DOUBLE SKIN FACADES –

STRUCTURES AND BUILDING PHYSICS

O. Tenhunen1, K. Lintula2, T. Lehtinen3, J. Lehtovaara4, M. Viljanen3, J. Kesti1, P. Mäkeläinen1

1
Laboratory of Steel Structures
2
Building Technology, Department of Architecture
3
Laboratory of Structural Engineering and Building Physics
4
Lighting Laboratory
Helsinki University of Technology,
P.O.BOX 2100, FIN-02015 HUT, Finland

ABSTRACT

At the Helsinki University of Technology, an extensive research project entitled "Metal-Glass

Structures in Double Facades: Architecture, Lighting, Building Physics and Structural Performance"
has been started and will run during the years 2000-2002. The aim of the project is to develop design
and product development bases for metal-glass double-skin facade systems in order to ensure their
satisfactory performance in Nordic climate conditions. The research has been started with field
measurements for building physics phenomena and surveying of experiences in formerly built double-
skin facades. On the basis of this first study, the basic analysis will be carried out. In order to deal with
the structures in the further research, the double facades have been divided into functional models of
architectural design and building physics and into structural models based on support and stiffening
systems.

KEYWORDS

Double facade, double skin facade, metal glass facade, cityscape, corporate image

INTRODUCTION

The use of double skin facades has gained increasing popularity in recently designed office buildings.
This type of structure requires many-sided technical and architectural skills to get a faultless result.
The study has been divided between four research units: The Department of Architecture, The
Laboratory of Steel Structures and The Laboratory of Structural Engineering and Building Physics at
the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and The Lighting Laboratory at the
Department of Electrical and Communications Engineering. The study has been started with a 6 month
period for review based on realized buildings and for starting measurements. In the study, five
different architectural types of double facade structures have been chosen as the basis for further
research. Three types of double skin facades have been found from the point of view of building
physics. Measurements of temperature and humidity have been started. By studying existing structures
and interviewing designers and representatives of manufacturers and contractors in Finland, three
main types of supporting structure systems have been found. This study will be followed by more
detailed research during the years 2001-2002.

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

Persons working in buildings considered the possibilty to control the conditions of their own post
(lighting, temperature and air conditioning) to be of very high importance. The owners of the buildings
preferred objectives like long service life, technical and functional advantages and additional value of
good and developing place to work keeping in mind environmental conditions. The owners thought the
investments to double facade were worthwhile and considered it as the only solution for glass
buildings in northern circumstances. The double facade is an integral part of the complex and affects
the options and decisions in general design to fulfil functional requirements.

Based on the review, double facade systems have been divided into five functional models, see Figures
1 to 5. These extreme scenarios express the special characteristic of global competence in each
functional model. These are researched to find limits and barriers and thus a way to new innovations.
These scenarios present either existing buildings or architectural solutions looking into the future.

Figure 1: 2L-MoDulatoR, ”The rain coat” Figure 2: 2L-DefLectoR1, ”The northern

gives a long service life and clear benefits
in service costs. The inner facade may be
made of any material. The rain coat makes
it possible to use traditional materials in
a modern way avoiding uniform impression
of glass facade. Variation in facade materials
gives variation in cityscape and affects
”the corporate image” of the building.
This type perhaps will be the most common
double facade type because of relatively
low investments.
light” makes it possible to reflect day light and
control circumstances individually. Indirect
natural light can be maximized and reflections
irritating work by PC monitor minimized. The
need of electric light will be reduced and
service costs and energy saved. It allows more
natural working surroundings while a person’s
eye has been adjusted to act in daylight.
Figure 3: EnergiZeR, ”Environmental
consciousness” produces electricity for
local use and sells the rest to the common
network. Regulations in future may require
own energy resources in some degree.
The low light angle gives good possibilities
to utilize tecnical solutions based on PV
cells, which also work as a shade and
reduce heat load. Energy can be used in air
conditioning, lighting or electrically
heatable window glasses.
Figure 4: 2L-ReCreatoR, ”Cool buffer”
zone protects against weather and works
as a room for pause and temporary stay -
active forum in institutes. It is possible to
enjoy ”fresh air” several months longer
than outdoors. Room may enlarge to
gardens and oases with their own
atmosphere and micro climate. Air inlet
may be chosen from the best possible
direction depending on the sunshine.

Figure 5: 2L-ConVenteR, ”Green circle” creates its own specific micro climate. It changes carbon
dioxide into oxygen by assimilation. It creates a new kind of city park. It is possible to use it also as a
part of the fresh air intake. The vegetation may be implemented in zones of different atmospheres. This
is a way to solve problems of the local inside climate when emissions of cities and traffic are
increasing.
LIGHTING

Utilizing the daylight in room lighting, the daylight system located outside the windows has been
found most effective for directing the light inside and against glare and heat radiation. When the
daylight system is located in the intermediate air space outside the windows, the glass skin will protect
the system against weather. In summer the day is long, so the daylight can be used from the early
morning to the late evening as shown in Figure 6. In winter the solar altitude is very low, as shown in
Figure 7, and direct rays may cause intolerably high glare, so in offices facing south, the blinds have
been dropped down and the electric lights turned on. Modern control systems give an alternative for
this. Strips can be made to the outer glass skin by sand blasting or by painting. Several kinds of blinds
can be used to protect against straight sunshine, to project a part of the rays onto the ceiling and to
reflect the excessive part out. Service platforms and laser cut panels can serve as light controlling
shelves.

0:00
60
22:00
20:00 50
18:00
16:00 40
Degrees

14:00
30
Time

12:00 Sunset
10:00 Sunrise 20
8:00
6:00
10
4:00 0
2:00 1 31 61 91 121 151 181 211 241 271 301 331 361
0:00
1 31 61 91 121 151 181 211 241 271 301 331 361 Ju lian day
Max altitude 1 pm 11 am
Julian day
3 pm 9 am 5 pm

Figure 6: The times for sunrise and sunset Figure 7: The altitude of the sun in degrees
in Helsinki depending on the day of the year. in Helsinki depending on the time of the year
and the time of the day.

BUILDING PHYSICS

The following models according to the different physical functions can be found based on realised
buildings:
A. Double facade as a separate skin. The intermediate space has no or few openings indoors.
B. Double facade as a part of ventilation.
C. Combined functions. The intermediate space may be a part of passage or recreation place.

The first part of the building physical research consisted of 2-D modelling of the thermal behavior of
double skin facades type A and field measurements of an office building with nine floors. In the field
measurements the sensors were set on different heights and sides of the building. An example of
measured temperatures is shown in Figure 8.
Figure 8: Temperatures in the intermediate space at the south facade at the height of the 7th floor and
3rd floor. The lowest curve shows outdoor temperatures. Lowest outside temperature during the period
has been –20oC. The temperatures at 3rd floor in the intermediate space are near the outdoor
temperatures. This is partly due to the shadow of a neighbouring building.

Figure 8 gives an image of the temperature fluctuations of the double skin facades. The temperature
raise and drop of the intermediate space may be over 8°C per hour. A part of the temperature changes
are due to day-night outdoor air temperature fluctuation. A major part of the temperature changes is
caused by the surface temperature variations of the steel and glass structure against the intermediate
space due to solar heat radiation. E.g. in Figure 8 the intermediate space temperature in the 7th floor
was increased during a sunny day to a level of 5°C as outdoor temperature was at level –12°C. The
temperature fluctuation of the steel and glass structures causes deformations which are not equal in all
areas of a facade due to e.g. shadows of neighbouring buildings, view factor disunion and dimensions
of the intermediate space. This indicates that heat radiation absorption and emission of the steel and
glass structures affect not only the thermal behaviour of the building envelope but also the structural
design e.g joints and joint tolerances. Beside the heat radiation properties, the thermal capacity of the
structural layers against the intermediate space influence on the thermal behaviour of the envelopes,
see Figure 9.
Figure 9: An example of the division of masses, surfaces with different emissivities (A1/A2) and
ventilation systems with adjustable grilles and outlets affecting on to the physical behaviour of the
double skin facade. (The shadowed region and lines are drawn on a photograph of the field
measurement building.)

The first part of the research showed the high sensitivity of the double skin facades on thermal
radiation properties both in the mean of glass-steel structures and envelope building physical
behaviour. The building physical research will be continued with field measurements combined to
numerical studies.

STRUCTURES

Implemented structures have been reviewed. Designers, deliverers, manufacturers, erectors and main
contractors have been interviewed.

The intermediate space may be open from bottom to top. Vertical fire stops between fire sections have
been quite usual in the intermediate space. Usually all the normal floors in a certain area of a building
are included in one and same fire section. On the outer glass facade there are usually many expansion
joints that allow movement in the horizontal direction. Expansion joints which allow movements in the
vertical direction appear many times on each floor. Painted steel, hot dip galvanized steel, stainless
steel, weather-resistant steel and aluminium have been used for supporting structures. Aluminium is
light, corrosion resistant and easy to work accurately, but it has large coefficients of thermal expansion
and thermal conductivity and low elastic modulus and fire-resistance. Stainless steel is a long-life
material, easy to maintain and it has a good fire resistance, but its purchase price is somewhat high.
Hot dip galvanized steel is difficult to work at site and not very corrosion resistant, but economic as is
also painted steel. Weather-resistant steel can be used in only few subjects. Usually many different
metals have been used in one structure giving problems in heat expansion, deflection, staining,
corrosion, fasteners and maintenance.

Principles to choose glass types and glass systems have been examined. Very many types of glasses
and many different glass systems to attain same advantages have been used. The outmost glass has
been fully tempered, sometimes also laminated. In the triple-layered heat insulating glass units, used in
windows of the external wall, some glasses have been fully tempered either because of the heat shocks
of shadows or fire or because they have been used as a part of the safety balustrade. Usually the
insulating glass units have had one glass layer of coated low-emissivity glass to reflect heat radiation
from rooms back inside and excessive sun heat back outside. The outermost glass of the insulating unit
has also often been coated solar control glass to reflect the unwanted part of the sun spectra back
outwards. Electrically heatable glasses have also been used in some places. Body-tinted panes have not
been used. In contrary, glass panes free of iron oxide have been used in some cases, so that the light
inside were as neutral as possible. Many layers of thick iron oxide rich glass give a slightly greenish
nuance to the light. Some general rules would be useful for designing a structure that faultlessy fulfils
functional requirements.

The windows have sometimes been mounted in wall panels which are supported at the ends and reach
over the whole floor span. In cases where in practice the whole external wall has been glass, slender
metal frames have been supported on floor slabs.

For easier maintenance, service platforms have often been built in the intermediate space. Between the
platforms there has been rail or cable for workers to fix the safety belt. Maintenance in the open
intermediate space, where platforms are not possible, is done with hanging cradle. Maintenance
outside of glass skin is done either with hanging cradle or mobile crane.

Supporting frames in double skin facades used in Finland can be divided into three categories as
shown in Figure 10:
1. Supporting structure behind the outermost glass is a frame with stiff connections in joints of
stanchions and beams.
2. Outermost glass skin and service platform are supported on the bottom level or by a simple
cantilever beam.
3. Glass skin is suspended with rods and studs.
Horizontal supports and bracings have been used on every floor level.

Frame structure gives support for vertical edges of panes, but may feel a little bit massive. Separate
glass skin is light, but may be complicated. When clear glass panes have been used, architects have
preferred simple and slender structures, that do not mix the view or outlook.

Big tolerances of building frame have sometimes caused extra work. All joints should be relatively
adjustable, but also have a reasonable load capacity and stiffness. They should be easy to work in any
circumstances, corrosion resistant and economical. Slotted holes, rigging screws, shims, spacers,
toothed plates and site welding have been used. However, some readjustments and modifications may
have been done. A great amount of small assembly parts, heavy glass panes and on-site -glued sealants
may slow down the speed in erection works.
 -b-

-a- -c-
Figure 10: Categories of supporting structures in double skin facades:
Frame (-a-), cantilever (-b-) and suspended skin (-c-).

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Five functionally different double-skin models have been found and chosen as a basis for further
research. Furthermore, based on building physics, three kinds of systems have been detected.
Classification is based on the utilization degree of the double facade in the ventilation. Some
temperature and humidity measurements have been done and big and quick variations in the
intermediate space have turned up. After studying implemented double skin facades three, different
supporting structure types have been found. Furthermore, many kinds of glass systems have been used.
Tolerances between the main frame and the facades are usually the most demanding challenges in the
building site. The further research will be based on the above mentioned models and types. The
purpose is to produce guidelines for design and development of a high quality technical standard to get
a structural system that faultlessy fulfils functional requirements.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The project is financed by National Technology Agency, Finnish companies Rautaruukki Oyj, Avesta
Polarit OyjAbp, Stalatube Oy, Nordic Aluminium Oyj, Purso Oy, Tamglass Oy, Teräselementti Oy,
Rostek Oy, H.J.Tuominen Oy and The Finnish Constructional Steelwork Association and Häme
Polytechnic. Consulting Engineers Malmberg Magnus Oy, Finnmap Consulting Oy, Oy Matti Ollila &
Co and Granlund Olof Oy, Laurea Polytechnic and many producers, manufacturers and contractors
have helped with their expertise and design documents. These financing and expertise supports are
here gratefully acknowledged.