
Submarine Mass
Movements and Their
Consequences, Nice 2003.
Proceedings, pp. 223-230.
De Blasio, F.V., Ilstad, T.,
Elverhøi, A., Issler, D. and
Harbitz, C.B. (2004)
High mobility of
subaqueous debris flows
and the lubricating-layer
model.
Proceedings 2004 Offshore
Technology Conference,
Published papers Houston, Texas, 3-6 May
2004. OTC 16747, 11 pp.
De Blasio, F., Engvik, L.,
Harbitz, C.B. and
Elverhøi, A. (2004)
Hydroplaning and
Submarine Debris Flows.
J. Geophys. Res., Oceans,
Vol. 109, No. C1, C01002,
doi:10.1029/2002JC001714
De Blasio, F., Elverhøi, A.,
Issler, D., Harbitz, C.B.,
Bryn, P. and Lien, R. (2004)
Flow models of natural
debris flows originating
from over consolidated clay
materials.
Marine Geology, Vol. 213,
No. 1/4, pp. 439–455,
dio:10.1016/j.margeo.2004.
10.018, EU Program
COSTA Special Issue.
De Blasio, F., Elverhøi, A.,
Issler, D., Harbitz, C.B.,
Bryn, P. and Lien, R. (2004)
On the dynamics of
subaqueous clay rich
gravity mass flows - the
giant Storegga slide.
Marine and Petroleum
Geology, (Ormen Lange
Special Issue) Vol. 22, No.
1/2, pp. 179-186.
Elverhøi, A., De Blasio, D.,
Butt, F.A., Issler, D.,
Harbitz, C.B., Engvik, L.,
Solheim, A. and Marr, J.
(2003).
Submarine mass-wasting
on glacially influenced
continental slopes —
processes and dynamics.
Proceedings, Geological
Society of London, Special
Publication, Vol. 203, pp.
73-87.
Elverhøi, A., D. Issler, F. V.
De Blasio, T. Ilstad, C.B.
Harbitz and P. Gauer
(2005) Emerging insights
on the dynamics of
submarine debris flows.
Natural Hazards and Earth
System Sciences, 5, 633–
648. SRef-ID: 1684-
9981/nhess/2005-5-633,
European Geosciences
Union. International Centre
for Geohazards publ. no.
90.
Forsberg, C.F. and Locat,
J. (2004)
Sedimentation in the
Storegga region, offshore
Norway as seen from
mineralogical and
microfabic analyses.
Journal Marine and
Petroleum Geology. Special
Ormen Lange issue.
Forsberg, C.F. and Locat,
J. (2005)
Mineralogical and micro
structural development of
the sediments on the Mid-
Norwegian margin..
Marine and Petroleum
Geology. (Ormen Lange
Special Issue), Vol. 22, No.
1/2, pp. 109-122.
Gauer, P. (2002)
The use of a numerical
snowdrift model as a
decision making tool in the
planning of avalanche
protection measures
International Snow Science
Workshop. Penticon, B.C.
Canada 2002. Proceedings,
pp. 604-607.
Gauer, P. and Issler, D.
(2004)
Possible erosion
mechanisms in snow
avalanches
Annals of Glaciology, Vol.
38, pp. 384-392.
Gauer, P., Kvalstad, T. J.,
Forsberg, C. F., Bryn, P.
and Berg, K. (2005)
The Last Phase of the
Storegga Slide: Simulation
of Retrogressive Slide
Dynamics and Comparison
with SlideScar Morphology.
Marine Petroleum and
Geology, (Ormen Lange
Special Iissue) Vol. 22, No.
1/2, pp. 171-178.
Glimsdal, S., G.K.
Pedersen, K Atakan, C.B.
Harbitz, H.P. Langtangen
and F. Løvholt, F. (2004)
Propagation of the Dec. 26
2004 Indian Ocean
Tsunami: effects of
dispersion and source
characteristics. Accepted
for publication in Int. J. of
Fluid Mech. Research.
Grozic, J.L.H., Lunne, T.
and Pande, S. (2003).
An oedometer test study on
the preconsolidation stress
of glaciomarine clays.
Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, Vol.. 40, No. 5, pp.
857-872.
Grozic, J.L.H., Lunne, T.
and Pande, S. (2004)
Reply to discussion by R.V.
Clementino on ‘An
oedometer test study on the
preconsolidation stress of
glaciomarine clays’.
( 23 )
Canadian Geotechnical
Journal, Vol. 42, No. 3, pp.
975-976.
Haflidason, H., Lien, R.,
Sejrup, H.P., Forsberg, C.F.
and Bryn, P. (2005).
The dating and
morphometry of the
Storegga slide.
Marine and Petroleum
Geology, (Ormen Lange
Special Issue). Vol. 22, No.
1/2, pp. 123-136.
Haflidason, H., Sejrup,
H.P., Hjelstuen, B.O.,
Nygård, A., Mienert, J.,
Bryn, P., Lien, R., Forsberg,
C.F., Berg, K. and Masson,
D. (2004)
The Storegga slide:
architecture, geometry and
slide development.
Marine Geology, Vol. 213,
No. 1-4, pp. 201-234.
Hanzawa,H. N. Nutt, T.
Lunne, Y.X. Tang and M.
Long (2005)
A comparative study
between the NGI direct
simple shear apparatus and
the Mikasa direct shear
apparatus. Submitted for
possible publication in Soils
and Foundations.
Harbitz, C.B., Parker, G.,
Elverhøi, A., Marr, J.G.,
Mohrig, D. and Harff, P.A.
(2003).
Hydroplaning of
subaqueous debris flows
and glide blocks: Analytical
solutions and discussion.
Journal Geophysical
Research, 108(B7), paper
2349,
doi:10.1029/2001JB001454
Haugen, K.B., Løvholt, F.
and Harbitz, C.B. (2005)
Fundamental mechanisms
for tsunami generation by
submarine mass flows in
idealised geometries.
Marine and Petroleum
Geology. (Ormen Lange
Special Issue) Vol. 22, No.
1/2, pp. 209-217.
Ilstad, T., De Blasio, F.V.,
Elverhøi, A., Harbitz, C.B.,
Engvik, L., Longva, O. and
Marr, J.G. (2004)
On the frontal dynamics
and morphology of
submarine debris flows.
Marine Geology, Vol. 213,
No. 1/4, pp. 481–497,
doi:10.1016/j.margeo.2004.
10.020, EU Program
COSTA Special Issue.
 Ilstad, T., Marr, J.G.,
Published papers Elverhøi, A. and
Harbitz, C.B. (2004)
Laboratory studies of
subaqueous debris flows by
measurements of pore-fluid
pressure and total stress.
Marine Geology, Vol. 213,
No. 1/4,403–414,
dio:10.1016/
j.margeo.2004.10.016, EU
Program COSTA Special
Issue.
Issler, D., De Blasio, F.V.,
Elverhøi, A., Bryn, P. and
Lien, (2005).
Scaling behaviour of clay-
rich submarine debris flows.
Marine Petroleum Geology,
(Ormen Lange Special
Issue), Vol. 22, No. 1/2, pp.
187-194.
Jaedicke, C. (2003)
Climate database for
avalanche warning in
Norway. International
Young Geotechnical
Engineers' Conference, 2.
Constantza - Mamaia,
Romania 2003.
Proceedings, Vol. 87-88.
Submitted for publ. in: Cold
Regions Science and
Technology.
Kvalstad, T.J., F. Nadim, A.
Kaynia, K.H. Mokkelbost
and P. Bryn (2005).
Soil conditions and slope
stability in the Ormen
Lange area.
Marine and Petroleum
Geology, (Ormen Lange
Special Issue), Vol. 22, No.
1/2, pp. 299-310.
Kvalstad, T.J., Andresen,
L., Forsberg, C.F., Berg, K.
and Bryn, P. (2005)
The Storegga Slide:
Evaluation of triggering
sources and slide
mechanisms.
Marine and Petroleum
Geology. (Ormen Lange
Special Issue), Vol. 22, No.
1/2, pp. 245-256.
Kvalstad, T.J., Nadim, F.,
Kaynia, A.M., Mokkelbost,
K.H. and Bryn, P. (2005)
Soil conditions and slope
stability in the Ormen
Lange area.
Marine and Petroleum
Geology. (Ormen Lange
Special Issue), Vol. 22, No.
1/2, pp. 299-310.
Lacasse, S. (2002)
37th Terzaghi Lecture:
Geotechnical Solutions for
the Offshore: Synergy of
Research and Practice.
ASCE National Convention
2001, Houston, October
2001. To be published in
ASCE Journal of
Geotechnical and
Environmental Engineering
(review process) Also publ
in: Offshore Site
Investigation and
Geotechnics; Diversity and
Sustainability. Proceedings
of an International
Conference, London 2002.
Pp. 13-20.
Lacasse, S. (2002)
Safety and hazards.
Keynote Lecture.
International Conference on
Innovation and Sustainable
Development of Civil
Engineering in the 21st
Century. Beijing, China. 1-3
August 2002. Proceedings,
p. K11-K16.
Lunne, T., Berre, T.,
Andersen, K.H., Strandvik,
S. and Sjursen, M. (2004)
Effects of sample
disturbance and
consolidation procedures
on measured shear
strength of soft marine
Norwegian clays. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 65.
Lunne,T.,M. F.
Randolph,M.F., S. F.
Chung, K.H. Andersen,
K.H. and M. Sjursen (2005)
Comparison of cone and T-
bar factors in two onshore
and one offshore clay
sediments. Proceedings of
International Symposium on
Frontiers on Geotechnics;
pp. 981-991. Perth,
Australia, Sept. 2005.
Lunne, T. and Long, M.
(2006)
Review of long seabed
samplers and criteria for
new sampler design.
Accepted for publication in
Marine Geology.
Lunne,T., T. Berre, K. H.
Andersen, S. Strandvik and
M. Sjursen (2006)
Effects of sample
disturbance and
consolidation procedures
on measured shear
strength of soft marine
Norwegian clays. Accepted
for publication in Canadian
Geotechnical Journal.
( 24 )
Løvholt, F., Harbitz, C.B.
and Haugen, K.B. (2005)
A parametric study of
tsunamis generated by
submarine slides in the
Ormen Lange/ Storegga
area off western Norway.
Marine and Petroleum
Geology, (Ormen Lange
Special Issue), Vol. 22, No.
1/2, pp. 219-231.
Marr, J.G., A. Elverhøi, C.B.
Harbitz, J. Imran, P. Harff
(2002).
Numerical simulation of
mud-rich subaqueous
debris flows on the glacially
active margins of the
Svalbard-Barents Sea.
Marine Geology, Vol. 188,
No. 3/4, pp. 351-364.
Nadim, F. (2002)
Probabilsitic methods for
geohazard problems: State-
of-the-Art.
Proc., Probabilistics in
GeoTechnics Conference,
Graz, Austria, 15-19 Sept,
2002. Pp. 333-350
Nadim, F., Kvalstad, T.J.,
and Guttormsen, T. (2005)
Quantification of risks
associated with seabed
instability at Ormen Lange.
Marine and Petroleum
Geology, (Ormen Lange
Special Issue) Vol. 22, No.
1/2, pp. 311-318.
Powell, J.J.M. and T. Lunne
(2005)
A comparison of different
sized piezocones in UK
clays.
International Conference on
Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering,
16. Osaka 2005.
Proceedings, Vol. 2, pp.
531-536.
Solheim, A., Berg, K.,
Forsberg, C.F. and Bryn, P.
(2005)
The Storegga Slide
complex: Repetitive large
scale sliding with similar
cause and development.
Marine and Petroleum
Geology. (Ormen Lange
Special Issue), Vol. 22, No.
1/2, pp. 97-107
Solheim, A., Bryn, P.,
Sejrup, H.P., Mienert, J.
and Berg, K. (Editors)
(2004).
Ormen Lange – an
integrated study for the safe
development of a deep-
water gas field within the
Storegga Slide Complex,
NE Atlantic continental
margin.
Marine and Petroleum
Geology, Ormen Lange
Special issue. A collection
of 15 reviewed articles.
Solheim, A., R. Bhasin, F.V.
De Blasio, L.H. Blikra, S.
Boyle, A. Braaten, J. Dehls,
6.2 Published lectures and presentations
Andersen, E.S., Solheim,
A., Tjelta, T.I., Sætre, H.J.,
Hansch, K., Austin, T.J.F.,
Clark, J., Jenssen, A.,
Johansen (2005)
The NDP Seabed Project:
Mapping of Geo-hazards
along the Mid-Norwegian
Continental Margin. 2nd
Int.Conf Submarine mass
movements, Holmenkollen,
Oslo, Norway, 7-9
September 2005.
Andresen, L., Jostad, H.P.
(2002)
Capacity analysis of
anisotropic and strain-
softening clays NUMOG
VIII/April 2002/Rome, Italy
Andresen, L., Jostad, H.P.
(2002)
Numerical Procedure for
Assessing the Capacity of
Anisotropic and Strain-
Softening Clay5th World
Congress Computational
Mechanics, WCCM V/July
2002/ Vienna, Austria
Andresen, L., Jostad, H.P.
(2002)
Undrained Bearing
Capacity of Anisotropic
Strain-Softening Clay5th
European Conference on
Numerical Methods in
Geotechnical
Engineering.NUMGE/Septe
mber 2002/Paris, France
Andresen, L. (2001)
Submarine Slide Initiation
and Retrogressive
Spreading – Storegga Slide
Case study, NGI report
521001-10.
A. Elverhøi, B. Etzelmüller,
S. Glimsdal, C.B. Harbitz,
H. Heyerdahl, Ø.A.
Høydahl, H. Iwe, K.
Karlsrud, S. Lacasse, I.
Lecomte, C. Lindholm, O.
Longva, F. Løvholt, F.
Nadim, S. Nordal, B.
Romstad, J.K. Røed, and
J.M. Strout (2005).
International Centre for
Geohazards (ICG):
Assessment, prevention
and mitigation of
geohazards. Norwegian
Journal of Geology, No.
1/2, Vol. 85, 45-62.
International Centre for
Geohazards publ. no. 68.
Andresen, L. and
Jostad, H.P. (2004)
Janbu's Modulus Concept
vs. Plaxis Soft Soil Model
Proc. NGM 2004 - XIV
Nordic Geotechnical
Meeting Vol-1, Ystad,
Sweden.
Andresen, L. (2004)
The role of progressive
failure in landslide-
mechanisms.
University of
Massachusetts-
geotechnical Eng.,
Amherst, USA 23 Aug.
2004
Bondevik, S., Harbitz, C.B.,
Løvholt, F., Dawson, A.,
Dawson, S., Mangerud, J.
and Svendsen, J.I. (2002)
The Storegga Slide tsunami
along the Norwegian coast
- from the geological record
to numerical simulations
NPF konferansen: Onshore
- offshore relationships on
the North Atlantic Margin,
7.-9. October (postponed
from May),
2002/Trondheim, Norway
Bryn, P, Kvalstad, T.J.,
Guttormsen, T.R., Kjærnes,
P.A., Lund, J. Nadim, F.
and Olsen, J. (2004)
Storegga Slide Risk
Assessment.
OTC Paper 16560, 2004
Offshore Technology
Conference, Houston,
Texas.
Cuisiat, F., Kvalstad, T.J.
and Skjærstein A. (2003).
Evaluation of subsidence
effects on slope stability
due to production from a
( 25 )
Strout, J.M. and Tjelta, T.I.
(2005)
In situ pore pressures:
What is their significance
and how can they be
reliably measured?
Marine and Petroleum
Geology, (Ormen Lange
Special Issue), Vol. 22, No.
1/2, pp. 275-285.
Yang S L., T. Kvalstad,
A.Solheim , C.F.Forsberg
(2006)
Parameter studies of
sediments involved in the
Storegga Slide. Geo-
Marine Letters (In press).
deep-water gas field within
the Storegga Slide
Complex, NE Atlantic
continental margin.
3rd FLAC Symposium on
Numerical Modelling in
Geomechanics. Sudbury,
Canada.
De Blasio, F.V., Issler, D.,
Elverhøi, A., Harbitz, C.B.,
Ilstad, T., Bryn, P. and
Lien, R. (2003).
Dynamics and material
properties of the giant
Storegga slide as
suggested by numerical
simulations.
NGF Abstracts and
Proceedings, No. 1 (Norsk
geologisk forening.).
DiBiagio, E. (2004)
Geotechnical and structural
instrumentaiton in the
marine environment.
Invited Lecture, 1 Congreso
Nation, Geotecnia Y Medio
Ambiente, Asociacion
Tecnica de Puertos y
Costas, Huelva, Spain.
De Blasio, F., Issler, D.,
Elverhøi, A., Harbitz, C.B.,
Ilstad, T., Bryn, P., Lien, R.
and Løvholt, F. (2004)
Dynamics, Velocity and
Run-out of the Giant
Storegga Slide.
EGS-AGU-EUG Joint
Assembly, Nice, France.
 Elverhøi, A. and Issler, D.
Published lectures (2004)
Assessment of gravity
and presentations mass flow hazard in the
Ormen Lange area.
Invited lecture in the course
on Mitigation of landslides
and other gravity mass flow
hazards, University of Oslo
(Norway), October 2004.
Elverhøi, A., De Blasio,
F.V., Engvik, L., Issler, D.,
Nystuen, J.P., Ilstad, T.,
Harbitz, C., Gauer, P.
(2005)
Understanding the high
mobility of subaqueous
debris flows. 2nd Int.Conf
Submarine mass
movements, Holmenkollen,
Oslo, Norway, 7-9
September 2005.
Gauer, P. (2002)
The use of a numerical
snow-drift model as a
decision making tool in the
planning of avalanche
protection measures
ISSW (International Snow
Science Workshop) 2002,
29 Sept-4 Oct
2002/Penticon, British
Colombia, Canada
Gauer, P (2003).
Possible Erosion
Mechanisms in Snow
Avalanches
International Symposium on
Snow and Avalanches
Davos, Switzerland.
Gauer, P. (2003).
Possible Erosion
Mechanisms in Snow
Avalanches
Isaac Newton Institute
Workshop on Geophysical
Granular and Particle-
Laden Flows Bristol, United
Kingdom.
Gauer, P. (2004)
Numerical modeling of a
slush-flow event.
Proceedings of the
International Snow Science
Workshop 2004, Jackson
Hole, Wyoming, United
States.
Gauer, P., Elverhøi, A., De
Blasio, F.V. (2005)
On numerical simulations of
subaqueous slides: Back-
calculations of laboratory
experiments. 2nd Int.Conf
Submarine mass
movements, Holmenkollen,
Oslo, Norway, 7-9
September 2005.
Grozic, J. (2003).
Gas hydrates and
submarine slope instability.
Geohazards 2003,
Edmonton, Canada, June
2003, pp 143-150, ISBN 0-
920505-23-6.
Harbitz, C.B., Pedersen, G.,
Løvholt, F. Haugen, K.B.,
Glimsdal, S. (2005)
KEYNOTE: Mechanisms of
slide generated tsunamis.
2nd Int.Conf Submarine
mass movements,
Holmenkollen, Oslo,
Norway, 7-9 September
2005.
Issler, D., De Blasio, F.V.,
Elverhøi, A., Ilstad, T.,
Haflidason, H., Bryn, P. and
Lien, R. (2004)
Issues in the assessment of
gravity mass flow hazard in
the Storegga area off the
western Norwegian coast.
In: J. Locat and J. Mienert
(eds.), Submarine Mass
Movements and Their
Consequences. Advances
in Natural and
Technological Hazards
Research, vol. 19. Kluwer
Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht (Netherlands).
Pages 221–230.
Jaedicke, C. (2004)
Climate database for
avalanche warning in
Norway.
ISSW 2004, Teton Village,
USA.
Jostad, H.P. (2004)
Modelling of shear band
propagation in clay using
interface elements with
finite thickness.
University of
Massachusetts -
Geotechnical Engineering ,
Amherst, USA, 23 August
2004.
Jostad, H.P, T. Vikas
Thakur and L. Andresen.
(2006)
Calculation of shear band
thickness in sensituive
clays. Sixth European
conference on numerical
methods in geotechnical
engineering, Graz, 2006 (in
press).
Karlsrud, K. (2005)
Strategi for gjenoppbygging
I Thailand etter tsunamien
26. desember, 2004.
Fjellsprengnings-teknikk,
bergmekanikk/geoteknikk
2005.
( 26 )
Karlsrud, K., H. Bungum,
C.H Harbitz, F. Løvholt,
B.V. Vangelsten and S.
Glimsdal, S. (2005).
Strategy for re-construction
in Thailand following the 26
December 2004 tsunami
event. In: Chu, Phoon and
Yong (eds): International
Conference on
Geotechnical Engineering
for Disaster Mitigation &
Rehabilitation. World
Scientific Publishing
Company ISBN 981-256-
469-1.
Kvalstad, T.J., Nadim, F.
(2002)
Risk Assessment of Ocean
Margins
NPF konferansen: Onshore
- offshore relationships on
the North Atlantic Margin,
7.-9. October (postphoned
from May),
2002/Trondheim, Norway
Kvalstad, T.J. (2002)
Slope Stability at Ormen
Lange SUT International
Site Investigation
Conference; Offshore Site
Investigation and
Geotechnics - Diversity and
Sustainability, London in
November 2002
Kvalstad, T.J. (2003)
Ormen Lange gas field:
Slope stability and pipelines
in the Storegga slide scar.
Invited Paper, Workshop on
"Landslides and lifelines -
submarine landslides
affecting pipelines, lifelines
in slow moving slides and in
areas prone to debris-flow
events",
IX International Symposium
on Landslides, Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil.
Kvalstad, T.J. (2004)
Ormen Lange gas field:
Slope stability and pipelines
in the Storegga slide scar.
Invited lecture, Workshop
on "Landslides and lifelines
- submarine landslides
affecting pipelines, lifelines
in slow moving slides and in
areas prone to debris-flow
events".
IX International Symposium
on Landslides, Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil, 26 June,
2004.
Kvalstad, T.J. (2005)
Energy model for
evaluation of retrogressive
slide potential and slide
dynamics on continental
 slopes. 2nd Int.Conf
Published lectures Submarine mass
movements, Holmenkollen,
and presentations Oslo, Norway, 7-9
September 2005.
Lacasse, S. (2002)
37th Terzaghi Lecture:
Geotechnical Solutions for
the Offshore: Synergy of
Reseach and Practice.
The lecture is an award and
was repeated in 15
cities/2002/ Houston,
Orlando, Oslo, Trondheim,
Paris, San Francisco, Ohio,
Seattle, Portland,
Vancouver, Colbye Station,
Amherst (MA), Boston,
Chicago, Winnipeg, Hong
Kong
Lacasse, S. and Nadim, F
(2003).
Reliability Analysis -
Reliability and Risk in geo-
Engineering.
Keynote Lecture. Intern.
Workshop on Dam
Foundation and Tunnelling
in Weak Rocks.Paper 1
New Delhi, India.
Lacasse, S. (2002)
Safety and hazards.
Keynote Lecture.
International Conference on
Innovation and Sustainable
Development of Civil in the
21st Century
Engineering/1-3 August
2002/Beijing, China.
Lacasse, S., Nadim, F. and
Høeg, K. (2003).
Risk Assessment in Soil
and Rock Engineering.
PanAm Conference, SARA,
MIT, Cambridge, Mass.,
USA.
Lacasse, S. (2004)
Risk Assessment for
Geotechnical Solutions
Offshore.
Keynote Paper.
OMAE2004-51144. Proc.
OMAE 2004, 23rd
International Conference on
Offshore Mechanics and
Arctic Engineering.
Vancouver, Canada. June
2004.
Lacasse, S., Solheim, A.
and Nadim, F. (2003).
Understanding
Geohazards.
EAGE 2004 Stavanger
Lunne, T. and Schjetne, K.
(2003).
Geotechnical aspects of
deepwater field
development.
Petrotech, New Delhi.
Lunne, T. and Sjursen, M.
(2003).
Sample disturbance effects
in soft Norwegian clays.
Sampling disturbance
effects. University College
Dublin.
Lunne, T., Long, M. and
Forsberg, C.F. (2003).
Characterization and
engineering properties of
Onsøy clay.
Soil Characterization,
Singapore, Vol I, pp. 395-
428.
Lunne, T., Long, M. and
Forsberg, C.F. (2003).
Characterization and
engineering properties of
Holmen, Drammen sand.
Soil Characterization,
Singapore, Vol II, pp. 1121-
1148.
Lunne, T. and Schjetne, K.
(2004)
Geotechnical input to
deepwater field
development.
Keynote Lecture, Arctic
Conference, Murmansk,
Nov. 2004.
Løvholt, F., Harbitz, C.B.
(2005)
Slope Stability Assessment
in the Ormen Lange Field -
Extended Tsunami
Analyses, NGI report
19993016-16, (rev 1 in
progress)
Løvholt, F., Harbitz, C.B.
(2002)
Reservoir Rim Stability
Study, San Roque –
Rockslide Generated Water
Waves, NGI report
20021147-2
Løvholt, F., Harbitz, C.B.
Tsunamis generated by
rockslides in Geiranger and
Tafjorden, scenarios and
model comparisons (in
progress)
Løvholt, F., Harbitz, C.B.
and Haugen, K.B. (2004).
Tsunami generation from
retrogressive submarine
slides in the
Storegga/Ormen Lange
area, 32nd International
Geological Conference -
Firenze 2004.
( 27 )
Masson, D. G., Harbitz, C.
B., Wynn, R. B., Pedersen
G., and Løvholt, F. (in
review, 2006)
Submarine landslides –
processes, triggers and
hazard prediction.
Submitted for publication in
Philosophical Transactors
of the Royal Society.
Nadim, F. (2002)
Probabilsitic methods for
geohazard problems: State-
of-the-Art lecture.
Probabilistics in
GeoTechnics Conference,
Graz, Austria, 15-19 Sept,
2002.
Nadim, F. and Lacasse, S.
(2003).
Probabilistic methods for
quantification and mapping
of geohazards.
3rd Canadian Conference
on Geotechnique and
Natural Hazards, Emonton,
Canada, pp. 279-286.
Conference Preprints, ISBN
0-920505-23-6
Nadim, F., Krunic, D. and
Jeanjean, P. (2003).
Probabilistic slope stability
analyses of the Sigsbee
Escarpment
Proceedings, OTC 15203,
Offshore Technology
Conference ’03, Houston,
Texas, May 2003.
Nadim, F., Kvalstad, T.J.
and Guttormsen, T. (2004)
Quantification of risks
associated with seabed
instability at Ormen Lange.
2004 OTC Offshore
Technology Conference,
Houston, Texas.
Nadim, F. (2005)
KEYNOTE: Challenges to
geo-scientists in risk
assessment for submarine
slides. 2nd Int.Conf
Submarine mass
movements, Holmenkollen,
Oslo, Norway, 7-9
September 2005.
Nowacki, F., Solhjell, E.,
Nadim F., Liedke E.,
Andersen, K.H. and
Andresen, L. (2003).
Deterministic Slope Stability
Analyses of the Sigsbee
Escarpment.
Proceedings, OTC 15160,
Offshore Technology
Conference ’03, Houston,
Texas.
 Rise, L., Ottesen, D.,
Published lectures Longva, O., Solheim, A.,
and presentations Andersen, E.S. andAyers,
S. (2005)
The Sklinnadjupet Slide
and its relation to the great
impact of the third last
glaciation on the mid-
Norwegian margin. 2nd.
International Conference on
Submarine Mass
Movements and Their
Consequences., Oslo
September 5-7, 2005.
Schnellmann, M., A.
Solheim, C.F. Forsberg, I.
Lecomte, T.J. Kvalstad and
S. Yang (2005) Identifying
weak layers and potential
slip planes by integrating
amplitude versus offset
(AVO) analyses and post-
stack seismic attributes.
2nd. International
Conference on Submarine
Mass Movements and Their
Consequences., Oslo
September 5-7, 2005.
SINTEF (2004)
Brukerkravinnhenting for
NGIs datatflyt-prosjekt.
Rapport fra SINTEF IKT.
Rapport nr
SFT90 F04005, January
2004
Solheim, A., Bryn, P.,
Sejrup, H.P., Mienert, J.,
Berg, K. (2003).
Ormen Lange – an
integrated study for the safe
development of a deep-
water gas field within the
Storegga Slide Complex,
NE Atlantic continental
margin.
A collection of 15 refereed
articles. Marine and
Petroleum Geology, Ormen
Lange Special Issue.
Solheim, A. and F. Nadim
(2003)
International Centre for
Geohazards (ICG)
established at the
Norwegian Geotechnical
Institute (NGI) (Focus on
offshore geohazards).
Ocean Margin Research
Conference, Paris,
September 15-17, 2003.
Poster.
Solheim, A., F. Nadim and
L.H. Blikra (2003)
International Centre for
Geohazards (ICG)
established at the
Norwegian Geotechnical
Institute (NGI) (Focus on
rockslides and tsunamis).
American Geophysical
Union, San Francisco,
December 8-12, 2003.
Paper no. OS22B-1164.-
Poster. Eos. Trans. AGU,
84(46), Fall Meet. Suppl.,
Abstract , 2003.
Solheim, A. and C.F.F
Forsberg (2003)
The need for integrated
geo-studies in offshore site
investigations. Lecture
given at “International Soil
Investigation Forum”,
Annual Meeting, Oslo, Dec.
2003.
Solheim, A (2004)
Main achievements of the
Seabed Project offshore
mid-Norway, 1995-2004.
The Seabed Project,
Partner meeting, Lyseby,
Oslo, August 26, 2004.
Solheim, A., Forsberg, C.F.,
Kvalstad, T.J., Harbitz,
C.B., Nadim, F. and Yang,
S. (2004)
Submarine slides in high
latitudes – integrating
geotechnical data with
other geo-data and
numerical modelling.
Invited Lecture, 2nd
Euromargins Conference.
Barcelona, Spain, 11-13
November, 2004.
Solheim, A. and Bryn, P.
(2004)
The Ormen Lange Project:
A necessary assessment of
geohazards in relation to
the development of a deep-
water gas field.
Keynote lecture at the
conference "Ireland at
Risk", Dublin Castle, 4
October 2004
Solheim, A., Forsberg, C.F.,
Kvalstad, T.J., Harbitz,
C.B., Nadim, F. and Yang,
S. (2004)
Submarine slides in high
latitudes – integrating
geotechnical data with
other geo-data and
numerical modelling.
2nd Euromargins
Conference. Barcelona,
Spain, 11-13 November,
2004.
Solheim, A., Bhasin, R., De
Blasio, F.V, Blikra, L.H.,
Boyle, S., Braathen, A.,
Dehls, J., Elverhøi, A,
Etzelmüller B., Glimsdal, S.,
Harbitz, C.B., Heyerdahl,
H., Høydahl, Ø.A., Iwe, H.,
Karlsrud, K., Lacasse, S.,
( 28 )
LeComte, I., Lindholm, C.,
Longva, O., Løvholt, F.,
Nadim, F., Nordal, S.,
Romstad, B., Røed, J.K.
Strout, J.M.S.(2005)
Research on assessment,
prevention and mitigation of
geohazards at the
International Centre for
Geohazards (ICG).
Norwegian Geological
Winter Conference, Røros,
Norway, 7-10 January,
2005.
Solheim, A., D. A. Long,
and J. Mienert (2005)
Large slides and
geohazards on the
Norwegian Continental
Margin. “Ice and
Environmental Change
around the Norwegian –
Greenland Sea; A Nansen
seminar in celebration of
100 years of Norwegian
Independence”. Scott Polar
Research Institute,
University of Cambridge,
19. October, 2005. (Invited
lecture)
Strout, J. M. (2005)
Capabilities NGI/ICG
geohazards. Workshop
NORAD 21 January 2005.
Strout, J.M. and
Mokkelbost, K.H: (2003).
Pushing the envelope in
subsea slope stability
analysis: novel in situ and
laboratory tests at Ormen
Lange field.
Strout, J., Longva, O.
(2005)
The Finnefjord experiment.
2nd Int.Conf Submarine
mass movements,
Holmenkollen, Oslo,
Norway, 7-9 September
2005.
Yang, S., A. Solheim, T.J.
Kvalstad, C.F. Forsberg,
and M. Schnellmann (2005)
2nd. International
Conference on Submarine
Mass Movements and Their
Consequences, Oslo
September 5-7, 2005.
Conference committees:
Solheim, A., Kvalstad, T.J.,
Forsberg, C.F., Tjelta, T.I.,
Elverhøi, A., Mienert, J.,
Bryn, P., and Locat, J.,
2005: 2nd. International
Conference on Submarine
Mass Movements and Their
Consequences, Oslo
September 5-7, 2005.
Editorial Committees:
Solheim, A.., Bryn, P.,
Sejrup, H.P., Mienert, J.,
Berg, K. (Editors): Ormen
Lange – an integrated study
for the safe development of
a deep-water gas field
within the Storegga Slide
Complex, NE Atlantic
continental margin. Marine
and Petroleum Geology,
Vol. 22, Nos. 1-2.
6.3 NGI-reports
2002
NGI-report 20021239-1
Geotechnical Optimisation
of Seabed Sampler. Criteria
for Sampler Design,
21 October 2002.
NGI-report 20021023-13,
Real-time monitoring:
Contactless serial interface,
19 December 2002.
2003
NGI-report 20021023-32,
Tsunami-studies, 6
February 2003.
NGI-report 20021049-1,
Development of user
interfaces in MATLAB.
Example studies, 7 January
2003.
NGI-report 20021023-16,
Metode for feltovervåkning
med bruk av
databaseverktøy og GIS,
12 February 2003.
NGI-report 20021023-12,
Database for
laboratoriedata, 1 July
2003.
NGI-report 20021023-18,
Geophysical methods.
Shallow water flow – a
literature survey, 30
September 2003.
NGI-report 20021023-17,
Suction in clay samples, 7
October 2003.
NGI-report 20021023-34,
Validity of Turbidity Current
Model, 1 December 2003.
Martinsen, O., Hadler-
Jacobsen, F., Solheim, A.,
and Posamentier, H.
(Editors), in preparation:
Deep-water sedimentary
systems of Arctic and North
Atlantic Margins. Proc. Of
International Conference,
Stavanger, 18-20 October,
2004. Proceedings.
Norwegian Journal of
Geology.
NGI-report 20021023-33,
Overall slide processes:
Possible erosion
mechanisms, 17 December
2003.
NGI-report 20021023-31,
Establishment of CFX, 22
December 2003.
2004
NGI-report 20021023-22,
Using PLAXIS to perform
sedimentation analysis, 1
January 2004.
20021023. Multilevel
piezometer technical
documentation. Technical
note dated 27 January
2004.
20021023. Small diameter
data logger. Technical
Note dated 27 January
2004.
GIS i forbindelse med
offshore
grunnundersøkelser –
forstudie. Technical note
dated 19 February 2004
NGI-report 20021239-2,
Geotechnical Optimisation
of Seabed Sampler.
Detailed Criteria of New
Sampler and Plans for
Testing Out Prototype, 5
March 2004
NGI-report 20031091-3,
Risk and vulnerability for
geohazards. Vulnerability
in Relation to Risk
Management of Natural
Hazards, 8 August 2004.
( 29 )
Solheim, A., Kvalstad, T.J.,
Forsberg, C.F., Tjelta, T.I.,
Elverhøi, A., Mienert, J.,
Bryn, P., and Locat, J., in
preparation: 2nd.
International Conference on
Submarine Mass
Movements and Their
Consequences., Oslo
September 5-7, 2005,
Proceedings. Norwegian
Journal of Geology.
NGI-report 20031091-2,
Risk and vulnerability for
geohazard. Hazard and
risk scoring of quick clay
slides in Norway – a
probabilistic perspective, 22
September 2004.
NGI-report 20031091-1,
Risk and vulnerability for
geohazards. Glossary of
risk assessment terms, 30
September 2004.
NGI-report 20031091-4,
Risk and vulnerability for
geohazards. General non-
Gaussian probability
models for first-order
reliability method (FORM).
A State-of-the-Art report, 30
September 2004.
NGI-report 20021023-35,
Feasibility study for a
slushflow model within
CFX4, 8 December 2004.
2005
20041046. Skred- og
klimadatabase. Technical
note dated 7 January 2005.
NGI-report 20021023-20,
Informasjonssystem for
dataflyt i forbindelse med
laboratorietjenester.
Systemspesifikasjon, 10
January 2005.
NGI-report 20021023-27,
EM and gas hydrates, 21
January 2005.
NGI-report 20031091-5,
Risk and vulnerability for
geohazards. Slope stability
analysis for risk
assessment, 31 January
2005.
 NGI-report 20021023-14,
Suction in clay samples –
measurements on soft clay,
18 March 2005.
NGI-report 20021023-36,
NGI-reports 3D Visualisation of slides
and the NIS slide model, 31
March 2005
NGI-report 20021023-23,
Measurement of remoulded
undrained shear strength –
literature survey, 31 March
2005.
NGI-report 20051073-1,
Grunn gass instrumentering
- Semikvantitativ måling av
gass fra seeps ved hjelp av
SPMD, 1 June 2005
NGI-report 20021023-26
Seabed Seismic Source –
Shallow Applications:
Source –Seabed Coupling,
2 June 2005.
NGI-report 20021023-10,
Correction methods for
oedometer tests. User's
Guide, Version 1.00, 15
August 2005
NGI-report 20021023-11,
Correction methods for
oedometer tests. Theory
and verification, 15 August
2005.
NGI-report 20021023-29,
The potential of post-stack
and Amplitude versus
Offset (AVO) analyses for
identification of weak
layers, 16 September 2005
NGI-report 20021023-38,
NGI-ANI2 Material Model –
User defined material
model for PLAXIS Version
8.x – User Manual, 21
September 2005
NGI-report 20051060-1,
Generalised Integrated Risk
Assessment Framework, 30
September 2005
NGI-report 20051060-3,
Vulnerability in Context of
Risk Management for
Natural Hazards, 30
September 2005
NGI-report 20051060-4,
Earthquake hazard,
vulnerability and risk
State-of-the-art in Seismic
Hazard Analysis with
Emphasis on Ground
Motion Models, 30
September 2005
NGI-report 20021023-24.
Specific correlations
between index parameters
and soil design parameters.
Caspian Sea soil, 10
October 2005
NGI-report 20021023-15,
Real time monitoring:
Benchmark review and
calculations, 16 November
2005.
NGI-report 20021023-25,
Subsea instrumentation
“Best practice”. Practical
measures to improve
reliability of subsea
instrumentation systems,
22 November 2005
20021023. Development of
a sediment database for
offshore geohazard areas.
Technical note dated 28
November 2005
20021023. Experiment to
evaluate pore pressure
caused by salinity gradients
in poorly consolidated
sediments. Technical note
dated 28 November 2005.
NGI-report 20051073-2,
Shallow Gas Instrument-
ation - Self-expanding pipe
plug for shallow gas
collection, 2 December
2005
NGI-report 20051073-3,
Shallow Gas
Instrumentation - System
for collection and
measurement of gas flux, 2
December 2005
NGI-report 20021023-2,
Offshore geohazards.
Stratigic institute
programme. Summary
report, 8 December 2005
( 30 )
NGI-report 20021023-37,
User's Guide to FEM
earthquake response
software NONSSI, 12
December 2005
NGI-report 20021023-3,
Gas related to offshore
geohazard, 22 December
2005
NGI-report 20021023-4,
Measurement of remoulded
shear strength -
comparison of results from
various tests in a range of
clays, 28 December 2005
NGI-report 20021239-3,
Geotechnical Optimisation
of Seabed Sampler.
Phase 3: Special CPT
sleeve tests and testing out
prototype sampler, 28
December 2005.
NGI-report 20021023-19,
Use of shear waves to
detect overpressured
zones, 30 December 2005
NGI-report 20021023-39,
Cyclic behaviour of
cohesionless soil
earthquake analyses, 30
December 2005.
NGI-report 20021023-28,
Treating seismic reflection
data in offshore geohazard
studies at NGI: Workflow,
software tools and practical
advice, 30 December 2005.
NGI-report 20051060-5,
Acceptable and tolerable
Risk – a Literature Review,
30 December 2005
NGI-report 20021023-21,
Modellering av raskanter
med PLAXIS, 31 desember
2005
NGI-report 20021023-30,
Best practice. Offshore
geohazards, 31 December
2005
 6.4 Press and media coverage
Forskning 5/02, ”Til kamp
mot naturkatastrofene”,
Press and media Bjarne Røsjø, NGI
coverage
Teknisk Ukeblad 13/02,
”Prioritering må til”,
Suzanne Lacasse
Geo Sept/02, ”Ny giv for
norsk geo-forskning”,
Halfdan Carstens, GEO
(Kjell Hauge)
Teknisk Ukeblad 45/02,
”Skredfaren over”, Linda
Hårvik og Tore J. Kvalstad
Bistandsaktuelt 02/03,
”Norsk forskning mot
naturkatastrofer”, Oddvar
Kjekstad and Kjell Hauge
GEO, December, 2003.
”Geologisk kunnskap
redder liv”, Kristen
Mørk,GEO (Farrokh Nadim)
Byggeindustrien,
12/03.”Risikodemperen”,
Jan-Gunnar Fjeldstad,
Byggeindustrien (Suzanne
Lacasse and Kjell Hauge)
Teknisk Ukeblad 30/03,
”Forskning under press",
Veslemøy Nestvold, TU
(Suzanne Lacasse)
Teknisk Ukeblad 31/03,
”Eksperter på
naturkatastrofer”, Veslemøy
Nestvold, TU (Farrokh
Nadim)
New Science, 24 January
2004, ”Scoting on a wet
bottom: Some undersea
landslides ride a nearly
frictionless slick of water”,
Sid Perkins
Dagbladet 20 September
2004, "Naturkatastrofer - en
global utfordring", Farrokh
Nadim and Suzanne
Lacasse
Appolon, University of Oslo,
03/2004. “Da flodbølgen
slukte Nord-Vestlandet”,
Yngve Vogt, Apollon (Finn
Løvholt)
Dagbladet, 19 October
2004, ”Monsterbølgen
slukte Vestlandet”, Sigbjørn
Strand, Dagbladet (Finn
Løvholt)
Aftenposten, 4 January
2005. ”Flodbølger kan de
varsles?”, Bjørn Gjevik and
Geir Pedersen, UiO and
Carl Harbitz
Forskning 3/05. “Halve
befolkninga på jorda er
utsett for naturkatastrofar",
Bjarne Røsjø, NGI
( 31 )
Byggeindindustrien. 3/05.
“Viktig med strakstiltak”,
Anne Beth Jensen,
Byggeindustrien (Kjell
Karlsrud)
Bistandsaktuelt. 1/2005.
”UD og Norad kartlegger
norsk tsunamikompetanse”,
Liv Røhnebæk Bjergene,
Synnøve Asplund,
Bistandsaktuelt (James M.
Strout)
Sunnmørsposten. 17
January 2005. ”Risikoen
mot fjellskred kan
reduseres”, Lars Harald
Blikra, NGU and Frode
Sandersen
Approximately 100 press
articles and releases in
connection with the tsunami
distaster in South-Asia
2004, December 2004-
January 2005.
TV- NRK 1 - Schrødingers
katt, 4 January 2005,
"Innslag om generering av
tsunami", with Carl Harbitz
Video, April 2003, "The
Storegga slide and the
Ormen Lange Gas Field",
laget av Ingenium AS for
Norsk Hydro (intervju
m/Tore J. Kvalstad)
 “When a geotechnical
engineer visits NGI, it is like a
Catholic visiting the Vatican!”
Homa Lee, USGS,
After the "Submarine mass movements"
Conference in Oslo, 7 - 9 Sept 2005

Sognsveien 72, P.O. Box 3930 Ullevaal Stadion, N-0806 Oslo, Norway
Tel.: +47 22 02 30 00 ● Fax: +47 22 23 04 48
ngi@ngi.no ● www.ngi.no
Geophysical methods
- Seabed shear wave seismics

Seismic modelling exercises are carried out to investigate the

differences in reflection from pressure and shear waves in over-
pressured sand bodies. These exercises show that over pressured
sand bodies in many cases will most probably produce large
shear wave reflections, and only small pressure wave reflections.

Background and objectives

Drilling into a sand body containing high-pressure water, may

cause major problems. The “shallow water flows” (SWF) that
may arise from this process, will discharge subsurface fluids into
the ocean that may damage equipment and delay drilling programs considerably. Methods for
localising these over-pressured bodies prior to drilling are therefore of great importance to the
offshore industry.

Results and findings

Seismic modelling exercises have been performed to investigate the differences in reflection
from pressure and shear waves in over pressured sand bodies. The results show that over
pressured sand bodies in many cases most probably will produce large shear wave reflections,
but only small pressure wave reflections. The figure below shows a synthetic seismic shot
gather, pressure waves (left) and shear waves (right). The reflection from the over-pressured
body is indicated by an arrow.

In general one can conclude that shear waves are better suited for mapping of over-pressured
sand bodies than pressure waves (P-waves). The interface between an overlying shale and a
over pressured sand-body can represent a big contrast for the S- wave, but a low impedance
contrast for the P- wave.

Comparison of reflection from pressure and

shear waves identifying an overpressured
sand body
Geophysical methods
- Shear wave seismic source. Prototype testing offshore

There are several advantages of using seismic shear wave technique for
offshore geohazard mapping compared to the traditional methods. This
technique can be used in connection with the detection of over-pressured
zones, gas hydrates and “weak” layers.

Background and objectives

The oil industry has been lacking a seabed shear wave source to generate the shear waves
needed for seismic shear wave mapping. Statoil, Hydro, and the Research Council of Norway
have financed the development and testing of a new prototype seabed shear wave source 0 .75

0 .5

0 .25
0 .7 5

0 .5

0.2 5

produced by NGI.
The prototype was tested at the Gullfaks field during the summer of 2003. The shear wave
source was run in a sweep mode, at frequency of 2-45 Hz, with a dynamic horizontal ground
force of 100kN, and in a pulse mode (at one site). Different S-polarization orientations, both radial and
transverse were tested. The test was conducted within a 24 hours window during a conventional 4C
seabed seismic survey. The OBC (Ocean Bottom Cables) seismic service company has recorded the
seismic signals produced by the shear wave source on four 4C ocean bottom cables.

Results and findings

The results show that the shear wave source can generate good quality S-wave data. The electro-
hydraulic suction anchor based seabed shear wave source concept was operationally successful. It is a
promising technique. A lot of information can be derived from data processing. One may identify a
number of shear wave (S-S) reflections, some originating from layers more
that 1000 meter below the seabed. The repeatability of the results is
excellent for the stiffer seabed sites, from the first shot until the last. Few
shots were needed before the shear wave source signature stabilizes at the
sites with softer seabeds. The prototype was designed for deep penetration
and is therefore quite large and heavy (9 tons) and operates on low
frequency. For shallow depth investigation, a lighter and smaller shear
wave source version is recommended.
Geophysical methods
- Seismic tools for offshore geohazard studies

In slope stability studies, important “weak” layers are often thinner than the
typical seismic resolution of few metres. Hence, the improvement of resolution
and imaging of seismic data and attributes that can highlight various physical
properties in the sedimentary rocks is important. The studies performed provide
useful guidelines and have strengthened the seismic part of integrated
geohazard projects.

Background and objectives

Seismic reflection data is one of the main sources of information in offshore geohazard investigations. They
provide a regional overview of stratigraphy and geological processes and are also the most important tool for
correlation between sites of subsurface sampling and measurements. Seismic reflection can be applied through
exploration wells, geotechnical boreholes or shallow seabed cores. Seismic resolution, particularly vertical
resolution is a major problem in the oil industry. In slope stability studies, the important “weak” layers are often
thinner than the typical seismic resolution of a few metres. The objective of the study is twofold; to “streamline”
the handling of seismic data for offshore geohazard studies and to investigate the use of various seismic
attributes in geohazard studies.

Results and findings

SeisVision and other parts of the Geographix package, such as WellBase and Prizm provide the necessary tools
for NGI to carry out geohazard studies on both 2D and 3D seismic data. The most recent programme versions
have possibilities to include other data than the traditional wireline logging data. These data are such as index
properties measured on core samples, and are included in the seismic sections. A combination of the Geographix
software with other programmes, such as Surfer and IRAP-RMS has been tested. Recommendations on how one
can treat seismic data in offshore geohazard studies are provided as an aid to future projects. A production line
from receiving seismic data through interpretation, inclusion of various down-hole and laboratory measurements
in the seismic data, to final production of maps and other representations of results is described. A range of
seismic attributes have been studied, mostly on high resolution 2D data from the Storegga Slide area. Amplitude
Envelope, Apparent Polarity, Similarity, and Dip or combinations of these are useful attributes to image slip
planes both in 2D and in 3D seismic data. Stacking velocities comprise useful information and should be
required with the seismic data in geohazard projects. Pre-stack attributes and AVO analyses are necessary to
extract information on geotechnical properties. This implies processing expertise and special software, not
available at NGI at the present time.

Resistivity CPT
Probable debris Seismic profile across a geotechnical borehole. The left-hand
flow deposits curve is a resistivity curve (Laterolog) with data gaps, whereas
the right-hand curve shows a continuous undrained shear
strength profile from CPT data. The theoretical base of the gas
hydrate stability zone is indicated with the horizon named BSR.
The interpretation of the debris flow deposits is based on the
combined data set.

BSR
Geophysical methods
- Using electromagnetic (EM) waves for mapping gas hydrates

Evidence of gas hydrates are detected by traditional seismic imaging. However,

seismic imaging alone cannot estimate the hydrate concentration. The results of
the study performed, show that it is possible to detect gas hydrates by means of
sea bed logging.

Background and objectives

Gas hydrates have received an increasing studying
interest since the early 1990’s. Gas hydrates are a
potential source of energy and hydrate exploitation
will require new technologies and techniques. Gas
hydrates are also considered a significant hazard in
conventional hydrocarbon production terms. They
can cause shallow gas release and local seabed
instability.

Evidence of gas hydrates are detected by traditional seismic imaging. However, seismic imaging alone
cannot estimate the hydrate concentration and additional measurements like resistivity and/or sonic
borehole logs are required. New marine electromagnetic techniques, like seabed logging (SBL), may
provide a resistivity map of the formation below
the seabed. 4.5
AVO normalized w.r.t. no gas hydrate layer

21 ohm-m
The applicability of SBL to detect gas hydrate 4 22 ohm-m

layers in the formation was studied. This type of

3.5
detection could serve as a complement to
seismic imaging to estimate the gas hydrate 3
concentration.
2.5

2
Results and findings
The performed study includes finite element 1.5 Detection limit
simulations of EM signals through a 1D and 3D 1
layered soil models containing a gas hydrate
layer. The simulations show that it is possible to 0.5
0 5000 10000 15000
detect gas hydrates by means of SBL, even for offset in m

low resistivity contrast between the gas hydrates

Examples from the numerical modelling exercise
and the surrounding formation. where the EM gas hydrate response is above the
Field monitoring and instrumentation
- Subsea instrumentation “Best Practice”

A“Best Practice” manual for the design of subsea and offshore instrumentation
systems has been defined based on experience from 30 years of instrument
design for the offshore industry. The manual contains a summary of relevant
measuring techniques as well as recommendations for selection of sensor
technology and system solutions.

Background and objectives

The purpose of this work is to capture the existing practice and experience from 30 years of instrument
design for the offshore industry and to make this knowledge easily available for future projects.
Ultimately, the availability of this expertise may be employed to improve the efficiency and reliability
of subsea instrumentation developed by NGI.

Results and findings

The result of this project is a 'Best Practice' manual for the design of subsea
and offshore instrumentation systems. This manual contains a summary of
relevant measuring techniques as well as recommendations for selection of
sensor technology and system solutions. Focus is given on a significant
number of central issues such as:
• Sensing mechanism and sensor technology
• Local attachment and environmental considerations
• Power management
• Data logging and control systems
• Data transfer (communication system)
• Cables, connectors, components (hardware considerations)
• Physical protection (e.g. trawling and installation loads)
• Corrosion, material behavior and selection of materials
• Redundancy and alternate measurement technology
• Installation methodology

Examples and recommendations for offshore applications are given. The result of this effort is an
internal report summarising key technical experience for use by the instrumentation group in planning
and executing subsea/offshore instrumentation design projects. A 'Best Practice' manual like this
report will be subject to revisions as new technology and experience develops.
Field monitoring and instrumentation
- Multilevel piezometer

The multi-level piezometer string that was developed during this project
provides measurement of pore pressure at several discrete depths within a single
boring in soil sediments. The sensor is constructed as a modular construction,
allowing variation in the number and location of the monitoring points along the
string.The multi-level piezometer provides important material parameters for
geotechnical analyses as well as significant cost savings, as fewer subsea
borings will be required to obtain the necessary pore pressure information.

Background and objectives

The determination of the pore pressure profile is essential in the evaluation of strength and
deformation of sediments. The objective of the study has been to
Top fitted with lifting cap and
design a multi-level piezometer string to provide measurement of pore electrical connection point.
pressure at several discrete depths within a single boring in soil
sediments. Before the beginning of this study such pore pressure data
were available only via single point piezometer systems in subsea A piezometer
deployments. module

Multilevel piezometer string made up of

Results and findings heavy armoured hydraulic hose,
pressured clamped to piezometer
The sensor is constructed as a modular construction, allowing variation modules. Hose with modules can be
in the number and location of the monitoring points along the string. coiled on cable spool or handling winch.

The string can be deployed with up to 8 measurement points.

Measurement points may include differential pressure, total pressure Each piezometer module can measure
and temperature. The sensor used is a miniature differential pressure differential pressure and/or total
sensor, which is capable of providing both differential pressure as well pressure (1 or 2 signal channels)

as total pressure measurements at the module filter. The sensor is Up to 8 channels can be connected in
designed to be pre-assembled on land, and shipped on cable drums the multilevel piezometer string.

offshore. Installation offshore will be done from a handling winch; the

piezometer string is spooled from the winch into the borehole filled (cutaway section to show interior of
multilevel pieozmeter string)
with liquid grout. The piezometer string is grouted in place when the
grout hardens. Each piezometer module connected to
internal string network by electrical
jumper.
A piezometer module. Each module is
independent part of string, it can be field
replaced if necessary. Failure in module does
not result in failure in string.

Tip fitted with blunt dead weight to maintain

tension in string during lowering
Technical specifications

Sensor specifications (as reported by sensor OEM) Physical characteristics

Differential pressure range: 0.1 to 20 bar Diameter: <70mm

(typically 1 to 3 bar ) Material: Stainless steel
Maximum line pressure: 200 bar (other materials can be used)
Data signal: RS485 network Max deployment depth: 1900m below sea level
Sensor accuracy: 0.25% full scale Submerged weights (estimated)
Temperature, oC: -30 to 100 sensor module: 3 kg/module
(0 to 50 temp. compensated) tubing: 1 kg/meter
Vibration: 20g (20-5000Hz) top piece: 2 kg
Power: 8-28 vDC tip piece: project specific (5 - 500 kg)

Sensor module and sensor (visible in the cavity that will be covered by a low air entry filter)
Field monitoring and instrumentation
- Monitoring gas charged seabed and hydrates

Oil industry requests methods and equipment to enable better knowledge and
control when gas is released close to subsea structures and production platforms.
Better equipment is needed for monitoring the concentration of dissolved gas
leaking out from the seabed as well as in the subsoil. In some cases free gas
bobbles can be observed in the field. The amount of bobbles provides important
information. Several methods and equipment have been evaluated. Outlines for
a subsea gas release measuring instrument have been developed.

Background and objectives

Gas leakage along casing and conductors as well as pressure charge in shallow layers has been
identified as a serious problem in mature production fields. At some mature fields, the gas leakage has
lead to critical conditions with shallow layers charged to significant over pressure levels which
sometimes results in spontaneous blow-outs from the seabed. This is explained by the creation of
leakage paths along casings and conductors in production wells. There is no history of monitoring
such leakage mechanisms, and there is limited knowledge about the progress and magnitude of similar
problems. However, the consequences may be dramatic, and early corrective actions are necessary to
minimize costs and future problems which may affect future production.
The objective for this study has been to identify the uncertainties connected with gas
leakage related problems and define relevant technology and required modifications for the
described applications. The aim of this work has been to develop a suitable monitoring
system to discover gas concentrations and measure gas flux trough Pore pressure sealing unit
the seabed.

Results and findings

The following methods were evaluated in the project:

SMPD-device
Semipermeable devices (SMPD) are used to measure methane quantities at the sea bottom.
The original idea was that these small LPDE plastic films should accumulate methane and
give information about the methane flux and identify sea bottom locations for further studies.
However, literature studies have showed, that SMPD’s was unable to monitor methane flux.

Sealing mechanism for pore pressure measurements

A low cost method for pore pressure measurements is to install sensors inside existing steel pipes in the
sea bottom. A sealing method for such installations has been developed. This method uses a polymer
material as sealing material. This polymer expands when in contact with water and seals the space
between sensor cable and pipe wall.
Gas flux quantification
Two different devices are developed to quantify the gas flux at the sea bottom. A “gas trap” is designed to
be placed over potential pock marks. The amount of gas in this
device can be read through the plexiglas windows by an ROV.
A gas flux counter has been developed to be able to quantify
the amount of gas that is passing through a given area (flux
measurement). A series of gas flux counters can be linked Gas trap
together for measurements where the flux is unknown and can
vary significantly.

METS sensor
This sensing technology consists of a semi-
conductor detector and a diffusion membrane
allowing methane molecules to pass. This sensor
is available in the market, branded as METS and
is manufactured by the German company
CAPSUM. Some necessary modifications have
been identified through field testing and pilot projects. Application range and stability of the sensor
must be improved and this is possible by for example introducing multiple detectors into one
instrument. This technology can be also be modified for down-hole use, allowing for continuous in-situ
methane monitoring. Hydrates can also be detected as increased methane concentration after melting by
introducing a heating element.

Valve
Valve opens and
gas is released
Tmin
filling

Tmax
V

Venting
holes

Outlines of subsea bobble counter for monitoring leakage of free gas

Field monitoring and instrumentation
- Real-time monitoring – Contactless serial interface

Different technologies were evaluated for development and implementation of

subsea monitoring systems designed for geohazards monitoring at locations
without existing infrastructure.

Background and objectives

The purpose of the work has been to improve technology for the transfer of data from autonomous
subsea monitoring systems. Two different aspects of the
communication links have been considered - the transfer of
data from the monitoring system to a data transmitter via a
contactless interface, and the long-distance link used by the ROV
data transmitter between the seabed and the end user of the
Contactless
data. interface

Logging head
Results and findings (seabed buoy)
Several options are theoretically available in subsea
application for short range contactless data communication, Down -hole
instruments
such as inductive (magnetic), optic (light pulsing) and acoustic
(frequency pulsing).
Inductive signal coupling has proven to be the most attractive ROV clamp
and cost effective solution. Related to inductive couplings, is
the use of radio signal coupling underwater over very short
range. However, this technology has not been identified yet in
the commercial market for subsea applications.
Logging
Long range data communication is currently being obtained head

using umbilicals instrument or power-consuming acoustic

modems. Low-power transmission via the lifting wire is possible using guided wave technology.
However, the wire must be insulated for long range transmission.
Focus will be given on the future following transmission solutions:
• Seabed data collection (ROV handled couplings)
- Inductive couplings
- Radio transmission coupling
• Long distance data transmission
- Signal transmission to surface via ROV’s umbilical
- Development of guided wave technology for transmission of data along insulated
steel crane wire
Field monitoring and instrumentation
- Miniature subsea logger

Background and objectives

The miniature subsea logger has been designed by NGI to be a flexible interface for deploying a
variety of sensors or instruments. Focus has been given of the physical dimensions of the logger, to
allow it to be installed together with sensors (e.g. the multilevel piezometer) via a standard drill string
used for geotechnical investigations.
The logger is fully programmable by using the C language, allowing great flexibility in data
processing onboard, reduction and data conditioning. The programmable interface allows the logger
to be connected to existing monitoring networks. It can also be programmed to communicate in the
protocol of the network.
The logger has up to 2GB internal memory, and is scalable to up to 128 measurement channels. Serial
and analogue sensor inputs are supported, as well as serial/USB communication. Most of the standard
sensors may be deployed with the micrologger.

Results and findings

The logger is designed as a module which can be added to a sensor bundle. The programmable interface unit
offers the following services:
• Scheduling of data collection from sensors
• Temporary internal logging of data (backup data storage)
• Power switching (between several power sources)
• Analogue/Digital conversion
• Packaging and transmitting of data in system protocol (programmed)

The assembled interface unit. The unit is photographed without any fixation elements attached
(i.e. cable fork termination or adapter for the hydraulic line of the multilevel piezometer).
 Cable fork termination used by NGI and the end cap of the interface unit. The cable fork, or any other
fixation device, can be attached directly to end caps of the pressure container using screws. The end
caps are held in place by shear bolts above the O-ring seals. (See also photos above and below).

The Persistor logging card is incorporated in an NGI circuit card. Mounted to end cap of micrologger
pressure container (prototype development stage)

Technical specifications
Interface module physical Electrical/functional

Diameter: 70 mm Signal in from sensors: Serial or analogue

Length: 315 mm Communication: Serial
Weight: app. 5 kg dry, 3.5 kg wet (RS232 or RS485 can be provided)
Material: Stainless steel Power supply: 12vDC nominal, 3.6 to 20vDC
Max. depth: (est. 2000 m, internal power is 3.3vDC)
subject to pressure certification) Sensor channels: up to128 (see note)
A/D conversion: selectable 12 or 16 bit, up to 8 channels
Programming: Fully programmable using C
Power consumption: ~20 μA sleep, 2mA to 60mA active*

*power consumption is only approximate, and will depend on activity

level in logger. Sensor power consumption is not considered.
Soil investigation methods
- Geotechnical optimisation and design criteria of seabed sampler

Detailed design criteria for a new sea bed sampler have been established to
improve the sampling technique for up to 25 m long high quality samples in
water depths of up to 2000 m. A prototype sampler has been built and tested
onshore and offshore. Through field and laboratory testing it is found that the
new sampler gives high quality samples. However, more work is needed
regarding offshore handling of the sampler.

Background and objectives

There is a well documented need for developing a seabed sampler that can take up
to 25 m long samples of high quality in water depths of 2000 m. The objective of
this work has been to give detailed design criteria for a new long seabed sampler,
and to assess the quality of samples obtained with a prototype both onshore and
offshore. The aim has been to improve sample quality and the new samplers
should be at least as good as the ones obtained from a thin walled piston tube
sampler in the bottom of a borehole.

Results and findings

The design criteria of the new sampler were selected based on a detailed literature
study, special laboratory tests and finite element studies. The Dutch equipment
manufacturer, AP van den Berg identified material to be used for various parts of
the sampler. They also made detailed design of the sampler including innovative
solutions for the core retainer, piston and cutting shoe. Further on, AP van den
Berg, manufactured a prototype sampler that was tested on onshore NGI’s soft
clay research site at Onsøy, outside Fredrikstad in Norway in April 2005. The
sampler was finally tested in connection with a soil investigation carried out by
Statoil at the Troll field at 305 m water depth. The British soil investigation
contractor Lankelma was an active partner on the onshore and offshore field
work.

Results of laboratory tests carried out by NGI have been

compared with previous tests on high quality samples. The Testing of sampler at Onsøy, Norway
conclusion from the comparative testing is that the new
sampler can give high quality samples at least as good as the ones obtained from a thin walled piston
tube sampler in the bottom of a borehole. Thus the main project objective has been fulfilled.
However, more work need to be done regarding the handling of the sampler offshore.
Soil investigation methods
- Characterisation of soft soils in deep water by in situ tests

An improved quantitative framework to characterise soft offshore shallow

sediments associated with deep water investigations by situ testing methods;
CPTU, Vane and T-bar with most emphasis on the T-bar has been developed.

Background and objectives

The objective of the study has been to provide an improved quantitative framework to characterise soft
offshore shallow sediments associated with deep water investigations by situ testing methods; CPTU,
Vane and T-bar with most emphasis on the T-bar.

Results and findings

Comprehensive and laboratory field tests carried out at NGI’s soft clay site in Onsøy and by COFS in
Perth, Australia. The results show that the CPTU cone and T-bar penetration resistances and vane
torque resistance correlate best to the average shear strength determined from compression and
extension triaxial and direct simple shear tests.

Finite element analyses of T-bar penetration based on the Onsøy and Burswood laboratory test data,
shows that the theoretical NT-bar -value for a T-bar in undisturbed clay may give reasonable values of
the average peak undrained shear strength. This appears mainly due to compensating effects from (a)
strain rate (tending to increase penetration resistance) and strain softening (tending to decrease
penetration resistance). The effect of these compensating factors may depend on the clay type. The
intensity of these compensating effects differs for other clays with different rate effects, anisotropy
ratio, strain softening and sensitivity. The figure below shows results from finite element analyses of a
case with anisotropic shear strength and strain softening in Onsøy Clay. Very distinct shear zones
development can be observed.

a) Load displacement of T-bar b) Shear strain development below T-bar

Laboratory methods
- Correction methods for oedometer testing

The conventional procedure applied when soil samples are extracted from the
site to the laboratory and later prepared for testing, will lead to disturbed
samples compared to the in situ state. A procedure for adjusting the constrained
oedometer modulus extracted from disturbed soil samples has been proposed.
An accurate determination of the pre-consolidation stresses was found to have
significant imortance for the proposed correction method.

Background and objectives

The procedure applied when soil samples are brought from the site to the laboratory and later are built
in the requested apparatus for testing will lead to samples being disturbed compared to the in situ
sample state. Oedometer test data from soft clay samples have been studied in order to establish a
procedure for adjusting the constrained oedometer modulus extracted from disturbed soil samples.

Results and findings

An accurate determination of the pre-consolidation stress was found decisive for the proposed
correction method, and four different methods for pre-consolidation determination were analysed and
compared: Becker, Casagrande and Janbu together with a new method. The curvature of the axial
strain – axial stress data (linear scale) was evaluated. Some of the project findings can be summarised
below:

• The new method for determining the pre-consolidation stress leads generally to results comparable with the pre-
consolidation stress found by Casagrande and Becker except for lean clays where the new method leads to
approximately 10 % higher yield stresses.
• Increasing the number of methods in the determination of the pre-consolidation stress, implies that the uncertainty
of pre-consolidation stress may be reduced; this is especially valid for disturbed samples where previously
published results seems to be low compared to block samples and to results obtained by combining the investigated
methods.
• The pre-consolidation stress of a disturbed sample will be lower than for an undisturbed sample.
• The pre-consolidation stress results from the methods applied, have been calibrated by using the exact location of
the pre-consolidation stress in the Janbu modulus plot. No distinct results have been found.
• The constrained oedometer modulus measured on disturbed samples for stress levels lower than the yield stress,
will be lower compared to undisturbed samples. Modulus values for stress levels between the yield stress and 2-3
times the yield stress will generally be higher on a disturbed sample compared to undisturbed sample.
• The stiffness of the soil sample for stress levels lower than the yield stress is uncertain. It is likely that the initial
stiffness is determined too low; even for high quality samples. Suggestions for updating CRSC-laboratory
procedures, both considering the stiffness but also considering other laboratory-specific aspects have been given.
• Adjusting the modulus value on a high quality samples gave similar results compared to the unadjusted modulus
value (a very small correction if the sample is undisturbed). Samples from exactly same location represented by
high and low sample disturbance, were used to verify that the proposed method lead to realistic modulus values
even when used on disturbed samples.
• Suggestions have been given for additional work.
All the features addressed above have been implemented in a user-friendly software package. It
presents results by a graphical interface adopting measured data in an electronic format from the la-
boratory.

The sample disturbance effect is visualised on the figures below considering oedometer testing
(constant rate of strain).

σa' [kPa]
10 100 1000

0 5.0

Interpreted pre-consolidation stress

indicated by an arrow
5
4.0

10
p'0

3.0
15
M t [MPa]
ε a [kPa]

20
Onsøy, 14.2 m
Undisturbed, Block 2.0
Disturbed, 54 mm

25

Interpreted pre-consolidation stress 1.0 Onsøy, 14.2 m

indicated by an arrow Undisturbed, Block
30 Disturbed, 54 mm

35 0.0

0 100 200 300 400

σ'a [kPa]

Left: Stress strain relationship from CRSC testing on disturbed and undisturbed material.
Right: Tangent modulus values versus axial stress.
Laboratory methods
- Measurement of remoulded undrained shear strength

The remoulded shear strength of soils/clays is an important parameter in

offshore slope stability analyses. There are several methods to measure and
determine the remoulded shear strength. Consequently, there can be significant
differences in the strength values used for design. A database containing
remoulded shear strength data has been established.
Background and objectives
The remoulded shear strength is an 10.0

sur lab vs. APvdBerg Sleeve friction

important parameter for the design of 9.0
suction anchors for example as well as y=x
8.0
offshore slope stability analyses. In UU tests

slope stability analyses, the remoulded

Remoulded shear strength (kPa)

7.0 Fall cone

shear strength influences the failure Field vane
6.0
mechanism and the progressiveness of
a potential slide. Experience has 5.0
y = 0.5x
shown that the remoulded shear
4.0
strength depends on a large extent on
the measuring method used either in 3.0

the laboratory or in the field. There is 2.0

currently no consistent, universally
recognized measuring method and 1.0

thus there is an obvious necessity to 0.0

develop measuring guidelines. 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
Sleeve friction (AP vd Berg) (kPa)
8.0 9.0 10.0

Remoulded shear strength measured measured by different

Results and findings tests in Onsøy clay
A literature review concludes that there are
many types of laboratory tests (e.g., fall
cone, lab vane, UUC test, torvane, pocket penetrometer, ring shear) and in situ equipment (e.g., field
vane, CPTU, T-bar) to measure the remoulded shear strength. Some of these methods are essentially a
direct measure of the remoulded strength while others are indirect and rely on theoretical and/or
empirical correlations. The methods used to remould soil also vary. There are found different
correlations to determine the shear strength. Consequently, there can be significant differences in the
strength values used for design. A database containing data from a number of consulting and research
projects involving clays of varying plasticity and mineralogy has been established at NGI. Analysis of
the database has confirmed the conclusions from the literature review. A Joint Industry Project (JIP)
will be proposed based on the results in this project. The work scope of this JIP will be: 1) Further
develop and study of the NGI-database of remoulded shear strength; 2) investigate rate effects, ring
shear testing and influence of mixing/remoulding procedures; 3) conduct laboratory tests for a selected
number of soils; 4) develop recommendations on equipment and test procedures for measurement of
remoulded shear strength.
Laboratory methods
- Suction in clay samples

This study shows that the use of suction measurements used in conjunction with
other soil parameters gives an indication of sample quality.
Background and objectives
The main objective of this study was to develop a scheme for using reliable suction measurements to
explain anomalies in measured shear strength values from index tests. This would allow evaluation of
sample disturbance for selection of best quality specimen for advanced testing. The possibility to use
suction values to correct laboratory results on samples that have been reconsolidated to in situ stresses
have been studied. The evaluation of Ko, in respect with the use suction values, especially in heavily
over consolidated clays has also been studied. A comprehensive literature review and laboratory
measurements of suction on two soft clays; Norwegian Onsøy clay and Irish Ballinasloe clay was
conducted.
Results and findings 0.8 Range expected for Bothkennar
The literature review reveal that there is a "perfect" samples Lierstranda
clear relationship between measured suction Ariake
Bangkok
value and sample quality and that anomalies
0.6 Various clays
in index shear strength may be explained by
loss of suction due to stress relief. However,
a considerable amount of uncertainties are
ur / σ1v0

associated with this argument. Measured 0.4

suction depends on the details of the
measuring technique; the procedure used to
seal, transport, store and prepare the
0.2
samples, the elapsed time between testing
and sampling as well as the effect of the
field sampling technique and the soil type
itself. 0
Five different techniques of suction 0 40 80 120 160 200
measurements were performed on samples Plasticity index, Ip (%)
of varying quality from two test soils in the
laboratory. The sample quality indicated by suction measurements was the same as compared to
triaxial (CAUC) stress/strain curves and stress paths. A clear relationship between measured suction
and the well known sample quality indicator Δe/e0 was found. Suction values derived from the cell
pressure loading, filter paper and tensiometer techniques seem very similar, with the latter technique
showing the lowest values in most cases. All of above mentioned techniques were found to give values
slightly less than those recorded from the University of Massachusetts suction probe. The final method
used - the Japanese approach - gives very low suction values. In the absence of a standard well proven
method, it is recommended that two of the three techniques; cell pressure loading, filter paper and
tensiometer techniques are used to obtain an average value. However it must be emphasized that other
researchers have stated that these measurements can be misleading when used separately. These
results should only be used in conjunction with other soil parameters measured in the lab, e.g. Gmax.
Databases
- Correlations between index and soil design parameters

A database for the Caspian Sea soils to allow for correlation studies between
index test data and laboratory measured soil design parameters was established.
These parameters required for foundation analyses and geohazards studies. The
results of the correlations studied, show a large degree of scatter. However, the
in situ conditions of combined high pore fluid salinity and excess pore pressures,
make the Caspian Sea sites unique.
Background and objectives
The objective was to develop and analyse a database of high quality geotechnical data for the
Caspian Sea sites ACG (Azeri, Chirag and Gunashli) and Shah Deniz PSAs. The database
allows for the study of possible correlations between index test data and laboratory measured
soil design parameters which required for foundation analyses and geohazards studies.
Various methods for performing the liquid limit test were studied. The possibility for
correlations development for converting results from one method to another was also studied.

Results and findings

Data on liquid limit measurements both from the literature and measured at NGI were analysed to
develop correlations between the different measurement methods. Good correlations were found and
recommendations are given in the report for converting Vasilev (Russian) or Casagrande Cup liquid
limit measurements to the equivalent Fall Cone (European) value. In general, most of the considered
correlations show a large degree of scatter even for basic index relationships. Several factors
contribute to this scatter including sample quality, fissured and slickensided sample, laboratory stress
state, high pore fluid salinity and excess in situ pore pressure. Somewhat, reasonable correlations were
found for stress sensitivity vs. void ratio sensitivity,
remoulded undrained shear strength vs. liquidity index,
and undrained shear strength vs. preconsolidation
stress. Consolidation-flow correlations showed high
scatter with almost no trends.

The analysis presented suggests that the Caspian Sea

soils, while often fissured and slickensided, are not
necessarily unique relative to other soils worldwide. It
is rather the in situ conditions of combined high pore
fluid salinity and excess pore pressures (Δu) that make
the Caspian Sea sites unique. Determination of Δu is
the major challenge, as it is difficult and time
consuming to measure. Significant uncertainties still
exist on the magnitude of Δu is at the various ACG
sites.

Relationship between liquid limit as

measured by Russian Standard and ASTM
Databases
- Offshore geotechnical borings

Background and objectives

Develop a database containing offshore geotechnical borings. The database should be integrated in a
general GIS-tool and should have the possibility to register new geotechnical borings as well as
perform search in existing data.

Example of map used a start position to

localise borings. Offshore installations
indicated with yellow signs.

Results and findings

An Access database has been designed
with user interface to register new
offshore geotechnical borings and to
search in existing data. All offshore
geotechnical borings since 1971 are
included. These borings are linked to a
NGI-project and labelled uniquely
within that project. Corresponding
reports are also linked to the database. These borings are classified by unique geographical position,
type and key geotechnical data.

Geotechnical borings registered in the

Gullfaks/Statfjord area.
 Databases
- Geotechnical data

Background and objectives

The objective of a database containing geotechnical data is to ensure an effective and safe dataflow
starting when samples are collected offshore, via laboratory testing and ending on data reporting.

Results and findings

A geotechnical prototype database for effective dataflow and safe storage of offshore geotechnical
data has been designed. This database will be a tool for effective reporting and data storage, and it
will be useful for regional studies. Research activities will also benefit from this database due to
increased opportunities for effective production as for instance correlations between various
geotechnical and geological parameters. The database will include information about:
• Projects
• Sites/wells/borings
• Geotechnical key test parameters
• Links to test data plots
• Index parameters
• Geological data (mineralogy from XRD, carbonate content, etc)

A=7.2 Na-Montmorillonite
100
90 A=0.9 Illite
80
Plasticity index, %

70
60
50
40 A=0.38 Kaolinite
30
20 Saksbehandler
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 Lab.personale

Clay content, %

Example of data correlation. Database prototype design

Databases
- Information system for geotechnical laboratory data

Background and objectives

Define information system (IS) for geotechnical laboratory data. The IS shall be the main system for
registration, administration, specification and presentation of laboratory data at NGI. This system
shall rationalise and standardise work processes in the laboratory, and improve data retrieval, for
clients and partners in a functional way. All elements in the dataflow from the moment a sample is
collected in the field, through test specification, testing and finally result presentation have been
mapped before specifying the system.

test ID spesification result report history

logging
automatization
processing

Description of data flow

Results and findings

The laboratory IS system must have the ability to:
• specify/order laboratory tests via intranet or internet
• register laboratory data
• retrieve data
– reproduce plots
– plot correlations
– group test results on optional criteria
• administrate test stockroom
– register test in/out of stock
– bar code system/LIMS
– test description

Performance specifications from all relevant user groups at NGI were obtained through interviews and
workshop.

Specification for the IS system have been established.

Databases
- Improved field monitoring

Background and objectives

Improve techniques to monitor and detect geohazards.

Results and findings

Field monitoring stations that automatically transfer data
to databases have been established. The content in the
databases are checked and transferred to end-users and
clients using GIS- and WEB-solutions.

Battery-driven data loggers (Rio or Campbell) for

collecting field measurements are included. The loggers
transfer data from sea bed via ROV or umbilical to the
communication centre by using satellite technology or
GSM connection to onshore station.

The transfer of field data takes place automatically in

given intervals. Data are displayed in an extranet WEB-
solution which is protected by password. This solution
gives possibility for quality control of data, calibration
adjustments; check of hardware and errors as well as
publishing data to external users.

A simplified solution for showing the different sensors

with geographical position is included. The user can
move rapidly to the desired position. The digital map
shows the sensor within an area and indicates if a sensor is
in operation or not.

External users may view and approve published data.

Collected data for each sensor are shown together with
alarm for a specified time interval. Comparisons with
other relevant data are possible.
Databases
- Slides and offshore geohazards

Background and objectives

Studies on avalanches and slides require a register (database) for documentation. Important
information is when and where the slide occurred. However, scientists need more information for
further studies such as type of slide, size, damage caused and release mechanisms. Today there is no
such centralized database for slide events in Norway. Slide events are registered locally
unsystematically from different persons and institutions. The aim of the project has been to develop a
database for all types of slides. The project is coordinated together with NGU which administrates the
web site www.skrednett.no.

To provide a tool for collecting and summarising sediment information that it is relevant for offshore
geohazard evaluations, research at ICG and within the EUROMARGINS project, as well as other NGI
projects. The objective has been to have a database that can be linked to other databases at NGI.

Results and findings

A slide database containing meta-
data such as; who has registered a
slide, who has observed the slide,
and the accuracy of the registration
has been established. Classification
criteria for all type of slides, from
submarine to large rock falls have
been developed. The different snow
types are defined in an international
snow classification chart. Several
thousand avalanche registrations
exist in Norway today. All of this
data will be collected and
Geometry of a snow avalanche. Graphical illustrations like this will be
administrated in a secure and included in the registration of the database to allow the user to input data
systematic database during the next easily.
year. The finalised database will be
available for the user through the internet. In this way, anyone can register a slide observed in the
nature. The registered slides will be visible on a map, thus allowing the slide activity during the past
week for example to be visualised. In combination with hazard zoning maps, this slide database will
give valuable information for different users such as road/rail road authorities, communities as well as
for anyone that may need this type of information.

The offshore geohazard database was constructed by using Microsoft Access. Data from the mid-
Norwegian margin has been entered in the database.
Physical processes
- Gas migration mechanisms

Shallow gas may influence the stability of the sediments and cause difficulties in
drilling operations. Basic mechanisms for gas flow and migration in shallow
sediments have been identified and possible methods to simulate gas flow and
migration have been investigated.

Background and objectives

Shallow gas related to offshore geohazards is most often located in the upper 500 m below the seabed.
The gas may influence the stability of the sediments. Thus locating the gas is important for planning
and execution of several offshore activities.
Shallow gas may cause difficulties particularly
during drilling operations because it can be
encounteredin the drilling locations without
casing and blow-out preventer. Drilling into an
over-pressured zone may result in unstable
wellbore and blow-outs. The primary
objective of this study has been to identify the
basic mechanisms for gas flow and migration
in shallow sediments and investigate possible Gas leakage from a pressurized and permeable sand layer in
methods to simulate gas migration and flow. i i it f ff h i t ll ti

Results and findings

A literature review related to shallow gas migration, modelling techniques and detection methods has
been conducted. The condition of the gas in
sediments depends primarily on formation
temperature, pore pressure and gas
saturation. The resulting state of gas is either
free gas, dissolved gas or gas hydrates.
Gassy sediments often contain a
combination of all three states. Mechanisms
for gas transport can be divided into four
different categories; Dispersion and
diffusion of dissolved gas, Darcian two-
phase flow, Dilatancy controlled gas flow,
Gas transport in tensile fractures. Darcian
two-phase gas flow has been modelled by Simulation of water displacing gas.
finite element simulations using Comsol
Multiphysics (Femlab). The result of a simulation at a particular time step is shown on the right. The
figure illustrates a region with high gas saturation (yellow–green) surrounded by formation saturated
with water (red). The gas is being pushed through the permeable layer in the centre, as water is
flowing from the left to the right boundary. The green arrows indicate the flow velocity.
Physical processes
- Pore pressure during sedimentation

Reliable prediction of the pore pressure distribution in the sediments is essential

when evaluating slide hazard. Pore pressure build-up depends on the
sedimentation process.
Background and objectives
A key factor in evaluating the slide hazard is the ability to make reliable predictions of the pore
pressure distribution in the sediments. The pore pressure is a function of the sea bottom topography,
layering of the sediments, rate of sedimentation, thickness of the sediments, and previous landslide
history, among others.
The aim of this study has been to perform one- and two-dimensional subsea sedimentation to study
effects on pore pressure build up of horizontal water flow caused by an inclined seabed.

Results and findings

A one-dimensional numerical tool, Basin-1D, has
been developed to make such predictions. To better
account for layering, sea-bottom topography and
two-dimensional pore-pressure dissipation, to
expand Basin-1D to two dimensions, that is called
Basin-2D. The differential equations have been
established, the finite element model for a single
element was formulated and issues related to
treatment of boundary conditions and modelling the
process of sedimentation have been addressed. The
commercially available finite element code PLAXIS
was used to perform the two-dimensional analysis.
It was found that PLAXIS has all features necessary to carry out one and two dimensional
sedimentation analyses, but some user experience with PLAXIS that consolidation analyses is
advantageous to avoid numerical problems during analyses. Model
comparisons between PLAXIS and Basin-1D were performed, and a
user’s guide to run sedimentation analyses in PLAXIS was established.

Model of sedimentation process.

Red colour symbolise layers
already sedimented Yellow colour
in layers currently under
sedimentation and blue colour in
layers to be sedimented.
Physical processes
- Material instability and development of slides

A progressive failure mechanism in natural slopes with soft, sensitive clays with
strain-softening behaviour has been successfully modelled and found to promote
long-scale failures.
Background and objectives
Slope stability is conventionally investigated by using some form of limiting-equilibrium method,
assuming perfectly-plastic material behaviour. However, many soil materials (such as sensitive soft
clay) may display strain-softening (i.e. a decrease of shear strength with further deformation after a
peak strength has been reached). Strain-softening is known to have a negative effect on stability due to
the progressive failure development. The objective of this study has been to investigate progressive
failure in slide mechanism for a long natural slope.

Results and findings

A soil model (ANISOFT) that takes into account anisotropy and strain-softening is implemented as a
"user defined" model in the finite element program PLAXIS 8.1. The model has been used to study the
effects of progressive failure for a wide range of cases.
Shear stress, τ / τp

τp

τ0 τ (x )
τr

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Distance along clay layer (m)
Simulation of progressive failure in a long natural slope

Progressive failure affects both the necessary load to initiate a slide and the failure mechanism.
Progressive failure has a negative effect on stability by reducing the necessary load for initiation of the
failure compared to that of a perfectly plastic material with the same peak strength. Furthermore, it is
found that progressive failure may promote large scale failures.
Physical processes
- Progressive failure in soft clay

Soft sensitive clays may fail progressively. Shear bands with strain
concentration develops during such failure. An interface element has been
developed to model this behaviour and successfully implemented in PLAXIS.
Background and objectives
Shear bands with strain concentration develops
during progressive failures. To be able to model
the phenomenon numerically with the finite
element method, an interface element may be used
to capture shear strain localisation. A critical input
parameter to the numerical analyses using the
interface element is the shear band thickness.
Using directly the shear stress-shear strain curve
obtained from laboratory tests as input, the
capacity (peak load) is decreasing with decreasing
shear band thickness. For a shear band thickness
of some few millimetres, the capacity can be as
low as the capacity corresponding to the residual
strength.
Figure 1 Stress - strain relationships in shear
bands
Results and findings
A finite thickness interface element for modelling shear strain localisation has been developed and
successfully implemented in PLAXIS (see Figure 1). The use of this element has been demonstrated
by an example of a downward progressive failure in a slope. The failure was initiated by the
construction of a fill near the crest of the slope as illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Critical failure mechanism for perfectly-plastic and strain-softening clay slope.
In order to estimate the shear band thickness, a hypothesis where the shear band thickness is governed
by the loading rate is studied. The time dependent mechanisms are local pore water flow (dissipation
from the shear band) and time induced shear deformation (visco-plastic strain or creep). The input to
the numerical analyses is obtained from undrained shear tests with varying shear strain rates (see
Figure 3). The local pore pressure dissipation is governed by the constrained unloading modulus and
the permeability. The main conclusion from this study is that a unique rate dependent shear band
thickness is obtained in the first part of the strain softening branch (see Figure 4). For typical
deformation rates, the shear strain localisation with development of a very thin shear bands at the peak
strength is prevented this is achieved by pore pressure dissipation to the neighbouring zones and
increased shear strength with increasing strain rate (see Figure 3).

35 35
30
Shear stress (kPa) 30
Shear stress (kPa)

25 25
20 20
15 15
1%/hr 1%/hr
10 10%/hr 10
10%/hr
5 Varying rate (1 and 10%/hr) 5 Varying rate
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 50 100 150
Shear strain (%) Vertical stress (kPa)

Figure 3 Increasing shear strength due to increased strain rate. Obtained by a visco elasto-plastic model.

Example calculations without visco-plastic strain

3
S h e a r b a n d th ic k n e s s (c m )

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Applied shear strain rate, dH/L (%)

Figure 4 Calculated shear band thickness without visco-plastic strain

Physical processes
- Earthquake response analysis

The computational model NonSSI (Non-linear Soil-Structure Interaction) was

developed to improve the seismic analysis of structures.
Background and objectives
The soil-structure interaction (SSI) analysis of large structures, is often performed using spring-dashpot elements
to represent the stiffness and damping properties of the soil-foundation system (Figure 1). In most cases, only the
horizontal foundation spring is non-linear; it is therefore, an important issue for these models the possibility of
defining realistic force-displacement relationships for the foundation spring. The objective of this research has
been to develop a general computational model for the seismic analysis of the SSI system shown in Figure 1
using different nonlinear force-displacement relationships for the horizontal spring.
0.2
Accel. (g)

0.1
0
-0.1
-0.2
N on-linear 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (sec.)
horizontal
spring S chem atic
structural m odel
Force

R ocking spring

V ertical spring
0.4
Accel. (g)

0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
0 10 20 30 40 50 D is p l a c e m e n t
Time (sec.)

Fig. 1 – Key features of computational model NonSSI Fig. 2 – Nonlinear force-displacement in horizontal spring

Results and findings

The computational model NonSSI (Non-linear Soil-Structure Interaction) was developed. The structure in this
model consists of beam elements with concentrated masses. While the vertical and rocking springs are
considered linear, the horizontal spring is represented by a multi-surface kinematic hardening model. Figure 2
shows the hysteristic response of this spring during a loading/unloading cycle. In addition, a simple strain-
softening spring model has been implemented in NonSSI. Plots of an example response for this spring is shown
in Figure 3. Another spring model which is under implementation is the model shown in Figure 4 which
represents the dilatant response of saturated sand under large displacements. One of the key aspects of this model
is its small hysteristic damping in cyclic response.

8.0E+008

4.0E+008
Shear force (N)

0.0E+000

-4.0E+008

-8.0E+008

-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

Displacement (m)

Fig. 3 Force-displacement in strain-softening spring Fig. 4 Dilatant spring model

Physical processes
- Material model for earthquake loading
Background and objectives
In soil-structure interaction (SSI) analysis of heavy
structures on loose to medium dense sand or silt, it is
important to have a material model that describes the
key features of the soil under cyclic loading. These
features are; 1) Pore pressure development with
increasing number of cycles and a corresponding
reduction in the cyclic stiffness, 2) A “banana”
shaped shear stress – shear strain hysteresis loop
under large pore pressure build-up, where the Fig. 1 Typical shear stress – shear strain loops
tangential stiffness is lowest at low shear stresses for loose to medium dense sand
(Figure 1).

Results and findings

A material model based on the framework of hypoplasticity was evaluated. The stiffness is governed
by the present void ratio compared to the stress dependent maximum and minimum void ratios (i.e.
current relative density) and the current stress state (i.e. mean effective stress and maximum shear
stress). The phase shift from contractant to dilatant behaviour is controlled by the void ratio at the
critical state (i.e. the state where the tangential shear stiffness is zero). The model also describes the
different behaviours during loading and unloading, with contractance during unloading after dilatant
behaviour during loading (Figure 2). This characteristic behaviour is not described properly by models
based on elasto-plasticity, where the initial unloading branch is elastic. The main short-coming of the
model is the reloading phase. The model does not contain any information about the stress history and
therefore the behaviour during reloading is as for virgin loading at this state. This short-coming has
been improved by including inter-granular strains that describes the deformations at the interfaces
between the grains.

40
40

30
30
20
20
(kPa)

10
H (kPa)

10
0
0
-10
-10
-20
-20
-30
0 20 40 60 80 100 -30

σV' (kPa) -1.5 -1 -0.5 0

γ (%)
0.5 1 1.5

Fig. 2 Effective stress path for strain controlled un- Fig. 3 Shear stress–shear strain loops for strain controlled
drained cyclic DSS test calculated by a standard undrained cyclic DSS test calculated by a standard
Numerical methods
- Tsunami analysis

Submarine slides may generate tsunamis. Tsunamis generated from submarine

mass movements are often modelled with fixed shape slide block as a source.
However, submarine slides like the Storegga slide, develop during a continuous
retrogressive process. A computer program capable of calculating tsunami
surface elevations caused by a variety of submarine slide sources, i.e. fixed
shaped slides, deformable slides and retrogressive slides has been developed.

Background and objectives

Develop a computer program capable of calculating tsunami surface elevations caused by a variety of
submarine slide sources, i.e.
fixed shaped slides,
deformable slides and
retrogressive slides.
Tsunamis have previously
been modelled with the
assumption of fixed shape
slide block as a source.
Today, it is believed that
some submarine slides like
Storegga, develop during a
continuous retrogressive
process involving strain
softening soils. An important
issue is therefore the ability to
model and analyse the
initiation and propagation of
tsunamis that are related to
retrogressive slide sources. Effect of dispersion on surface elevation

Results and findings

The work is based on an analytical model developed by Steven Ward, and implemented to predict
tsunami surface elevations on simple 2D bathymetries. This model has been used to analyse effects on
the tsunami from different slide characteristics such as length, frontal area, acceleration and velocity.
The results have been compared with a numerical 3D model. The results from the 2D analytical model
confirm the results from other models using fixed shaped slide blocks. The 2D analytical model show
that dispersion effects on surface elevation are small for typical slide velocities of submarine slides
(see figure). It is shown how the slide acceleration controls the build-up of the wave, and that the slide
length governs the total time the wave build-up will last. Modelling the tsunami source from
retrogressive slides has been started, and the first results show that the many similarities with models
using fixed shaped slide sources.
Numerical methods
- Slide dynamics. Modelling tools
Numerical simulation of submarine mass flow is essential when evaluating slide
consequences. The computational fluid dynamics code CFX has been tailor-
made to model submarine slides in strain softening material and is set up to
model turbidity currents. Other computer codes have been tested to model slide
dynamics with different types of material.
Background and objectives
Using the computational dynamics code
CFX4 as an enhanced tool for numerical
simulation on mass flows, it strengthens
“best practise” method in geohazards
slide risk assessment studies. For
submarine slide applications it is
important to gain an in-depth
understanding of the different phases
during the development and break-up
mechanism of slides and their
interaction with the ambient fluid.
Another important motivation for the
work is to increase the NGI expertise in
modelling slides of various types
offshore as well as onshore. Another
idea is to discover and explore
similarities between various slide types
and different approaches. Existing slide
models/tools have been evaluated and
the NIS rheology has been improved Overview of the CFX-4 input and output file hierarchy. Red lines indicate the
with respect to handle more granular components from CFX4 which are primarily used by NGI. The blue lines show the
types of flow. external post-processing components

Results and findings

User-defines FORTRAN routines for different kind of mass flows for CFX4 have been developed and
applied. Post-processing methods for the evaluations of consequences of slides/mass flows have been
developed. The post-processing tools are based on OpenDX, i.e., analysis of the results, by means of
visualization using graphs, contour lines etc. In transient problems, animations are used as an
important tool to get a better understanding of flow problems.
Models for submarine slides (mudslide for clay-rich soils with strain softening rheology, turbidity-
current with two erosion models to chose) have been applied. Snowdrift with the possibility of
external forcing and nesting with meso-scale weather model and calculations have also been
implemented. The strain softening visco-plastic flow model reproduces impressively well a
retrogressive sliding mechanism. The figures below give an example of the computational fluid
dynamic analyses. The flow shows the formation of shear bands with concentrated strain softening
along the base and behind the frontal toe wedges of nearly intact material. At the initial stage, the
modeled behavior is in close agreement with the finite element analyses of a slope with a strain
softening layer. The dynamic wedge model is adapted for explanation of the Storegga slide as an
example as a retrogressive slide process. Theoretical work on rheology for different granular type of
slides has been done. CFX has been tested by calculating impact forces on pipes.

Computational fluid dynamic analyses of a submarine slide in strain softening clay: Shear strength, sensitivity, and velocity

Titan2D, a model developed by the University of Buffalo is based on Savage-Hutter rheology, was
tested in case study on the Åkneset slide (Norway) (see figure below). Similar tests are performed with
the particle flow code, PFC3D. The figure below shows test runs for a simple topography.

Simulation with Titan2D from GMFG, University of Buffalo, for a case at Åkneset. Shown is the velocity 35 s after release (left).
Snapshot from PFC3D simulation for a simplified geometry (right)
Numerical methods
- Erosion mechanisms
Background and objectives
Identification of possible mass erosion mechanisms in gravity-driven flows.

Results and findings

The proposed erosion mechanisms are classified according to their spatial position within the slide and
the flow regimes in which they occur.
As an example, for a class of gravity-driven flows, with relevance to natural geohazards, snow
avalanches are chosen and it clearly shows the importance of erosion for the flow dynamics. It also
demonstrates the relevance of the material properties at the interface between the slide and slip
surface. The former example is considered since it is possible to compare the proposed mechanisms
with field measurements and observations. Process-specific models are proposed for erosion by
impacts, abrasion, plowing, and blasting. Comparison between model prediction and observations has
shown good agreement.

Impact erosion

Erosion mechanisms – snow avalanche.

Wood engraving by H. Scheufelelein in the Theuerdank 1517
Numerical methods
- Slushflow model
Background and objectives
Slushflows - flowing mixtures of snow and water - constitute a natural hazard especially in higher
latitudes, i.e., Norway, Iceland, or Alaska. The combination of high density and mobility of the
slushflows, can transform them to be highly destructive.
Results and findings
A slushflow model that considers the slushflow and the ambient air as a two-phase flow is presented.
Air is assumed as a continuous gas-phase and slush is assumed as a dispersed multi-component “fluid”
consisting of snow clods and water. The rheological model of a non-Newtonian fluid is used to
describe the behaviour of the slush and includes visco-plastic and granular effects. The yield strength
is assumed to depend on the snow density and the water content. The viscosity of the water and air
component is estimated by using the Krieger and Doughert expression for a suspension of snow in
water and snow in air, respectively. For the turbulent closure the Smagorinsky LES model is used.

As a case study, the model is run for the slushflow event in Patreksfjörđur, Iceland, on 22 January,
1983. Comparison between field observations and numerical modelling are in reasonable good
agreement.

Simulated maximum dynamic pressure; slushflow simulation with CFX4. Left panel, disregarding the interaction with the
snowpack and, right panel, including interaction
Analysis methods
- Visualisation of slides

Slide visualization technique is a powerful tool, which helps to gain in-depth

understanding of the problem and to give elaborated answers to questions. Slide
visualization techniques help to simplify numerical analysis and improve the
interpretation.
Background and objectives
Presentation of slide visualisation possibilities in order to present results from slide models to a client,
facilitate the pre-processing needed to initialise numerical models and assist in the developing phase of
numerical models.

Results and findings

The NIS model - a numerical code used in slide risk assessment – was further developed and coupling
it with slide visualisation techniques was investigated.

Combined presentation of data bank information with model results and final mitigation measures.

Presentation of model results

Analysis methods
- GIS applications 6980800
Fyllinger

6980700

6980600
Background and objectives 6980600
694700 694800 694900 695000 695100 695200 695300 695400

Take advantage of bathymetry data to: 6980500

• visualise results from 694600 694700 694800 694900 695000 695100 695200 695300 695400 695500

offshore site Rock fill

investigations
• optimise the interface
between terrain model
and calculation
programs

Integrate presentation of
geotechnical data with
other site specific data (geological, geophysical, etc)

Results and findings

It is recommended to use special modules for
visualisation of 3D data integrated with GIS-systems.
• Data from site investigations should be stored
in database to simplify presentation and
visualisation
• Seabed maps/bathymetric maps can easily be
used to show localisation of borings/soundings
and subsea installations
• Parameter variation may of water content for
example, shear strength etc, may be illustrated
by using colour intensity scales
• Snapshots of 3D models with points or bars as
shown in the figure below may be used
• Snapshots of 3D models with interpreted soil layering may be used
• Sections from 3D models with interpolated values are possible
Analysis methods
- Risk management

The objective was to develop a unified and user-friendly framework and use it in
practice to illustrate its application for different problems. A detailed study was
prepared for the analysis of an underwater slope. To simplify communications, a
glossary of terms, today accepted worldwide, was developed.

Background

Risk management is an integrated and iterative

process, including danger identification, hazard
assessment, consequence/elements at risk
identification, vulnerability assessment, risk
quantification/estimation, risk evaluation and risk
management.
There are two types of approach in risk assessment,
a qualitative and a quantitative approach. In qualita-
tive risk assessment, the components of risk are
expressed verbally and the final result is in terms of
ranked or verbal risk levels.
Quantitative risk assessment involves quantification
of landslide risk components and computation of
risk from these components. The quantitative risk
assessment frameworks proposed in the literature
have the common objective of answering the
following questions:
1 What are the probable dangers/problems? [Danger
Identification]
2 What would be the magnitude of dangers/
problems? [Hazard Analysis]
3 What are the consequences and/or elements at
risk? [Consequence/Elements at Risk Identifica-
tion]
4 What might be the degree of damage in elements
at risk? [Vulnerability Analysis]
Figure 1 NORSOK Z-013 standard (2001)
5 What is the probability of damage? [Risk
Quantification/Estimation]
6 What is the significance of estimated risk? [Risk Evaluation]
7 What should be done? [Risk Management]

In the Norwegian petroleum sector, the NORSOK Z-013 standard considers safety management and
risk control (Fig. 1). This NORSOK standard presents requirements for the planning, execution and
use of risk analysis.

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Results
The following results were achieved:
• A glossary of risk assessment terms was completed, and adopted worldwide
• Two state-of-the-art papers on risk assessment and management was prepared and presented
internationally (includes underwater slope instability).
• A framework for integrated risk assessment in practice was developed (Fig. 2).
• Case studies to illustrate and expand the framework were prepared:
o Risk assessment of the Oppstadhornet slope
o Risk assessment of offshore geohazards at Ormen Lange (especially slope instability).
• The components of the framework were studied and documented in detail:
o Probabilistic stability analysis for individual slopes in soil and rock
o Literature study on landslide hazard zonation
o State-of-the-art on seismic hazard analysis with emphasis on ground motion models
o Literature study on vulnerability in relation to risk management of natural hazards and
elements at risk
o Literature review of acceptable and tolerable risk and considerations of societal
aspects and comparison of risk curves (f-N curves) for 8 countries.

Data
Collection

Hazard
Analysis

Consequence
Analysis

Vulnerability
Analysis

Risk Assessment
(Risk Analysis +
Risk Evaluation)

Figure 2 Generalized Integrated Risk Assessment Framework (GIRAF)

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