TRANSISTOR ACTION OR WORKING OF

JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

(a) p-n-p Transistor:

The emitter base junction is forward biased. It means the
positive pole of emitter base battery V is connected to emitter,
and its negative pole to the base. Collector base junction is
reversed biased i.e. the negative pole to the base.
The resistance of emitter base junction is very low. So the
voltage of Vbb is quite small. The resistance of collector base
junction is very high. So the voltage of Vcc is quite large. Holes
which are majority carriers in emitter (p-type semiconductor)
are repelled towards base by positive potential on emitter due
to battery VBB, resulting emitter current Ie. The base being thin
and lightly doped (n-type semiconductor) has number density
of electrons. When holes enter the base region, then only a
few holes (say 5%) get neutralized by the electron-hole
combination, resulting base current 16 (=5% Ie=0.05Ie). The
remaining 95% holes pass over the collector on account of high
negative potential of collector due to battery Vcc resulting
collector current Ie (=95%Ie=0.95Ie).

As one hole reaches the collector, it is neutralized by the flow

of one electron from the negative terminal of battery Vbb to
collector through connecting wire. At the same time a covalent
bond is broken in the emitter, the electron goes to the positive
terminal of the battery VBB through connecting wires and hole
produced begins to move towards base.
Then one electron flows from negative terminal of battery VBB
to positive terminal of battery Vcc. When the hole coming from
 emitter combines with the electron in base, the deficiency of
electron in base is compensated by the flow of electron from
negative terminal of battery VBB to the base through
connecting wire. Thus the current in p-n-p transistor is carried
by holes and at the same time, their concentration is
maintained. However, in the external circuit current is due to
the flow of electrons. The direction of conventional current (of
holes currents) in the various arms of the circuit has been
shown. In the base Ie and Ic flow in opposite direction.

( b ) n-p-n Transistor :
In this case also, the emitter base junction is forward biased
i.e. the positive pole of the emitter base battery VBB is
connected to base and its negative pole to emitter.
The resistance of emitter base junction is very low. So the
voltage of VBB (i.e. VcB) is quite small (=1.5 V).
The collector base junction is reverse biased i.e. the positive
pole of the collector base battery V is connected to the
collector and negative pole to base. The resistance of this
junction is very high. So the voltage of Vcc (i.e. VcB) is quite
large (=45 V).
Electrons that are majority carriers in emitter (n-type
semiconductor) are repelled toward base by negative potential of
VBB on emitter resulting emitter current Ie. The base being thin
and lightly doped (p-type semiconductor) has low number density
of holes. When electron enter the base region, then only a few
holes (say 5%) get neutralized by the electron-hole combination
resulting base current Ib (=5%Ie=0.05Ie). The remaining 95%
electrons pass over to the collector, on account of high positive
potential of collector due to battery Vcc, resulting collector
current Ic (=95%Ie=0.95Ie).
As one electron reaches the collector, it flows to the positive
terminal of the battery Vcc through connecting wire. At the same
time one electron flows from negative terminal of Vcc to positive
terminal of VBB and one electron flows from negative of VBB to
emitter. When the electron coming from emitter combines with
the hole on base, the deficiency of hole in base is compensated
by the breakage of covalent bond there.

RESISTANCE
The resistance of a conductor is the obstruction posed by the
conductor to the flow of electric current through it.
Resistance (R) of the conductor is defined as the ration of
potential difference (V) across the ends of the conductor to the
current (I) flowing through it. The S.I. unit of resistance is ohm. It
is defined as the resistance of a conductor through which a
current of 1 ampere flows when a potential difference of 1 volt is
applied across the ends of the conductor.

CAUSES OF RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR

Resistance of a given conducting wire is due to the collisions of
free electrons with the ions or atoms of the conductor while
drifting towards the positive end of the conductor which in turn
depends upon the arrangement of atoms in the conducting
material (silver, copper etc.) as well as on the length and
thickness of the conducting wire.

COLOUR CODE FOR CARBON RESISTORS

The value of the resistance and their percentage accuracy are
indicated on carbon resistors available in the market, by a color
code printed on them. The color code for carbon resistance is
given in the table.
In first color code, strips of different color are given on the body
of resistors. The colors on strips are noted from left to right.
1. Color of strip A from the end indicates the first significant
figure of resistance in ohm.
2. Color of the second strip B indicates the second significant
figure of resistance in ohm.
3. The color of the third strip (indicates decimal multiplier i.e. the
number of zeroes that will follow the two significant figures.
4. The color of fourth strip R indicates the tolerance limit of the
resistance value or percentage accuracy of resistance.

WORKING
Mike amplifier is used to hear very low voices. Its working
depends upon 7410p amp which is an operational amplifier. The
gain of this 741Op amp is very high and it can catch very low
information and amplify it.
At pin no.2 of the base of 741Op amp a signal condenser mike is
connected. The voice is passed to 741Op amp by four capacitors
placed in between the mike and 741Op amp. The capacitors
connected are of 0.04f. The three resistances are connected for
voltage supply the three resistances R4K7, R3K3 and R10K.
The gain of amplify depends upon its responses, which is
adjusted by 1M volume control.

The pin no. 6 of 741Op amp base is output pin. The information
received here is amplified with the help of the transistors. The
transistor used here is of BC 148/187 and BC 158/188. This is then
given to speaker who in turn produces the desired loud voice.
This project is operator on 9V DC.

CONSTRUCTION

Mike amplifier mainly consists of 741 Op amp that is an

operational amplifier.This is connected to a condenser mike by
pin no.2 through capacitors. The capacitors are of 0.04uf. This in
turn is connected to resistance of 4K7, 3K3, and 10K.

Base of 741 Op amp is also connected to transistor through pin

no. 6. The first transistor is of BC 148/187 where as the second
is of BC 158/188. These transistors are in turn connected to
capacitors of 47Ouf. Mike amplifier also consists of a speaker
through which amplified voice can be heard. Condenser mike is
used for speaking things, which has to be amplified. This
project works on battery. Therefore, it can also be used when
electricity is not there. This project is operated on 9VDC.