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Azeotrope
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Contents An azeotrope (pronounced /əˈzi.ətroʊp/ ə- ZEE -ə-trope) is
Featured content a mixture of two or more liquids in such a ratio that its
Current events composition cannot be changed by simple distillation. [1]
Random article This occurs because, when an azeotrope is boiled, the
Donate to Wikipedia resulting vapor has the same ratio of constituents as the
original mixture.
Interaction
Help Because their composition is unchanged by distillation,
About Wikipedia azeotropes are also called (especially in older texts)
Community portal constant boiling mixtures. The word azeotrope is
Recent changes derived from the Greek words ζέειν (boil) and τρόπος
Contact Wikipedia (change) combined with the prefix α- (no) to give the
Vapor-liquid equilibrium of 2-
overall meaning, “no change on boiling.”
propanol/water showing azeotropic
Toolbox
Azeotropic mixtures of pairs of compounds have been behavior
Print/export documented. [2] (See Azeotrope (data)). Many azeotropes
of three or more compounds are also known. [citation needed]
Languages
Contents [hide]
Български
1 Types
Català 1.1 Positive and negative azeotropes
Deutsch 1.2 Homogeneous and heterogeneous azeotropes
Español 1.3 Number of constituents
Français 1.4 Zeotropy
Gaeilge
2 Distillation of mixtures
Galego
3 Phase diagrams
3.1 Minimum-boiling or Positive azeotrope
Italiano
3.2 Maximum-boiling or Negative azeotrope
‫עברית‬
3.3 Why there are two traces
Kurdî
Latina 4 Heteroazeotropes
Latviešu 5 Deviation from Raoult's law

5.1 Temperature-pressure dependence
Magyar
Nederlands 6 Separation of azeotrope constituents
日本語 6.1 Pressure swing distillation
Polski 6.2 Azeotropic distillation
Português 6.3 Chemical action separation
Русский 6.4 Distillation using a dissolved salt
Slovenčina 6.5 Extractive distillation
Suomi 6.6 Pervaporation and other membrane methods
Svenska 7 Use of azeotropes to separate zeotropic mixtures
Українська 8 Why azeotropes exist
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azeotrope[10-03-2011 17:34:42]
Tiếng Việt 9 Complex azeotrope systems

中 10 Examples of azeotropes
11 See also
12 References
13 External links
Types [edit]
Positive and negative azeotropes [edit]
Each azeotrope has a characteristic boiling

point. The boiling point temperature of an
azeotrope is either less than the boiling point
temperatures of any of its constituents (a
positive azeotrope), or greater than the
boiling point temperatures of any of its
constituents (a negative azeotrope).
A well known example of a positive azeotrope
is 95.63% ethanol and 4.37% water (by
weight). [3] Ethanol boils at 78.4°C, water
Positive Azeotrope - Mixture of Chloroform and
boils at 100°C, but the azeotrope boils at
Methanol
78.2°C, which is lower than either of its
constituents.[4] Indeed 78.2°C is the minimum
temperature at which any ethanol/water
solution can boil at atmospheric pressure. In
general, a positive azeotrope boils at a lower
temperature than any other ratio of its
constituents. Positive azeotropes are also
called minimum boiling mixtures or
pressure maximum azeotropes.
An example of a negative azeotrope is
hydrochloric acid at a concentration of 20.2%
and 79.8% water (by weight). Hydrogen Negative Azeotrope - Mixture of Formic acid and Water
chloride boils at −84°C and water at 100°C,
but the azeotrope boils at 110°C, which is
higher than either of its constituents. The maximum temperature at which any hydrochloric acid
solution can boil is 110°C. In general, a negative azeotrope boils at a higher temperature than any
other ratio of its constituents. Negative azeotropes are also called maximum boiling mixtures or
pressure minimum azeotropes.
Homogeneous and heterogeneous azeotropes [edit]
If the constituents of a mixture are not completely miscible an azeotrope can be found inside the
miscibility gap. This type of azeotrope is called heterogeneous azeotrope. If the azeotropic
composition is outside the miscibility gap or the constituents of the mixture are completely miscible
the type of azeotrope is called a homogeneous azeotrope.
Number of constituents [edit]
Azeotropes consisting of two constituents, such as the two examples above, are called binary
azeotropes. Those consisting of three constituents are called ternary azeotropes. Azeotropes of more
than three constituents are also known.
Zeotropy [edit]
Combinations of solvents that do not form an azeotrope when mixed in any proportion are said to be
zeotropic.
Distillation of mixtures [edit]
If two solvents can form a positive azeotrope, then distillation of any mixture of those constituents will
result in the distillate being closer in composition to the azeotrope than the starting mixture. For
example, if a 50/50 mixture of ethanol and water is distilled once, the distillate will be 80% ethanol
and 20% water (see ethanol data page), which is closer to the azeotropic mixture than the original.
Distilling the 80/20% mixture produces a distillate that is 87% ethanol and 13% water. Further
repeated distillations will produce mixtures that are progressively closer to the azeotropic ratio of
95.5/4.5%. No number of distillations, however, will ever result in a distillate that exceeds the
azeotropic ratio. Likewise when distilling a mixture of ethanol and water that is richer in ethanol than
the azeotrope, the distillate (contrary to intuition) will be poorer in ethanol than the original but slightly
richer than the azeotrope. [5]
If two solvents can form a negative azeotrope, then distillation of any mixture of those constituents
will result in the residue being closer in composition to the azeotrope than the original mixture. For
example, if a hydrochloric acid solution contains less than 20.2% hydrogen chloride, boiling the
mixture will leave behind a solution that is richer in hydrogen chloride than the original. If the solution
initially contains more than 20.2% hydrogen chloride, then boiling will leave behind a solution that is
poorer in hydrogen chloride than the original. Boiling of any hydrochloric acid solution long enough
will cause the solution left behind to approach the azeotropic ratio.[6]
Phase diagrams [edit]
The boiling and recondensation of a mixture of two solvents are changes of state. As such, they are
best illustrated with a phase diagram. If pressure is held constant, the two parameters that can vary
are the temperature and the composition. An azeotrope is not the same as an emulsion.
Minimum-boiling or Positive azeotrope [edit]
The diagram on the right shows a positive

azeotrope of hypothetical constituents, X and
Y. The bottom trace illustrates the boiling
temperature of various compositions. Below
the bottom trace, only the liquid phase is in
equilibrium. The top trace illustrates the vapor
composition above the liquid at a given
temperature. Above the top trace, only the
vapor is in equilibrium. Between the two
traces, liquid and vapor phases exist
simultaneously in equilibrium: for example,
heating a 25% X : 75% Y mixture to Phase diagram of a positive azeotrope. Vertical
temperature AB would generate vapor of axis is temperature, horizontal axis is composition.
composition B over liquid of composition A.
The azeotrope is the point on the diagram
where the two curves touch. The horizontal and vertical steps show the path of repeated distillations.
Point A is the boiling point of a nonazeotropic mixture. The vapor that separates at that temperature
has composition B. The shape of the curves requires that the vapor at B be richer in constituent X
than the liquid at point A. [1] The vapor is physically separated from the VLE (vapor-liquid equilibrium)
system and is cooled to point C, where it condenses. The resulting liquid (point C) is now richer in X
than it was at point A. If the collected liquid is boiled again, it progresses to point D, and so on. The
stepwise progression shows how repeated distillation can never produce a distillate that is richer in
constituent X than the azeotrope. Note that starting to the right of the azeotrope point results in the
same stepwise process closing in on the azeotrope point from the other direction.
Maximum-boiling or Negative azeotrope [edit]
The diagram on the right shows a negative

azeotrope of hypothetical constituents, X and
Y. Again the bottom trace illustrates the
boiling temperature at various compositions,
and again, below the bottom trace the mixture
must be entirely liquid phase. The top trace
again illustrates the condensation
temperature of various compositions, and
again, above the top trace the mixture must
be entirely vapor phase. The point, A, shown
here is a boiling point with a composition
chosen very near to the azeotrope. The vapor Phase diagram of a negative azeotrope.
is collected at the same temperature at point Vertical axis is temperature, horizontal axis is composition.
B. That vapor is cooled, condensed, and
collected at point C. Because this example is
a negative azeotrope rather than a positive one, the distillate is farther from the azeotrope than the
original liquid mixture at point A was. So the distillate is poorer in constituent X and richer in
constituent Y than the original mixture. Because this process has removed a greater fraction of Y
from the liquid than it had originally, the residue must be poorer in Y and richer in X after distillation
than before.
If the point, A, had been chosen to the right of the azeotrope rather than to the left, the distillate at
point C would be farther to the right than A, which is to say that the distillate would be richer in X and
poorer in Y than the original mixture. So in this case too, the distillate moves away from the
azeotrope and the residue moves toward it. This is characteristic of negative azeotropes. No amount
of distillation, however, can make either the distillate or the residue arrive on the opposite side of the
azeotrope from the original mixture. This is characteristic of all azeotropes.
Why there are two traces [edit]
The traces in the phase diagrams separate whenever the composition of the vapor differs from the
composition of the liquid at the same temperature. Suppose the total composition were 50/50%. You
could make this composition using 50% of 50/50% vapor and 50% of 50/50% liquid, but you could
also make it from 83.33% of 45/55% vapor and 16.67% of 75%/25% liquid, as well as from many
other combinations. The separation of the two traces represents the range of combinations of liquid
and vapor that can make each total composition.
Alternatively, one can view the lower trace as the boundary for the region of the diagram in which
liquids are in equilibrium, and the upper trace as the boundary of the region in which the vapor is in
equilibrium. These two boundaries need not coincide. Indeed, the region between them is a no-
man's-land: attempts to bring the system to the midpoint of line-segment AB will result in a mixture of
liquid A and vapor B, but nothing at the midpoint.
Heteroazeotropes [edit]
In each of the examples discussed so far the

constituents have been miscible in all
proportions with each other. For example,

any amount of ethanol can be mixed with any
amount of water to form a homogeneous
solution. There are pairs of solvents for which
this is not the case. For example, if equal
volumes of chloroform (water solubility 0.8
g/100 ml at 20°C) and water are shaken
together and then left to stand, the liquid will
separate into two layers. Analysis of the
layers shows that the top layer is mostly Phase diagram of a heteroazeotrope. Vertical
water with a small amount of chloroform axis is temperature, horizontal axis is composition. The
dissolved in it, and the bottom layer is mostly dotted vertical line indicates the composition of the
combined layers of the distillate whenever both layers are
chloroform with a small amount of water
present in the original mixture.
dissolved in it. If the two layers are heated
together, the system of layers will boil at
53.3°C, which is lower than either the boiling point of chloroform (61.2°C) or the boiling point of water
(100°C). The vapor will consist of 97.0% chloroform and 3.0% water regardless of how much of each
liquid layer is present (provided both layers are indeed present). If the vapor is re-condensed, the
layers will reform in the condensate, and will do so in a fixed ratio, which in this case is 4.4% of the
volume in the top layer and 95.6% in the bottom layer.[7] Such a system of solvents is known as a
heteroazeotrope. The diagram illustrates how the various phases of a heteroazeotrope are
related. [1][2]
Heteroazeotropes are always minimum boiling mixtures.
Deviation from Raoult's law [edit]
Raoult's law predicts the vapor pressures of ideal mixtures as a function of composition ratio. In
general only mixtures of chemically similar solvents, such as n-hexane with n-heptane, form nearly
ideal mixtures that come close to obeying Raoult's law. Solvent combinations that can form
azeotropes are always nonideal, and as such they deviate from Raoult's law.
The diagram on the right illustrates total
vapor pressure of three hypothetical mixtures
of constituents, X, and Y. The temperature
throughout the plot is assumed to be
constant.
The center trace is a straight line, which is
what Raoult's law predicts for an ideal
mixture. The top trace illustrates a nonideal
mixture that has a positive deviation from
Raoult's law, where the total combined vapor
pressure of constituents, X and Y, is greater
than what is predicted by Raoult's law. The Total vapor pressure of mixtures as a
function of composition at a chosen constant
top trace deviates sufficiently that there is a
temperature.
point on the curve where its tangent is
horizontal. Whenever a mixture has a positive
deviation and has a point at which the tangent is horizontal, the composition at that point is a positive
azeotrope. [8] At that point the total vapor pressure is at a maximum. Likewise the bottom trace
illustrates a nonideal mixture that has a negative deviation from Raoult's law, and at the composition
where tangent to the trace is horizontal there is a negative azeotrope. This is also the point where
total vapor pressure is minimum. [8]
Temperature-pressure dependence [edit]
For both the top and bottom traces, the temperature point of the azeotrope is the constant
temperature chosen for the graph. If the ambient pressure is controlled to be equal to the total vapor
pressure at the azeotropic mixture, then the mixture will boil at this fixed temperature.
Vapor pressure of both pure liquids as well as mixtures is a sensitive function of temperature. As a
rule, vapor pressure of a liquid increases nearly exponentially as a function of temperature. If the
graph were replotted for a different fixed temperature, then the total vapor pressure at the azeotropic
composition will certainly change, but it is also possible that the composition at which the azeotrope
occurs will change. This implies that the composition of an azeotrope is affected by the pressure
chosen at which to boil the mixture. Ordinarily distillation is done at atmospheric pressure, but with
proper equipment it is possible to carry out distillation at a wide variety of pressures, both above and
below atmospheric pressure.
Separation of azeotrope constituents [edit]
It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into

Azeotropic_distillation. (Discuss)
Distillation is one of the primary tools that chemists and chemical engineers use to separate mixtures
into their constituents. Because distillation cannot separate the constituents of an azeotrope, the
separation of azeotropic mixtures (also called azeotrope breaking) is a topic of considerable
interest. [2] Indeed this difficulty led some early investigators to believe that azeotropes were actually
compounds of their constituents.[1] But there are two reasons for believing that this is not the case.
One is that the molar ratio of the constituents of an azeotrope is not generally the ratio of small
integers. For example, the azeotrope formed by water and acetonitrile contains 2.253 moles of
acetonitrile for each mole of water. [9] A more compelling reason for believing that azeotropes are not
compounds is, as discussed in the last section, that the composition of an azeotrope can be affected
by pressure. Contrast that with a true compound, carbon dioxide for example, which is two moles of
oxygen for each mole of carbon no matter what pressure the gas is observed at. That azeotropic
composition can be affected by pressure suggests a means by which such a mixture can be
separated.
Pressure swing distillation [edit]
A hypothetical azeotrope of constituents X

and Y is shown in the diagram to the right.
Two plots are shown, one at an arbitrary low
pressure and another at an equally arbitrary,
but higher, pressure. The composition of the
azeotrope is substantially different between
the high and low pressure plots - higher in X
for the high-pressure system. The goal is to
separate X in as high a concentration as
possible starting from point A. At the low
pressure, it is possible by progressive
distillation to reach a distillate at the point, B, Azeotrope composition shift due to pressure
which is on the same side of the azeotrope swing.
as A. Note that successive distillation steps
near the azeotropic composition exhibit very
little difference in boiling temperature. If this distillate is now exposed to the high pressure, it boils at
point C. From C, by progressive distillation it is possible to reach a distillate at the point D, which is
on the same side of the high pressure azeotrope as C. If that distillate is then exposed again to the
low pressure, it boils at point E, which is on the opposite side of the low pressure azeotrope to A.
So, by means of the pressure swing, it was possible to cross over the low pressure azeotrope.
When the solution is boiled at point E, the distillate is poorer in X than point E. This means that the
residue is made richer in X than point E. Indeed, progressive distillation can result in a residue that is
as rich in X as is required.
In summary:
1. Low pressure rectification (A to Rectification: the distillate, or "tops", is retained and exhibits an
B) increasingly lower boiling point.
2. High pressure rectification (C Stripping: the residue, or "bottoms", is retained and exhibits an
to D) increasingly higher boiling point.
3. Low pressure stripping (E to
target purity)
Note that both azeotropes above are of the positive, or minimum boiling type; care must be taken to
ensure that the correct component of the separation step is retained, i.e. the binary phase-envelope
diagram (boiling-point curve) must be correctly read.
A mixture of 5% water with 95% tetrahydrofuran is an example of an azeotrope that can be
economically separated using a pressure swing — a swing in this case between 1 atm and 8 atm.
By contrast the composition of the water/ethanol azeotrope discussed earlier is not affected enough
by pressure to be easily separated using pressure swings[2] and instead, an entrainer may be added
that either modifies the azeotropic composition and exhibits immiscibility with one of the components,
or extractive distillation may be used.[10]
Azeotropic distillation [edit]
Main article: Azeotropic distillation

Other methods of separation involve introducing an additional agent, called an entrainer, that will
affect the volatility of one of the azeotrope constituents more than another. When an entrainer is
added to a binary azeotrope to form a ternary azeotrope, and the resulting mixture distilled, the
method is called azeotropic distillation. The best known example is adding benzene or cyclohexane to
the water/ethanol azeotrope. With cyclohexane as the entrainer, the ternary azeotrope is 7% water,
17% ethanol, and 76% cyclohexane, and boils at 62.1°C. [11] Just enough cyclohexane is added to
the water/ethanol azeotrope to engage all of the water into the ternary azeotrope. When the mixture
is then boiled, the azeotrope vaporizes leaving a residue composed almost entirely of the excess
ethanol. [2]
Chemical action separation [edit]
Another type of entrainer is one that has a strong chemical affinity for one of the constituents. Using
again the example of the water/ethanol azeotrope, the liquid can be shaken with calcium oxide,
which reacts strongly with water to form the nonvolatile compound, calcium hydroxide. Nearly all of
the calcium hydroxide can be separated by filtration and the filtrate redistilled to obtain 100% pure
ethanol.
A more extreme example is the azeotrope of 1.2% water with 98.8% diethyl ether. Ether holds the
last bit of water so tenaciously that only a very powerful desiccant such as sodium metal added to the
liquid phase can result in completely dry ether. [12]
Anhydrous calcium chloride is used as a desiccant for drying a wide variety of solvents since it is
inexpensive and does not react with most nonaqueous solvents. Chloroform is an example of a
[12]
solvent that can be effectively dried using calcium chloride.
Distillation using a dissolved salt [edit]
Main article: Salt-effect distillation

When a salt is dissolved in a solvent, it always has the effect of raising the boiling point of that
solvent — that is it decreases the volatility of the solvent. When the salt is readily soluble in one
constituent of a mixture but not in another, the volatility of the constituent in which it is soluble is
decreased and the other constituent is unaffected. In this way, for example, it is possible to break the
water/ethanol azeotrope by dissolving potassium acetate in it and distilling the result. [2]
Extractive distillation [edit]
Extractive distillation is similar to azeotropic distillation, except in this case the entrainer is less
volatile than any of the azeotrope's constituents. For example, the azeotrope of 20% acetone with
80% chloroform can be broken by adding water and distilling the result. The water forms a separate
layer in which the acetone preferentially dissolves. The result is that the distillate is richer in
chloroform than the original azeotrope. [2]
Pervaporation and other membrane methods [edit]
The pervaporation method uses a membrane that is more permeable to the one constituent than to
the another to separate the constituents of an azeotrope as it passes from liquid to vapor phase. The
membrane is rigged to lie between the liquid and vapor phases. Another membrane method is vapor
permeation, where the constituents pass through the membrane entirely in the vapor phase. In all
membrane methods, the membrane separates the fluid passing through it into a permeate (that
which passes through) and a retentate (that which is left behind). When the membrane is chosen so
that is it more permeable to one constituent than another, then the permeate will be richer in that first
constituent than the retentate.[2]
Use of azeotropes to separate zeotropic mixtures [edit]
Sometimes azeotropes are useful in separating zeotropic mixtures. An example is acetic acid and
water, which do not form an azeotrope. Despite this it is very difficult to separate pure acetic acid
(boiling point: 118.1°C) from a solution of acetic acid and water by distillation alone. As progressive
distillations produce solutions with less and less water, each further distillation becomes less effective
at removing the remaining water. Distilling the solution to dry acetic acid is therefore economically
impractical. But ethyl acetate forms an azeotrope with water that boils at 70.4°C. By adding ethyl
acetate as an entrainer, it is possible to distill away the azeotrope and leave nearly pure acetic acid
as the residue. [2]
Why azeotropes exist [edit]
Azeotropes can only form when a mixture deviates from Raoult's law. Raoult's law applies when the
molecules of the constituents stick to each other to the same degree as they do to themselves. For
example, if the constituents are X and Y, then X sticks to Y with roughly equal energy as X does with
X and Y does with Y. A positive deviation from Raoult's law results when the constituents have a
disaffinity for each other — that is X sticks to X and Y to Y better than X sticks to Y. Because this
results in the mixture having less total sticking together of the molecules than the pure constituents,
they more readily escape from the stuck-together phase, which is to say the liquid phase, and into
the vapor phase. When X sticks to Y more aggressively than X does to X and Y does to Y, the result
is a negative deviation from Raoult's law. In this case because there is more sticking together of the
molecules in the mixture than in the pure constituents, they are more reluctant to escape the stuck-
together liquid phase. [1]
When the deviation is great enough to cause a maximum or minimum in the vapor pressure versus
composition function, it is a mathematical consequence that at that point, the vapor will have the
same composition as the liquid, and so an azeotrope is the result.
Complex azeotrope systems [edit]
The rules for positive and negative azeotropes apply

to all the examples discussed so far. But there are
some examples that don't fit into the categories of
positive or negative azeotropes. The best known of
these is the ternary azeotrope formed by 30%
acetone, 47% chloroform, and 23% methanol, which
boils at 57.5°C. Each pair of these constituents forms
a binary azeotrope, but chloroform/methanol and
acetone/methanol both form positive azeotropes while
chloroform/acetone forms a negative azeotrope. The
resulting ternary azeotrope is neither positive nor
Saddle azeotropic system
negative. Its boiling point falls between the boiling
Methanol/Acetone/Chloroform calculated with
points of acetone and chloroform, so it is neither a mod. UNIFAC
maximum nor a minimum boiling point. This type of
system is called a saddle azeotrope.[2] Only systems
of three or more constituents can form saddle azeotropes.
A rare type of complex binary azeotrope is one where the boiling point and condensation point
curves touch at two points in the phase diagram. Such a system is called a double azeotrope, and
will have two azeotropic compositions and boiling points. An example is water and N-
methylethylenediamine. [13]
Examples of azeotropes [edit]
Proportions are by weight.

nitric acid (68%) / water, boils at 120.5°C
at 1 atm (negative azeotrope)
perchloric acid (28.4%) / water, boils at
203°C (negative azeotrope)
hydrofluoric acid (35.6%) / water, boils at
111.35°C (negative azeotrope)
ethanol (96%) / water, boils at 78.1°C
sulfuric acid (98.3%) / water, boils at Double azeotrope of benzene and hexafluorobenzene,
338°C taken from Dortmund Data Bank
acetone / methanol / chloroform form an

intermediate boiling (saddle) azeotrope
diethyl ether (33%) / halothane (66%) a mixture once commonly used in anaesthesia.
benzene / hexafluorobenzene forms a double
See also [edit]
Azeotropic distillation
Azeotrope (data)
Eutectic
Batch Distillation
Heteroazeotrope
Ebulliometer
Bancroft Point
References [edit]
1. ^ a b c d e Moore, Walter J. Physical Chemistry, 7. ^ CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics,

3rd ed., Prentice-Hall 1962, pp140-142 44th ed., p2156.
2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Hilmen, Eva-Katrine 8. ^ a b Jim Clark. "Nonideal Mixtures of
(November 2000). "Separation of Azeotropic Liquids" . Chemguide.co.uk. Retrieved 2008-
Mixtures: Tools for Analysis and Studies on 03-05.
Batch Distillation Operation" (PDF). 9. ^ Ponton, Jack (September 2001). "Azeotrope
Norwegian University of Science and Databank" (Queriable database). The
Technology, Dept. of Chemical Engineering. Edinburgh Collection of Open Software for
Retrieved 24 March 2007. Simulation and Education, Edinburgh
3. ^ National Institute of Standards and University. Retrieved 14 April 2007.
Technology. "Standard Reference Material 10. ^ Perry's Chemical Engineer's Handbook - 7th
1828: Ethanol-Water Solutions" . Ed. 1997
4. ^ Rousseau, Ronald W.; James R. Fair (1987). 11. ^ CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics,
Handbook of separation process technology. 44th ed., p2181
Wiley-IEEE. pp. 261–262. ISBN 047189558X. 12. ^ a b Cohen, Julius B. Practical Organic
5. ^ Morrison, Robert Thornton; Boyd, Robert Chemistry MacMillan 1930
Neilson, Organic Chemistry, 2nd ed., Allyn and 13. ^ Olson, John D.. "Thermodynamics of
Bacon, 1972, p 508 Hydrogen Bonding Mixtures 4." (PDF).
6. ^ Merck Index of Chemicals and Drugs, 9th Retrieved 27 January 2008.
ed., monograph 4667
External links [edit]
"What is an Azeotrope?" . B/R Corporation. Retrieved 24 March 2007.

Ponton, Jack (September 2001). "Azeotrope Databank" (Queriable database). The Edinburgh
Collection of Open Software for Simulation and Education, Edinburgh University. Retrieved 9 April
2007.
Dr G. A. Busato; Professor G. Bashein (2004). "Update in Anaesthesia: The halothane/ether
azeotrope - A reconsideration" . Pharmacology (University of Washington, Seattle, USA) (18).
Retrieved 9 April 2007.
Azeotrope defined with a limerick.
"Publications about the separation of the azeotropes" . BUTE Department of Process
Engineering, Hungary. Retrieved 9 April 2007.
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Categories: Thermodynamics | Phase changes | Separation processes
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Latviešu 5 Deviation from Raoult's law

Tiếng Việt 9 Complex azeotrope systems

Positive and negative azeotropes [edit]

Each azeotrope has a characteristic boiling

Homogeneous and heterogeneous azeotropes [edit]

Number of constituents [edit]

Distillation of mixtures [edit]

Phase diagrams [edit]

Minimum-boiling or Positive azeotrope [edit]

The diagram on the right shows a positive

Maximum-boiling or Negative azeotrope [edit]

The diagram on the right shows a negative

Why there are two traces [edit]

In each of the examples discussed so far the

proportions with each other. For example,

Deviation from Raoult's law [edit]

total vapor pressure is minimum. [8]

Temperature-pressure dependence [edit]

Separation of azeotrope constituents [edit]

It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into

Pressure swing distillation [edit]

A hypothetical azeotrope of constituents X

Azeotropic distillation [edit]

Main article: Azeotropic distillation

Chemical action separation [edit]

solvent that can be effectively dried using calcium chloride.

Distillation using a dissolved salt [edit]

Main article: Salt-effect distillation

Extractive distillation [edit]

Pervaporation and other membrane methods [edit]

Use of azeotropes to separate zeotropic mixtures [edit]

Why azeotropes exist [edit]

Complex azeotrope systems [edit]

The rules for positive and negative azeotropes apply

Examples of azeotropes [edit]

Proportions are by weight.

acetone / methanol / chloroform form an

See also [edit]

1. ^ a b c d e Moore, Walter J. Physical Chemistry, 7. ^ CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics,

External links [edit]

"What is an Azeotrope?" . B/R Corporation. Retrieved 24 March 2007.

v·d·e Separation processes [hide]

Multiphase systems Aqueous two-phase system · Azeotrope · Eutectic

Concepts Unit operation

Categories: Thermodynamics | Phase changes | Separation processes

This page was last modified on 9 February 2011 at 06:24.

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