7 IT section

1 network administration section

2 soft ware development

7.1 Network administration

Network
A network is a group of interconnected systems sharing ser vices and interacting
by means of a shared communications link. A network, therefore, requires two or
more individual systems with something to share (data). The individual systems
must be connected through a physical pathway (called the trans- mission
medium). All systems on the physical pathway must follow a set of common
communication rules for data to arrive at its in- tended destination and for the
sending and receiving systems to understand each other. The rules that govern
computer communication are called protocols.

Every network includes:

• At least two computers
• A network interface on each computer (the device that lets the computer talk to
the network—usually called

a network interface card [NIC] or adapter)

• A connection medium—usually a wire or cable, but wireless communication
between networked computers and peripherals is also possible
• Network operating system software—such as Microsoft Windows 95 or
Windows NT, Novell NetWare, AppleShare, or Artisoft LANtastic
Most networks—even those with just two computers—also have a hub or a
switch to act as a connection point between the computers.
.
Networks come in all shapes and sizes. Network administrators often classify
networks according to geographical size. Networks of similar size have many
similar characteristics, The most common size classifications are the following:

1 Local area networks (LANs)

2 Wide area networks (WANs)

Each of these size classifications is described in the following sections.

Local Area Networks (LANs)

A local area network (LAN) is a group of computers and network communication

devices interconnected within a geographically limited area, such as a building or
campus. A LAN tends to use only one type of transmission medium—cabling.
LANs are characterized by the following:
• They transfer data at high speeds.
• They exist in a limited geographical area.
• Their technology is generally less expensive
• Their technology is generally less expensive.

Wide Area Networks (WANs)

A wide area network (WAN) interconnects LANs. A WAN may be located entirely
within a state or country, or it may be interconnected around the world.
WANs are characterized by the following:

• They exist in an unlimited geographical area.

• They are more susceptible to errors due to the distances data travels
• They interconnect multiple LANs.
• They are more sophisticated and complex than LANs.
 • Their technology is expensive
A local area network is a communication network confined to a small area, such
as a single floor, building or a small cluster of buildings. The factors considered in
a LAN are topology and medium of the network.
Following are the most commonly used LAN topologies.
(1) Bus Topology
In this topology the computers are connected to a common media as shown in
the diagram below. Taps

Taps

Figure Bus Topology

Since all devices share a common communication media, only a single pair of
devices on the bus can communicate at a time.

(2) Ring Topology

In this architecture computers are interconnected in a ring as shown below.

Ring Topology
This ring may be constructed using multiple point to point links or using a
shareable bus.
(3) Star Topology
This popular topology is a variation of bus topology. However the computers are
physically arranged in a star fashion around a device called hub.

Figure 2.3 Star Topology

♦ LAN Reference Model

There are two standards for LAN defined by IEEE.802 recommendations and
ISO reference model. There are four layers for IEEE. 802. Those are logical link
control, medium access control, physical layer and transmission medium. There
are three layers for ISO reference model. Those are Data link layer, physical
layer and transmission medium.

♦ MAC (Medium Access Control)

Since LANs are broadcasting networks, all stations can access to the media. If
there is
no proper control of access the LAN cannot effectively operated. Therefore
media access Should be controlled properly. This process is called the Media
Access Control. The major functionality of this MAC layer is to device a proper
method to allocate the broadcast channel among several computers avoiding the
collision as much as possible.
The most popularly used MAC protocols defined by the IEEE.
-IEEE 802.3: CSMA/CD
 -IEEE 802.4: Token Bus
-IEEE 802.5: Token Ring
♦ Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
When a station has data to send, it first listns to the channel to see if anyone else
is transmitting. If channel is busy the station waits until it goes idle otherwise it
transmits immediately. If two or more stations simultaneously begin transmitting
on an idle cable, those frames will collide. Then all colliding stations terminate
their transmission and wait a random time period and repeat the whole process
all over again.
The propagation delay has an important effect on the performance of the
protocol. There is a small chance that just after a station begins sending, another
station will become ready to send and sense the channel. If the first station’s
signal has not yet reached the second one, the latter will sense an idle channel
and will also begin sending. This leads the channel to a collision state. The
longer the propagation delay the worse is the performance of the protocol.
♦ Ethernet
If the topology is bus and the MAC is CSMA/CD it is called an Ethernet.

(1). Token Bus (IEEE 802.4)

Physically the token bus is a linear cable in to which the stations are attached.
Logically these stations are organized into a ring as illustrated in the diagram
below, with each station knowing the addresses of the stations are organized into
a ring as illustrated in the diagram below, with each station knowing the address
of the station to its ‘left’ and ‘right’.
Figure 2.4 Token Buses

This station is not Currently in the logical Ring

When the ring is initialized, stations are inserted into the logical ring in order of
station address, from highest to lowest. A special control packet known as token
propagates around this logical ring, with only the token holder being permitted to
transmit frames.
The token holder can transmit frames for a certain amount time and then it
pauses the token to its neighbour. If the station has no data to be sent it passes
the token to the next station immediately. Since only one station at a time holds
the token, collisions do not occur in this algorithm.

(2). Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)

This standard was defined for the networks with ring topology. In this standard
special bit pattern called the token circulates around the ring whenever all
stations are idle. When a station wants to transmit a frame, it is required to seize
the token. Only the token holder is permitted to transmit a frame over the
channel. This standard also solves the collision problem as the token bus.
This also has the facility to prioritize the token. That is, different stations can have
own priority level which is defined by a control station called monitor.
A station wishing to transmit must wait for a free token with the existing priority is
less than the required priority. If this is not satisfied it reserves the token to its
required priority.
If the token priority is same as the set priority it seizes the token and transmits
the normal data frame. After completion of sending data it releases the token with
priority same as reserved priority.

♦ Collision Domain
Collision domain is define as a single network with all workstations and repeaters
Interconnected together without switches, bridges, and routers.
Issues to be considered in designing a LAN
•Number of servers required in the network environment
•Type of activities of each server
•Number of workstations
•Number of users
•Geographical location of users
•How the computational activities are geographically located
•Information of existing LANs

WIDE AREA NETWORKS (WAN)

If the computers are far away it is not practicable to connect them by using a
physical wire like in LAN. In this case an existing network can be used to
establish a connection. As example public switched telephone Network (PSTN).

A
B

Figure 2.5 PSTN and WAN

 Terminal /Work station
Node

If PSTN is used, the telephone is removed at one point and a computer and
modem is connected instead. The computer dialed the destination telephone
number and establishes the link.

2.2.3 INTERNETWORKING
The LANs also have different types such as Ethernet and Token Ring. In actual
environment all types exist together and information flows from one to other. For
this purpose the networks are to be connected by using interfaces. This is called
Internetworking and the interface device is called Internetworking and the
interface device is called Internetworking Device.
The main function of the internetworking device will be,
• Establishment of a physical link between the two networks to be
interconnected.
•Routing and delivery of data between different devices.
When interconnection of two similar types of LANs, the frame structure
and MAC method is similar. The function of the internetworking device is to
check the destination is in which LAN Workstation and direct the frame
accordingly.

♦ BRIDGE
The bridge is an internetworking device, which is designed to interconnect two
LANs, which use identical protocols for the physical layer and MAC layer.
The main functions of the bridge is,
•Read all frames transmitted on A, and accept those addressed to DTEs on B.
•Using MAC protocol for B, retransmit frames onto B.
•Do the same to the traffic from B to A.
Internetworking of different type of networks
The LAN protocols are different. The MAC method is different and the frame
structure is different. If the protocols are different the internetworking should
operate at Logical link layer. Such a device is called router.

♦ ROUTER
The main functions of the router is conversion of frame formats at layer3 level
and route
the packets based on the logical destination address.

♦ GATEWAY
Gateways translate messages between dissimilar networks that employ different
higher level protocols. A gateway may operate from the transport layer through
the application layer.

♦ HUB
Hub is a device operating at physical layer level, which regenerates and
distributes the incoming signal on every outgoing line as illustrated in the diagram
below.

Figure Hub
♦ EATHERNET SWITCH
Ethernet switch is a device, which separates a larger network into several sub
networks.
This avoids the flow of Ethernet packets into the unintentional segments of the
LAN.
Hence the overall network traffic can be efficiently controlled to improve the
network
Performance. In particular, the data packets that are addressed to a workstation
in the same segment should not traverse through the entire network
unnecessarily. Only those
Packets that are intended to outside workstations are filtered while the packets
addressed
to local workstations are kept within that segment. This avoids the unnecessary
clogging
of other segments of the network.

♦ MEDIA CONVERTERS
When interconnecting two types of media, for example UTP and fiber optic
cables, a media converter has to be placed in between these two media. The
direct connectivity is not possible due to the differences of signaling systems.
Therefore, the media converter
Should convert the signaling system of one media to that of another.

♦ TERMINATORS
The coaxial cable based bus networks must be terminated with proper
terminators to avoid the signal reflection. The terminators should be chosen such
that the impedance of the terminators matches characteristic impedance of the
cable. For example 50Ω cables must be terminated with 50Ω terminators.
 Training experience at network administration section.
• Training session
There was training session organized and we able to arrange some extra training
session from the network division and they given us knowledge how TCP/IP
configuration server management and security management is done in a large
network

• Configuration of routers, switches and firewalls

Configuration of router and switch include understanding and gaining practical
knowledge in putting router in the necessary place in the network and configure
Cisco internet work operating system

list of command of Cisco IOS attach as an appendix

Requirement functionality and configuration of fire wall in networked
environment. Important of security in a real commercial network and how to
protect such network form outside attacks and also inside failures.
 • Configuration of windows 2000 severs
We was able setup a network domain in our own at lankabell and we configure
the following components of window 2000 server
Configuration of window 2000 server include
Domain controller and additional domain controller and standalone servers
DHCP (dynamic host configuration protocol) server
DNS (domain name server) server
WINS server
IIS server
And also user account management and how those component fits in to network
environment

• Configuration of Linux server

Configuring send mail and Qmail servers
Configuring firewalls using Linux
Web servers on Linux

• Familiar with the Solaris environment