Child Development – Exam One

Chapter 1:
Psychoanalytic Perspective:
Discontinuous: Psychosexual and psychosocial development takes place in stages;
One course: Stages are assumed to be universal; Both nature and nurture: Innate
impulses are channeled and controlled through child-rearing experiences. Early e
xperiences set the course of later development.
Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory:
Continuous: Development involves an increase in learned behaviors; Many possible
courses: Behaviors reinforced and modeled may vary from child to child; Emphasi
s on nurture: Development results from conditioning and modeling. Both early and
later experiences are important.
Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory:
Discontinuous: Cognitive development takes place in stages; One course: Stages a
re assumed to be universal; Both nature and nurture: Development occurs as the b
rain matures and children exercise their innate drive to discover reality in a g
enerally stimulating environment. Both early and later experiences are important
.
Information Processing:
Continuous: Children gradually improve in perception, attention, memory, and pro
blem-solving skills; One course: Changes studied characterize most or all childr
en; Both nature and nurture: Children are active, sense-making beings who modify
their thinking as the brain develops and they confront new environmental demand
s. Both early and later experiences are important.
Ethology and Evolutionary Developmental Psychology:
Both continuous and discontinuous: Children gradually develop a wider range of a
daptive behaviors. Sensitive periods occur, in which qualitatively distinct capa
cities emerge fairly suddenly; One course: Adaptive behaviors and sensitive peri
ods apply to all members of a species; Both nature and nurture: Evolution and he
redity influence behavior, and learning lends greater flexibility and adaptivene
ss to it. In sensitive periods, early experiences set the course of later develo
pment.
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory:
Both continuous and discontinuous: Language acquisition and school lead to stage
wise changes. Dialogues with more expert members of society also lead to continu
ous changes that vary from culture to culture. Many possible courses: Socially m
ediated changes in thought and behavior vary from culture to culture. Both natur
e and nurture: Heredity, brain growth, and dialogues with more expert members of
society jointly contribute to development. Both early and later experiences are
important.
Ecological Systems Theory:
Not specified (whether continuous or discontinuous); Many possible courses: Chil
dren’s characteristics join with environmental forces at multiple levels to mold d
evelopment in unique ways; Both nature and nurture: Children’s characteristics and
the reactions of others affect each other in a bidirectional fashion. Layers of
the environment influence child-rearing experiences. Both early and later exper
iences are important.
Dynamic Systems Perspective:
Both continuous and discontinuous: Change in the system is always ongoing. Stage
like transformations occur as children reorganize their behavior so components o
f the system work as a functioning whole. Many possible courses: Biological make
up, everyday tasks, and social experiences vary, yielding wide individual differ
ences in specific skills; Both nature and nurture: The child’s mind, body, and phy
sical and social surroundings form an integrated system that guides mastery of n
ew skills. Both early and later experiences are important.
Chapter 2:
Systematic Observation:
Naturalistic Observation:
Observation of behavior in natural contexts; Strengths: Reflects participants’ eve
ryday behaviors; Limitations: Cannot control conditions under which participants
are observed. Accuracy of observations may be reduced by observer influence and
observer bias.
Structured Observation:
Observation of behavior in a laboratory, where conditions are the same for all p
articipants; Strengths: Grants each participant an equal opportunity to display
the behavior of interest. Permits study of behaviors rarely seen in everyday lif
e; Limitations: May not yield observations typical of participants’ behavior in ev
eryday life. Accuracy of observations may be reduced by observer influence and o
bserver bias.
Self-Reports:
Clinical Interview:
Flexible interviewing procedure in which the investigator obtains a complete acc
ount of the participant’s thoughts; Strengths: Comes as close as possible to the w
ay participants think in everyday life. Great breadth and depth of information c
an be obtained in a short time; Limitations: May not result in accurate reportin
g of information. Flexible procedure makes comparing individuals’ responses diffic
ult.
Structured Interview, Questionnaires, and Tests:
Self-report instruments in which each participant is asked the same questions in
the same way; Strengths: Permits comparisons of participants’ responses and effic
ient data collection. Researchers can specify answer alternatives that participa
nts might not think of in an open-ended interview; Limitations: Does not yield t
he same depth of information as a clinical interview. Responses are still subjec
t to inaccurate reporting.
Psychophysiological Methods:
Methods that measure the relationship between physiological processes and behavi
or; Strengths: Reveals which central nervous system structures contribute to dev
elopment and individual differences in certain competencies. Helps infer the per
ceptions, thoughts, and emotions of infants and young children, who cannot repor
t them clearly; Limitations: Cannot reveal with certainty the meaning of autonom
ic or brain activity. Many factors besides those of interest to the researcher c
an influence a physiological response.
Clinical, or Case Study, Method:
A full picture of one individual’s psychological functioning, obtained by combinin
g interviews, observations, test scores, and sometimes psychophysiological asses
sments; Strengths: Provides rich, descriptive insights into factors that affect
development; Limitations: May be biased by researchers’ theoretical preferences. F
indings cannot be applied to individuals other than the participant.
Ethnography:
Participant observation of a culture or distinct social group; by making extensi
ve field notes, the researcher tries to capture the culture’s unique values and so
cial processes; Strengths: Provides a more complete description than can be deri
ved from a single observational visit, interview, or questionnaire; Limitations:
May be biased by researchers’ values and theoretical preferences. Findings cannot
be applied to individuals and settings other than the ones studied.
Correctional Design:
The investigator obtains information on participants without altering their expe
riences; Strengths: Permits study of relationships between variables; Limitation
s: Does not permit inferences about cause-and-effect relationships.
Laboratory Experiment:
Under controlled laboratory conditions, the investigator manipulates an independ
ent variable and looks at its effect on a dependent variable; requires random as
signment of participants to treatment conditions; Strengths: Permits inferences
about cause-and-effect relationships; Limitations: Findings may not generalize t
o the real world.
Field Experiment:
The investigator randomly assigns participants to treatment conditions in natura
l settings; Strengths: Permits generalization of experimental findings to the re
al world; Limitations: Control over the treatment is generally weaker than in a
laboratory experiment.
Natural, or Quasi-, Experiment:
The investigator compares already existing treatments in the real world, careful
ly selecting groups of participants to ensure that their characteristics are as
much alike as possible; Strengths: Permits study of many real-world conditions t
hat cannot be experimentally manipulated; Limitations: Findings may be due to va
riables other than the treatment.
Longitudinal Design:
The investigator studies the same group of participants repeatedly at different
ages; Strengths: Permits study of common patterns and individual differences in
development and relationships between early and later events and behaviors; Limi
tations: Age-related changes may be distorted because of biased sampling, select
ive attrition, practice effects, and cohort effects. Theoretical and methodologi
cal changes in the field can make findings obsolete.
Cross-Sectional Design:
The investigator studies groups of participants differing in age at the same tim
e; Strengths: More efficient than the longitudinal design. Not plagued by select
ive attrition, practice effects, or theoretical and methodological changes in th
e field; Limitations: Does not permit study of individual developmental trends.
Age differences may be distorted because of cohort effects.
Sequential Design:
The investigator conducts several similar cross-sectional or longitudinal studie
s (called sequences) at varying times; Strengths: When the design includes longi
tudinal sequences, permits both longitudinal and cross-sectional comparisons. Al
so reveals cohort effects. Permits tracking of age-related changes more efficien
tly than the longitudinal design; Limitations: May have the same problems as lon
gitudinal and cross-sectional strategies, but the design itself helps indentify
difficulties.
Microgenetic Design:
The investigator presents children with a novel task and follows their mastery o
ver a series of closely spaced sessions; Strengths: Offers insights into how cha
nge occurs; Limitations: Requires intensive study of participants’ moment-by-momen
t behaviors; the time required for participants to change is difficult to antici
pate; practice effects may distort developmental trends.
Reliability and Validity:
Reliability refers to the consistency, or repeatability, of measures of behavior
. In observational research, inter-rater reliability is determined by having obs
ervers evaluate the same behaviors. For self-report and psychophysiological meas
ures, test-retest reliability is determined. In clinical and ethnographic resear
ch, reliability involves assessing whether the patterns and themes identified by
the researcher are grounded in evidence and are plausible.
A research method has high validity if, after examining its content and relation
ships with other measures of behavior, the researcher finds that it reflects wha
t it was intended to measure. The concept of validity can also be applied to the
overall accuracy of research findings and conclusions. In designing a study, in
vestigators must ensure internal validity—that conditions internal to the design p
ermit an accurate test of the hypothesis or question. They must also consider ex
ternal validity—the degree to which findings generalize to settings and participan
ts outside the original study.
Chapter 3:
Prenatal Development:
(2 weeks) The period of the zygote lasts about two weeks, from fertilization unt
il the blastocyst becomes deeply implanted in the uterine lining. During this ti
me, structures that will support prenatal growth begin to form. The embryonic di
sk is surrounded by the trophoblast, which forms structures that protect and nou
rish the organism. The amnion fills with amniotic fluid to regulate temperature
and cushion against the mother’s movements. From the chorion, villi emerge that bu
rrow into the uterine wall, and the placenta starts to develop. The developing o
rganism is connected to the placenta by the umbilical cord.
(6 weeks) During the period of the embryo, from implantation through the eighth
week of pregnancy, the foundations for all body structures are laid down. The ne
rvous system starts to develop as the neural tube forms and produces neurons. Ot
her organs follow rapidly. At the end of this period, the embryo responds to tou
ch and can move.
(30 weeks) In the period of the fetus, from the ninth week until the end of preg
nancy, body size increases dramatically and physical structures are completed. T
he fetus becomes covered with vernix, which protects the skin from chapping. Whi
te, downy hair called lanugo helps the vernix stick to the skin. At the end of t
he second trimester, most of the brain’s neurons are in place.
Genetic-Environmental Correlation:
- Our genes influence the environments to which we are exposed.
Passive Correlation: Early on, parents provide environments influenced by their
own heredity.
Evocative Correlation: The responses children evoke from others are influenced b
y the child’s heredity, and these responses strengthen the child’s original style.
Active Correlation: As children extend their experiences beyond the immediate fa
mily and are given the freedom to make more choices, they actively seek environm
ents that fit with their genetic tendencies—niche-picking.
Chapter 4:
Habituation Paradigm:
Habituation and recovery reveal that at birth, babies are attracted to novelty.
With age, infants habituate and recover more quickly. Novelty preference assesse
s infants’ recent memory, whereas familiarity preference assesses their remote mem
ory. Habituation research shows that young infants are especially attracted to m
otion and remember the movements of objects and people for weeks to months. Spee
d of habituation and recovery in infants are among the best early predictors of
intelligence in childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood because they assess
memory and quickness and flexibility of thinking—basic elements of intelligent beh
avior.
Newborn Perceptual Abilities:
Newborns are highly sensitive to touch and pain, with preterm infants and males
showing stronger pain reactions. Newborns prefer a sweet taste and certain sweet
odors. Around 4 months, liking for the salty taste emerges and probably support
s acceptance of solid foods. Young infants’ taste preferences can be easily modifi
ed.
Newborns’ odor preferences are influenced by the impact of the pregnant mother’s die
t on the amniotic fluid. Newborns orient toward the odor of their own mother’s amn
iotic fluid and that of the lactating breast—responses that help them identify the
ir caregiver and locate an appropriate food source.
Over the first year, infants organize sounds into complex patterns. Between 4 an
d 7 months, they show a sense of musical phrasing. Around 6 to 7 months, they ca
n distinguish musical tunes on the basis of variations in rhythmic patterns. At
the end of the first year, they recognize the same melody when it is played in d
ifferent keys.
Newborns can distinguish almost all speech sounds. They prefer listening to slow
, clear, high-pitched expressive voices, to their own mother’s voice, and to speec
h in their native language. By the middle of the first year, they become more se
nsitive to the sounds of their own language.
Infants’ impressive statistical learning capacity enables them to analyze the spee
ch stream for patterns. As a result, they acquire many speech structures for whi
ch they will later learn meanings. In the second half-year, babies detect word b
oundaries and, soon after, syllable-stress regularities within words. They also
detect simple word-order rules that may help them figure out the basic grammar o
f their language. Multisensory communication, such as mothers’ tendency to label a
n object while demonstrating, supports infants’ language learning.
Vision is the newborn baby’s least developed sense. As the eye and visual centers
in the brain develop during the first few months, focusing ability, visual acuit
y, scanning, tracking, and color perception improve rapidly.
The earliest research on depth perception used the visual cliff to investigate b
abies’ ability to distinguish deep from shallow surfaces. Recent research has exam
ined babies’ ability to detect specific depth cues. Responsiveness to motion devel
ops first, followed by sensitivity to binocular and then to pictorial depth cues
. Experience in crawling facilitates coordination of action with depth informati
on, while also promoting other aspects of three-dimensional understanding and a
new level of brain organization.
Contrast sensitivity accounts for early pattern preferences. At first, babies st
are at single, high-contrast features, often limiting themselves to the edges of
a static pattern. At 2 to 3 months, they explore a pattern’s internal features an
d, over time, discriminate increasingly complex, meaningful patterns. By 12 mont
hs, they extract a meaningful pattern from an incomplete drawing with as much as
two-thirds missing.
Newborns prefer to look at photos and simplified drawings of faces, at faces wit
h eyes open and a direct gaze, and at faces that adults judge as attractive. But
researchers disagree on whether they have built-in tendency to orient toward hu
man faces. Newborns are sensitive to the broad outlines of their mother’s face; at
2 months, they recognize and prefer her facial features. Around 3 to 4 months,
infants make fine distinctions between the features of different faces, and at 5
months, they perceive emotional expressions as meaningful wholes. Experience in
fluences face processing, leading babies to form group biases—for example, a prefe
rence for female faces.
At birth, size and shape constancy helps infants construct a coherent world of t
hree-dimensional objects. Initially, infants depend on motion and spatial arrang
ement to identify objects. After 4 months, they rely increasingly on other featu
res, such as distinct color, shape, and texture. Around this time, they register
the continuous path of movement of an object that moves in and out of sight and
gradually monitor increasingly intricate paths of moving objects.
Infants’ remarkable capacity to engage in intermodal perception enables them to pe
rceive input from different sensory systems in a unified way. Newborns are sensi
tive to amodal sensory properties, such as rate, rhythm, duration, intensity, an
d temporal synchrony (for vision and hearing) and texture and shape (for vision
and touch). They quickly master many intermodal associations. Detection of amoda
l relations precedes and may provide a basis for detection of other intermodal m
atches.
Intermodal stimulation helps young babies selectively attend to meaningful unita
ry events. It is a fundamental ability that fosters all aspects of psychological
development, including perception of the physical world and social and language
processing.
According to differentiation theory, perceptual development occurs as infants ac
tively search for increasingly fine-grained invariant features—those that remain s
table—in a constantly changing perceptual world. Perception is guided by discovery
of affordances—the action possibilities a situation offers an organism with certa
in motor capabilities.