Reflections of Climate Change Leaders from the Himalayas

Case Studies Detailed

Thematic Group
Natural Resource Management and Biodiversity

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Reflections of Climate Change Leaders
from the Himalayas
Case Studies Detailed

Thematic Group
Natural Resource Management and Biodiversity

1
Reflections of Climate Change Leaders
from the Himalayas
Case Studies Detailed

Editor

Pragya D. Varma

Editorial Team

Bhawana Luthra
Vijay Pratap Singh
Debajit Barkataki
Tara Mann
Rahul Singh

Consulting Editors

Swayam Prabha Das

Damandeep Singh

© LEAD India, 2010

New Delhi

Published by

LEAD India
66, Hemhunt Colony
New Delhi ‐ 110048
Ph: (011) 26225790/ 26225792/41638440
Fax: (011) 26225791
Email: office@leadindia.org
Website: www.leadindia.org

The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors. The editors shall not be responsible for
any error/ omissions arising from the information provided in this publication.

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Tale of Contents

Acknowledgements 6
Foreword 8
About CCL Programme 9
Climate Change Impacts in the Ganga River Basin – Anita Paul 10

Bamboo: A Potential Species for Carbon Sequestration in the

North Western Himalayan Region – Anjuli Agarwal 26

Impact of Biostabilization Measures on Soil Carbon Pool in Landslide Areas –

A Case Study of Varunavat Landslide in Uttarkashi District of
Garhwal Himalaya – Ashish Rawat 33

Significance of Mixed Forestry in Biodiversity Conservation

and as an Adaptation Strategy – Jagat Singh “Jangli” 40

The Effect of Climate Change on Important Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:

Local Perception in High Hill Temperate Region of Kullu District,
Himachal Pradesh (India) – Jagdish Singh 46

The Effect and Contribution of Balwadis in Environment

and Climate Change ‐ Manish Khanna 52

Perceptions of Local Communities on Climate Change in the

Headwaters of the Ganges River – Manoj Bhatt 60

Organic Agriculture Practices to Cope with Climate Change:

‐ a Case Study from the valley of Uttarakhand – Pankaj Tewari 68

People’s Perceptions on the Effect of Climate Change: A Case Study from

Tribals of Sailai block, Sirmaur District of Himachal Pradesh
‐ Prabhu Dayal Sharma 78

Impacts of Climate Change on Natural Springs: A Case Study from Three

Villages of Naintal District, Uttarakhand – Rama Bisht 83

Response of Himalayan Butterflies towards the Forces

of Climate Change: A Case Study from the Lake Region of Bhimtal
and Sattal, Kumaun Hills‐ Ravindra K Joshi 91

Flying is no escape… Effect of Climate Change on Migratory Birds

‐ Sarfaraz Hasan “Malik” 98

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Forest Fires and Climate Change: A Case study from Kumaun
Uttarakhand Himalaya – Vishal Singh 104

Potential Threats to Uttarakhand Due to Climate Change Related

Natural Disasters – Rohit Devlal 109

Climate Change and Birds in Uttarakhand – Yashpal Negi 122

Environmental Development in Operational Areas of

Oil India Limited (OIL) Through “Neem” – Anjan Jyoti Phukan 128

Climatic Parameters and Climate Change: Tale of Longkhum

village, Mokokchung, Nagaland – C Furkumzuk 132

Action Plans for Cleaning and Greening of Municipalities

in Nagaland – Imrongkumla 143

People Adapting to Inundation of Islands‐A Case Study

in West Bengal – Indrila Guha 151

Community Perception: Land use Change and Fast Land and Water Resource
Depletion‐ Brickfields of West Bengal: The Environmental Cost – Kallol Roy 166

Centralisation or Decentralisation: An Administrative Dilemma

‐ Lalchuangliana 177

Traffic Movement Study Towards Strengthening Existing Green Policy

and Planning in Kohima Municipality – Renilo Nuh 186

Community Regulated Payment of Eco Services In Tuensang – Takum Chang 197

Impact of Grazing on Perennial Water Sources in Hee Bermiok,

West Sikkim – Markit Lepcha & T B Subba 205

Regional Advisory Committee

‐‐ North East 211
‐‐ North 213

Profiles of Climate Change Leaders 215

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Acknowledgements

We wish to place our recognition and sincerely thank to all individuals and organisations that
have lent their invaluable support and advice and worked closely with LEAD India to make the
Climate Change Leaders Programme and this publication possible.

We express our appreciation to The British High Commission for the faith reposed in us and the
financial support extended to us to make this Programme a reality. We are extremely grateful to
His Excellency, Sir Richard Stagg, British High Commissioner to India, Mr Fergus Auld, First
Secretary, Climate Change & Energy at the British High Commission, India, Ms Zeenat Khanche,
Second Secretary British High Commission, India and Ms. Preeti Malhotra, Programme Manager,
British High Commission, India, for being instrumental at the evolution and design stage of the
project and also the Programme Team especially Mr. Anurag Mishra and Mr. Saba Kalam for
their encouragement and support.

We thank Lead International’s Mr. Simon Lyster, Chief Executive, Mr. Trevor Rees, Head of
Development and Mr. Alex Hannat, Programme Manager‐ Climate Change, for their continued
support and encouragement throughout the programme period.

This programme would not have been possible without the guidance of Mr. Nitin Desai,
President, LEAD India and the LEAD India fellows who have contribute to the process at different
stages of the programme – a big thank you for your invaluable contributions.

We would like to express our admiration for the Key Implementing Partners, Dr. Pushkin
Phartiyal (Executive Director ‐ Central Himalayan Environment Association) and Mr. Amba Jamir
(Director‐ The Missing Link), without whose involvement and persistent effort this Programme
would not have been achievable.

We are grateful to the Regional Advisory Committee members who guided the Climate Leaders
throughout the programme to bring forth the findings from the local level to the national
platform.

We also thank the Resource persons and experts from the various Government of India agencies‐
the Ministry of Environment and Forests, the Department of Science & Technology, the Bureau
of Energy Efficiency and the Ministry of Non Renewable Energy, Civil Society organisations –
IYCN, WWF, Greenpeace, Oxfam, Earthwatch Institute, CANSA and others; and the Corporates –
ITC, Suzlon, Tata Power ‐ for taking time out of their hectic schedule to interact with our CCLs
and relentlessly address their concerns.

Special thanks to Shri. P.D. Rai (MP‐ Sikkim), Shri. Anurag Thakur (MP‐ Himachal Pradesh), and
Shri Omak Apang (Former MP‐ Arunachal Pradesh) for their encouragement and participation
and for being instrumental in carrying the message from the CCLs to the corridors of power.

We would like to recognise the sincerity, hard‐work and dedication of the CCLs without whom
this programme would not have been possible.

Last but not the least, a special mention of the Consultants – Mr. Damandeep Singh & Dr.
Swayamprabha Das; the staff at the LEAD Secretariat: Ms. Pragya D. Varma, Executive Director,
for her continuous support & supervision; Mr. B.G. Menon, Ms. Bhawana Luthra, Dr. Vijay Pratap
Singh, Mr. Satish Kumar, Mr. Nagarajan M., Ms. Tara Mann, Mr. Rahul Singh, Mr. Debajit

5
Barkataki and Mr. Jagdish P. Tomar, who have worked tirelessly behind the scenes to make the
programme a reality.

6
Foreword

One of LEAD India’s missions is to provide leadership and encourage partnerships in caring for
the environment by inspiring, informing and enabling people to improve their quality of life
without compromising that of future generations. To achieve this goal LEAD India launched the
“Climate Change Leaders Initiative” project, a pioneering project linking climate change and
grassroots adaptive experiences and building leadership around it. It is an innovative programme
designed to build a responsive and representative network of motivated climate leaders to
harness the disruptive force of climate change and to ensure that national policy makers are
informed of regional climate change priorities. The programme enables participants to identify
and design initiatives that will drive change in their businesses, organizations and communities.
At the same time, it builds a global, cross‐sector network focused on developing practical and
sustainable solutions to climate change.

We today have a wealth of knowledge and awareness about climate change challenges and
opportunities. But there is a gap between what we are capable of doing and what is actually
being done. To close this gap between talk and action we require leadership at every level. We
all need to recognise our role and begin to think about how our leadership can help tackle the
defining issue of our generation.

To make effective policies to tackle climate change, we need to know what is happening at the
grassroots level. We need leaders from these regions, who understand the affects of climate
change and can think of out of the box solutions and communicate these to national policy
makers.

LEAD India, with the support from the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office, has developed this
unique and innovative project to create a network of grassroots CLIMATE LEADERS, trained and
empowered to bring forth regional climate change concerns to the national level.

The project covers the environmentally sensitive and important Himalayan region of the
country, which influences the climate of entire South Asia; is the source of many glacial fed
rivers like the Ganga and Brahmaputra; is rich in biodiversity and extremely sensitive and
vulnerable to climate change. We have divided the project area into two parts the Eastern
Himalayas, one of the world’s 25 Biodiversity Hotspot Regions, and the Western Himalayas,
which are extremely rich in forest ecosystem services.

This compilation of case studies aims to highlight the essence of the case studies developed by
the Climate Leaders and share with you their experiences in the field and also to give the reader
a first hand account of the grassroots issues relating to climate change in the mountain
ecosystem in India.

Pragya D Varma
Executive Director, LEAD India

7
Introduction to the Climate Change Leaders Programme

The Climate Change Leaders Programme (CCL) is Lead India’s new and innovative project to
create a practical and sustainable model to address the challenges of Climate Change.

Lack of leadership at the regional and local level is largely responsible for the fact that regional
and community level climate change concerns do not get reflected into national policy
dimension. Knowledge gaps are more glaring at the regional to national levels, than at the
national to international levels.

At the political level there have been some radical changes in approach with the establishment
of two high‐level committees by the Prime Minister on Climate Change, aimed at defining
domestic actions and informing the international community of our environmental resolve and
demonstrate global leadership. There are clear indications for expediting climate change
research, technology development and economic modeling to bring out cost of mitigation and
adaptation in the country.

It was therefore the appropriate time to train a cadre of leaders in different regions of India,
comprising all key stakeholder groups and across sectors (agriculture, forestry, freshwater,
fisheries etc). This was to be done in order to facilitate planned actions and bring forth regional
climate change priorities and concerns to the national level.

With the active support of the British High Commission, the initiative was piloted by LEAD India,
in the Himalayan Regions of India. The result of the initiative was the formation of a network of
over 50 Climate Change Leaders who have been trained in climate change related themes and
imparted appropriate leadership and communication skills.

Intended Impacts

• Short term:
Creating leadership skills among the key stakeholders to understand and respond to
priority issues (both mitigation and adaptation) for major climate sensitive sectors that
impinge on the livelihoods of a vast majority of India’s population.
• Short to medium term:
The project will initially form the pilot for a national and ultimately global Climate
Leaders Programme, implemented over a two year timeframe. The programme will first
be rolled out on a national scale, in various agro‐ climatic regions of India. Thereafter, it
is envisaged that LEAD India will use its network to carry the programme forward to a
few neighbouring South Asian countries.
• Medium term:
The multi‐stakeholder network will help to broaden the support base for progressive
and forward looking policies on climate change;

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 • Long term:
Ensure that the vulnerability of communities to climate change is reduced, that the
regional concerns are identified and developed with full consideration to relevant issues
to be taken into account for local, regional and national development strategies. The
regional partners and the network of Climate Change Leaders created will help to deliver
this impact over time;
• This regional Climate Leaders network will continue to be part of national efforts at the
forefront of thinking and actions responding to climate change challenges.

The initial project, in two Himalayan Regions of India, was intended to serve as a pilot to better
understand operational modalities and serve as a model that can be replicated in different agro‐
climatic zones in India and abroad. First, regional partners were identified; one each in the North
and North East of the country and advisory groups comprising of subject experts were put in
place. This was followed by the process of selecting 60 Climate Change Leaders from the
grassroots in these two regions, as well as the development of a training module for them. The
two regional partners were instrumental in training the Climate Leaders, with LEAD India’s active
support, on various aspects of climate change and the ways for adaptation and mitigation.

In the pilot, multi‐sectoral criteria for the selection of the Climate Change Leaders were
employed, ensuring that the reach and richness of the network was maximised. In our
replication efforts, this multi‐sectoral strategy will be maintained and efforts will be taken to tap
the less represented sectors.

The pilot attempted to create linkages with other networks such as CANSA, Solutions Exchange
and institutions such as Jadavpur University, West Bengal, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New
Delhi, IIT Delhi, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun and many others. These institutional
linkages will be broadened and deepened with further implementation of the model.

Given the results of the pilot, LEAD is convinced about the need for a wider network, both
nationally and internationally, comprising of Climate Leaders who will champion the cause of
proactive action to mitigate and adapt to climate change at the grassroots level. With this need
in mind, we have begun to explore ways forward to further replicate the Model.

The case studies in this compilation have been developed by the Climate Leaders during the
course of the programme. These cover the broad thematic areas ‐ Energy and Food Security,
Community Perceptions and Livelihood, and, Natural Resource Management and Bio‐diversity.

9
Climate Change Impacts in the Gagas River Basin:
Community Viewpoint
Anita Paul

Abstract

This case study highlights the vulnerability of the mountain communities to changes that
are influencing their lives due to degradation of the ecosystem ‐ an interface which
impacts their quality of life in more than one way.

Hydrology, food security, energy, migration and associated psycho social health issues
and conflicts are some of the areas that have been analysed based on the perceptions of
the communities of Gagas River Basin of Almora district , Uttarakhand which is typical of
many such languishing river basins in the Himalayan states. This study suggests
measures for adaptation that are convergent with concerns expressed in the National
Mission 5 of the National Action Plan on Climate Change.

Adapting to change seems to be the challenge for communities based on natural

resources. Changes in land use patterns, adopting appropriate technologies,
incorporating scientific knowledge, developing institutional mechanisms for collective
action to bring forth change which is in synch with the changing times yet based on
traditional wisdom are some of the ways in which the residents of this river basin are
trying to forge a new balance.

This case study throws light on the potential of holistic intervention strategies in
contributing positively in assisting communities to adapt to climate variability living in
river basins. Most of the elements of such interventions focussing on natural resource
management issues have components of adaptation inherent in them. Knowledge
sharing through inter and intra basin dialogues and sharing of best practices is assisting
the communities in forming a coalition of interest which is a critical component for
adaptive strategies to take shape.

“We do not inherit the Earth from our ancestors…

We borrow it from our children…”

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Introduction

This sentiment is well reflected in the most acceptable definition of sustainable

development which reflects it as process of change in which the “exploitation of
resources, the direction of investments, the orientation of technological development
and institutional change are in harmony and enhance both the current and future needs
and aspirations.”

Recently, we are witnessing a global concern and reaching a consensus that

communities dependent on natural resources are the ones who would be facing the
maximum consequences of climate change, a phenomenon which is raising grave
concerns for mankind’s present and future needs for sustenance and growth.

Since times immemorial mankind has been dependent on forests for almost all facets of
life. The hydrological and soil nutrient recycling function and provision of resources for
livelihoods is a well accepted role of forests. Maintaining a sustainable balance to ensure
that we do not take more from the Earth than its natural renewal capacity is a challenge
for the world today.

This case study is anchored in Gagas River Basin, located in Almora district, Uttarakhand
where climate change is exposing the residents and the basin ecosystem to increasing
natural hazards, environmental stress in terms of biotic pressures on scarce resources
and depleting water resources at unprecedented rates, much beyond the natural ability
to adapt. The Gagas basin is typical of several other languishing river systems in the
Himalaya. This case study is attempting to document community perception of changes
and adaptation measures being taken in critical sectors of forestry, agriculture, livestock,
water and energy.

Within the Gagas river basin, impacts such as reduction in food production, water
scarcity, loss of forest biomass and enhanced risk to human health add to the burden of
women, making them one of the groups most vulnerable to climate change.

This study is based on field observations and focussed group discussions that the
author has had with the residents of this basin during the course of this study and also
through her experiences of working as a change maker for over a decade in close
proximity with them on issues related to natural resource management and livelihoods.

Features of Gagas River Basin

The Gagas river originates in the sacred forests of Pandokholi in Almora district, of the
Kumaon Himalaya in the state of Uttarakhand. The river evolves largely through the flow
of over fourteen major streams or gadheras on both banks, and flows for about 50 kms
prior to merging with Ramganga (West) river.

The headwaters are rather steep with an average slope of 50 degrees but the gradient in
the drainage basins with habitations range between 5 to 30 degrees. South and south‐

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east are the major aspects and north facing slopes are less than five percent of the 500
square kms basin area,

Index map of Gagas River Basin

• Catchment area 500 Sq. Km

• Length of the river Approx. 50 km
• Average Annual Rainfall 1450 mm
• Geographical location Latitude between 29 ̊ 51’ 55” and
29 ̊35’ 49”
Longitude between 79 ̊ 20’ 36” and
79 ̊ 33’ 15”
• Villages 373
• Number of Households 22,824
• Population 1,10,000

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 • Literacy Rate 74%

The Land‐use Pattern in the Basin is as follows:

1. Village Forest (Community Controlled) 5,800 hectares = 12 %
2. Reserved Forest (Government Controlled) 10,500 hectares = 21 %
3. Agriculture Land 19,200 hectares = 38%
• Irrigated Land 3,700 hectares = 7 %
• Un‐Irrigated Land 15,500 hectares = 31%
4. Culturable Wasteland 8,700 hectares = 17 %
5. Not available for cultivation 5,800 hectares = 12 %

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 Time Line and Resource Availability Matrix – Community Perception
Situational Analysis of climate related stresses in Gagas River Basin
Farming Systems Natural Resources
Decline Management
of Community Involvement in Water Resources
50 Years

Mostly Irrigated
Appearance Farming systems
of Abandoned through
Agricultural Landtraditional Conservation Measures Sufficient Water Availability in Primary Water
systems Mostly
DeclineOak & Sparse
in self Pine Forests
sufficiency of communities in Resources Within Villages
Minor irrigation
Dependence on Rain‐fedschemes implemented
Farming Systems Increasesby meeting petty demand of timber and NTFP
communities Rich Biodiversity
Forests under Complete Stress Perennial Drinking Water Availability in the Villages
Usage of Local Varieties of Seeds Easy Access to Tree Fodder /Grasses Functional
Traditional Water
WaterMills
Present

Sources (Naulas) drying‐ up even

Almost Complete Drying‐up of Irrigation Systems Community
Forest Involvement
Fire Incidents in Feature.
‐ a Common Conservation further
Sufficient Availability of Farm Yard Manure Measures
Lack of Community Involvement in Upland Irrigation Water Available
Disease andFood
Purchasing Pest from
Management not a Problem
local markets Reserve Forests
Conservation act as Support Areas
Measures Water Flow in Village Streams Reduces
Search for daily wage labour and migration Traditional Water Conservation Structures
Sufficient
acceleratesFood Outputs Sufficient Timber
(Khals)almost & NTFP for Villages
non‐existent Stream Beds Start Getting Used For Mining of Sand
Vegetables/Spices as Cashweeds
Increase in crop diseases, Crops & pests Stream Beds Start Getting Used for Grazing Cattle
25Years

Drinking Water Programs by the Govt Based on

Decline in Net Irrigated Area
Entry of Chemical Fertilisers in a Limited Manner
Decline in Food Security
Increase of Pine Forests Secondary Water Sources
Minor Irrigation Programs by the Govt Based on
Decline in Biodiversity Secondary Water Sources
Afforestation Programs Undertaken By Forest
Department Water Mills Become Non‐functional
Increase of Lantana Camara spp.
Forest Fire Incidents start Traditional Water Systems Drying‐Up

Changes in Policy for meeting the Petty

Demands of Timber and other Forest Produce
10Years

Insufficient Water Availability Through Drinking

Marked Decline in Farm Outputs
Decline in the Usage of Local Seeds
Decline in the Management of Irrigation Systems
Decline in Subsistence Farming Systems Based
Economy
Pine spp. Dominate Forests Water Programs
Increase in Forest Fire Incidents Communities Adopt Appropriate Technology Options
Accessibility to Reserved Forest Areas Stopped Closure of Irrigation Systems
Decline in Biodiversity Increase in Water Borne Diseases

Mountain communities are known to be resilient, capable of changing with the times. Indigenous knowledge systems based on reverence to the bounties of
nature have guided the patterns of life for generations. This matrix clearly indicates towards erosion of traditional community based conservation
mechanisms along with the emergence of centralised state control of governance of natural resources. Coupled with this, impacts of climate change are

14
throwing new challenges for these communities to take urgent measures for adapting in order to cope with the vulnerabilities and also to assist in
mitigating the impacts for securing their livelihoods for future generations. Detailed observations and inter linkages with ecosystem services made by them
highlights the direction of future policy initiatives.

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Forests, Water & Food Security

Mountain agrarian communities essentially follow a crop – livestock based system of production
which is dependent on the adjoining commons for meeting its fodder requirements and soil nutrient
recycling functions. Broad leaved tree species along with native shrubs as an under‐storey, reduces
the kinetic energy of rainfall and thereby encourages natural recharge of the hydrological system
and also provides abundant leaf litter ‐ an essential component for making farmyard manure and
sustaining soil fertility. Ideally, one unit of cropland requires six to seven units of forest land as
support area to perform these two critical functions.

Across the river basin, the ratio is skewed unfavourably – 19,200 hectares of cultivated land would
require 134,000 hectares of forest land. In reality, there is only 10,500 hectares of reserved forest
plus another 5,800 hectares of community forests which adds up to 16,300 hectares of forest land –
a ratio of less than 1:1. This clearly indicates the un‐sustainability of farming systems in the river
basin.

Over the last century, policies regarding management of natural resources have meant exploitation
of forests to generate revenue for the state government. Whereby, natural broad leaved forests
have been replaced with monoculture of pines and other timber species. Moreover, indiscriminate
grazing by cattle on the hill slopes has worsened the situation. Vegetal changes and soil compaction
have adversely impacted on the renewal/recharge of the hydrology of this river system.

Any change in surface characteristcs have a gigantic impact on the hydrology cycle, but little
attention has been given to determine how soil compaction and vegetal changes affect water
infiltration and surface run‐off. Ultimately, loss of appropriate forest cover has impacted adversely
on mountain farming systems in terms of food security and poor hydrological recharge.

This problem of ecological degradation leading to food insecurity has been analysed rather
succinctly by the communities as reflected in the table below. Local land measure of one nali (200 sq
mts ) has been taken as the basis for calculations . The decade of 80s has been compared with the
current production figures in two of the fourteen gadheras showing the unsustainability of hill
agriculture as the main stay for livelihoods.

Sr.No. Name of Village Farm Land (Hec.) Irrigated Farm Land(Hec.) Rice/Wheat Production (Kgs/200 sq.m) Other Sourcres of Income( % Households)
Past Present Past Present Service Daily Wage
1 Ubhiyari 41 8 0 200 15 56 13
2 Masar 25 0 150 25 63 30
3 Nahra 7 1 200 25 50
4 Satinagoun Talla 68 5 0 150 15 68 38
5 Satinagoun Malla 68 1 60 30 71 26
6 Chilalgaon 23 2 0 100 15 71 28
7 Syalsuna 56 4 0 150 30 54 12
8 Bargalla 35 0 0 0 0 30 40
9 Chabbisa 62 20 0 150 25 48 13
10 Talli Sunoli 65 0 85 10 43 41
13 Bhora 5 0 40
14 Katyura 13 5 3 soyabean/peanuts soyabean/peanuts 60 38
15 Darmar 3 1 0 soyabean/peanuts soyabean/peanuts 4 25
16 Saltana 18 0 0 60 10 22 33
17 Sainari 15 0 0 25 3 65 21
18 Pastorapar 29 0 0 80 10 14 29
533 46 4 1410 213 40 25

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Data of these 18 villages represents the situation across the river basin: irrigated farm land has
reduced from 9 percent to less than 1 percent and food production is down from 94 kgs to 15 kgs
per unit of land. This in turn, has resulted in 40 percent of households, supplementing family
incomes by securing some kind of jobs in the organised sector, either public or private. Another 25
percent of the households need to walk few miles every day in search of daily wage labour,
impacting once again on health as well as dignity of traditional mountain farmers.

A sense of socio‐economic‐ecological pessimism seems to permeate the lives of the young and old

Livestock rearing has been practiced by almost cent percent of the inhabitants to meet the critical
nutritional requirements of the family and for producing farmyard manure. Cattle also served as
insurance against crop failures and provided monetary security during emergencies. Due to shortage
of arable, land livestock rearing has been practiced completely based on tree leaf fodder from the
village common lands and adjoining forest areas. Growing fodder trees on field–bunds is also a
common practice. Shortage of quality feed and fodder along‐with hardships faced by women in
fetching water for domestic cattle has impacted livestock rearing which is also on a downward
spiral. For example, average cattle heads have reduced from six in the last decade to just three per
family today. Draught cattle is now reared by very few households and they in turn plough the fields
for all on a payment of a small fee for the service provided. Milk and related milk products are no
longer part and parcel of the food habits. Low productivity of non‐descript cattle breed further
compounds the problem. This reduction in the number of cattle head has also led to insufficient
quantities of farm yard manure being available for crops.

Reduced food security has led to significant out‐migration, in order to supplement family incomes,
leading to severe strains on local societies where significant responsibilities have to be borne by
women alone.

Data from just 18 villages in two drainage basins (gadheras) would perhaps explain climate induced
dislocation within communities:

• 70 of 800 households have migrated permanently from the river basin, which is almost ten
percent
• 20 percent of adult males have migrated temporarily to urban sweatshops to supplement
family incomes.
•

17
Migration is having a negative impact on the psycho‐social health of the communities. The elderly
members of this basin are facing major hardships with no help for domestic chores or during times
of illness, leading to conditions of severe mental depression.

In addition to strains on the social fabric, out‐migration is also a significant factor responsible for
agricultural land turning fallow. While some households are practicing share cropping, the overall
productivity is hampered. Decline in food security has also impacted on the nutritional health and
more so for women and the girl child.

Drinking Water Status Based on Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Water Resources

The state of the forest is probably best defined by the status of the water resources which originate
within its folds: the primary water sources of the village which are called naulas, the secondary
water sources which are called raulies and gadheras and finally the tertiary water source called
Gagas river. Of these, traditionally villagers would utilize naulas for drinking water and the
raulies/gadheras for minor irrigation and other domestic requirements. The Gagas river was used
primarily by villagers along the valley.

With the slow destruction of the forest resources, the first physical casualty amongst the three
water resources, felt by the community, are the primary water sources – naulas. For seventy
villages on either banks of Gagas river, the condition of the primary water source is as follows:

Only about 56% of the naulas are functional and the rest have dried‐up, as the ecological status of
the fragile catchment areas are not conducive for allowing infiltration of rain water to recharge the
water sources. Furthermore, only 23% of the functional water sources provide water for the entire
year which adds to the drudgery of women and children who now have to travel longer distances to
meet their daily water requirements.

As reflected in the resource availability matrix, in addition to the naulas, communities have access to
gravity or pumped water supply schemes to meet their water requirements. These schemes have
also not been able to tackle the daily water requirements as they are functional only during the
monsoon and post‐monsoon months.

For example, out of fifty piped water supply schemes which are based on primary and secondary
water sources in Dusad and Kanari gadheras, only three are functional throughout the year. Three
other schemes are non‐functional as the water source has dried‐up completely. The remaining forty
four schemes supply water between six‐ten months, basically during monsoon and post‐monsoon
months.

18
In recent times, incidents of water conflicts have become a regular feature in this river basin. The
situation worsens with the onset of the dry summer months, when the demand for water is at its
peak due to increase in tourist inflow, the wedding season and agricultural requirements.

Political authorities and the bureaucracy have to face the wrath of the communities and the
situation seems to be getting worse every year. In the Box below, the crisis faced by one of the
gadheras in the Gagas river basin is described to highlight the tension in the social fabric; a direct
impact of climate change on a critical natural resource.

A total of 12 gravity-flow pipeline schemes are based on the surface-water of Khirau to supply water to 22
villages, of which only 11 are located within the Khirau gadhera basin. Only fifty percent of these schemes
are in a functional state and that too only during monsoon and post monsoon months. The water shortages
have not reduced and do not seem to be getting wished away either.
Yet another conflict has appeared due to the growth of Dwarahat town in the vicinity and its massive Formatted: Font: Calibri
quantities of garbage and sewage which are drained into the Khirau – and since the town is located at the
headwaters, the pollution affects every village downstream.
Meanwhile, the town dwellers clout has led the state to invest in another grandiose pumping scheme to
supply water from Ramganga river which is about twenty kms away, and 700 meters below the town of
Dwarahat.
So now there is a fresh conflict brewing, outside Khirau gadhera and even outside the Gagas river basin!!
The people around Chaukhutia town, on the banks of the Ramganga, resent the idea of allowing the state to
pump away water for distant Dwarahat town. The agitation at Chaukhutia had flared up severely and the
scheme for Dwarahat had to be abandoned for quite sometime. However, the construction of the scheme is
underway currently and so are fresh demands from the inhabitants of Chaukhutia .
So a full ‘circle of reason’ has been created with the formation of the Khirau Ghati Sangharsh Vikas Samiti
in 2000 by people from 8 villages within Khirau and another 8 villages who had water supply schemes
based on Khirau. Their argument is that the Khirau gahdera has been slowly dying and the village level
naulas are already dead. So if the state can invest funds for a pumping scheme for town dwellers , then a
similar scheme should to be implemented for them too.

The connection between forests and water, soil and moisture conservation, precipitation and
hydrological re‐charge are issues and matters which require urgent attention at various levels.
Rain water harvesting along with in‐situ conservation measures with active participation of local
community members, the State as the custodians and other stakeholders needs to be
institutionalised in order to meet the effects of climate change on one of the most critical natural
resources ‐ Water.

Crisis in Domestic Energy Sector

Domestic energy requirement within the river basin is primarily met through head loading firewood
from village commons or from distant government forests. For a population of 18,000 rural
households with an annual firewood consumption of 32 quintals per annum (9 kgs per day), the
forests ought to provide an annual supply of 576,000 quintals of firewood. In order to ensure
sustainable supplies, through annual incremental growth (35 quintals/hectare of forests with 60 %
tree canopy), an area of 16,500 hectares would be required.

Ironically, the physical area defined as forests within the river basin actually add up to 16,300
hectares (5,800 hectares of village commons + 10,500 hectares of reserved forest). However, even a
cursory appraisal of these forests would reveal that much of these forest lands are actually defined
as scrub land with very poor strands of twisted pine trees which are wounded for tapping resin.

19
These forest lands define the tragedy of the commons, so much so that women and even children
need to trudge up to distant hill tops for head loading firewood which takes over five to six hours for
most days of the year.

The health of rural communities is further impacted upon through use of in‐efficient wood stoves,
especially in recent decades with the introduction of RCC flat roofed homes, which do not have the
traditional fireplace/chimney, thereby polluting the indoor air quality.

On one side, we have a situation wherein the drudgery of women seems to be increasing each
year for head loading firewood and on the other side, we have an increasing biotic pressure on
scarce forest resources. Clearly, the un‐sustainability of existing forest lands being able to meet
the demand of firewood seems to be a glaring reality for both stakeholders – the communities as
well as the forest managers. Appropriate technologies as an alternative to firewood needs to be
explored in order to allow the natural regeneration process by reducing biotic pressure on
commons.

Adaptive Measures

Mountain communities are known to be resilient to un‐

certainties. In order to survive in this fast changing
scenario, adaptive measures through a bottom up
grassroots approach based on traditional knowledge
needs to be strengthened. Collective action by building
upon the capacities of local communities and
institutions in the process of monitoring, knowledge
sharing, advocating for change and playing a pioneering
role in the process of adaptation will be crucial.
Residents of Gagas River Basin have initiated some
measures towards this end and are highlighted as
under:
The bedrock of change and development in the river basin is intensive community organization
which leads to the formation of self‐help groups of women. These groups of women, ultimately,
engage themselves and the rest of the community towards restoration of the ecosystem within
which they reside – typically, a micro catchment area of 30 hectares inclusive of degraded village
commons.

The institutional pattern at the grassroots has been established in the following manner:

• Each and every family has participated as members of self help groups and typically, a village
has 1‐2 such groups. These groups form the bedrock of change and development.

• After the formation and consolidation of such group activities, the next tier has been
formed, which is the village level gadhera bachao samiti, wherein each family subscribes as
a member with a contribution of Rs. 100 as an annual gram kosh.

• Finally, all these village level gadhera bachao samities have led to the formation of an apex
body, called the Gadhera Bachao Manch.

20
This structure at the grassroots enables and empowers local community‐managed institutions to
take matters into their own hands, so that adaptive measures through a bottom‐up approach based
on local knowledge could be crystallised.

Typically, action plans include eco‐restoration strategies, adoption of appropriate technologies,

optimising land use and livestock management strategies. Together, community aspirations
regarding millennium development goals and adapting to climate change begin to take concrete
shape at the grassroots.

Village groups are getting galvanised and are participating actively for building on their capacities
regarding establishment of small nurseries, to raise appropriate rootstock of native species of
grasses, shrubs and trees and decide upon strategies for providing fresh vegetal cover to degraded
common lands in the catchment area.
Within a short span of time, the production of grasses on village commons has increased
significantly. The growth of young saplings of several native species has led to encouraging
communities to participate and sustain the process of protection and conservation of commons.

Alongside, communities have revived the tradition of creating and maintaining shallow ponds
(Khals) with the idea of improving soil infiltration and soil water storage capacity, which in turn
would influence the amount of water available from groundwater, sub surface, surface water
courses and water bodies.

This particular event, revival of a tradition regarding soil and moisture conservation at the
grassroots, has led the government and the forest managers to turn their attention to promoting
Khals on a wider scale across the river basin, especially within the reserved forest areas which define
the upper ridges of the basin.

It is envisaged that the tragedy of the commons could be

reversed over a period of a decade. The challenge is to
maintain the momentum of change and encourage the pace
of joint action amongst key stakeholders in the river basin
by strengthening the process of inter and intra basin
dialogues and setting up mechanisms for knowledge sharing
between all the stakeholders.

Such Natural Resource Management interventions have a

direct bearing in assisting the communities to build
resilience towards the impacts of climate change by
improving the availability of critical life support resources
and ecosystem services. Improved capacities and institutional mechanisms at the grassroots
would assist the communities in managing available resources in an equitable and judicious
manner.

21
Role of Appropriate Technologies

India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change lays emphasis on gender issues and recognises
development and poverty eradication as the best form of adaptation to climate change, which
implies a strategy of addressing MDGs through a climate change lens.
Communities are adopting appropriate technologies in cross cutting sectors like drinking water,
environmental sanitation, renewable energy and rainwater harvesting in order to improve their
quality of life, here and now.

Infiltration Wells based on the primary water resources of the village are being installed with the
idea of enhancing easier access to safe drinking water – so far, over 150 villages/hamlets have
shared the cost of such community managed drinking water systems. As an a priori condition,
communities have also been involved with installation of twin pit water seal toilets, again on a cost
sharing basis.

Similarly, head‐loading firewood from distant forests adds to the drudgery for women and even
children. Renewable energy options like a biogas stove, provides four hours of clean cooking gas.
This not only improves indoor air quality but also reduces the biotic pressure on scarce forest
resources, which are currently being stripped at a faster pace than the annual incremental biomass
growth. At last count, over 300 households have invested in biogas units, which also assists in
mitigating the green house gas effects of methane.

Introduction of such technologies are assisting the communities to analyse and take corrective
measures that lead to managing vulnerabilities induced due to climate change.

Farming Systems

Through stakeholder dialogues farmers are engaging themselves to adopt water neutral
technologies such as System of Rice Intensification. Field trials have revealed positive impacts in
terms of seed input and water requirements as well as rice production. Ecologically this technique
also reduces the green house gas emissions attributed to the agriculture sector.

Soil and farm yard manure tests conducted in the basin indicates the urgent need to address soil
fertility and improvements in the quality of farmyard manure. In order to address the issues of
insufficient quantities and improper decomposition of manure communities are experimenting with
vermi‐compost and other mediums to enhance the quality and quantity of manure in order to
improve the overall soil productivity.
While Uttarakhand has been declared as an organic state, there is an anomaly in the agriculture
extension departments advocating the use of chemical fertilisers, insecticides, and pesticides.
Concerted efforts are on in one of the drainage basins to implement the complete package of
practices of traditional organic farming systems which had been discontinued as reflected in the
matrix above.

Market linkages are being established for traditional rain‐fed crops which are resilient to extreme
weather conditions in order to improve food and economic security. Trials for high value crops such
as strawberries, aloe‐vera and chamomile are ongoing in order to maximise returns from farm
produce.

22
Such initiatives are expected to assist the communities in addressing the impacts and take
corrective measures in order to secure their livelihoods and carry on with business as usual.

Hydro‐Met Stations

In order to collect, collate and understand hydro‐met changes, ten Hydro‐Met Monitoring Stations
have been established across the river basin. Communities have appointed interested youth to be
trained as barefoot hydrologists and regular monthly data is being collated and circulated amongst
communities through a newsletter called Gadhera!
This process has been ongoing for little over a year and with proper capacity building inputs, it will
assist them in developing strategies to adapt to situations arising due to climate change.
Currently hydromet data is available only at one point in the entire river basin of 500 square kms –
at the forest research station located at Kalika, Ranikhet. The data is relevant in some sense as
Kalika is located on a north aspect ridge at 6,000 feet within the river basin. The data regarding
temperatures and rainfall between 1994 and 2008 is depicted in the graphs below. However, in no
way could it indicate trends over a river basin which is spread over 500 square kms. Therefore the
newly established hydromet stations manned by barefoot hydrologists have an important role to
play in collection of data, which could lead to more comprehensive conclusions about climate
patterns.

23
The data clearly indicates that the residents of this basin are experiencing deficit rainfall alongwith
rise in temperature (as compared to the past decade) the two drivers of climate change which is of
concern globally.

Policy Recommendations

In order to secure inter‐generational justice in natural resources management within the Gagas river
basin, which is an essential component of sustainable development, concerted efforts will have to
be made for an integrated and multi disciplinary approach for mitigation and adaptation to climate
change impacts.

While the National Action Plan on Climate Change has necessarily mentioned the importance of
fragile Himalayan Ecosystems as a thematic focus area, it would be far from sufficient unless several
key policy changes take place, basically aimed at viewing river basins holistically. Some key
elements for change are as follows:

• Developing an understanding of the urgency for coordinated action at the state secretariat
level based on the synergies between forests, water, energy and food security. Such
coordination between the line departments has been done before as part of various project
requirements but the learning has never been translated into policy. This understanding
should then be transferred down to the district and the block levels as well.

• Catchment areas of all drinking water programs should get earmarked, with the idea of
taking corrective measures to reverse the hydrology of streams. Modern day advances in
science and technology could refine the process of identifying catchment areas for making
interventions cost effective.

• It may also be necessary to review the policy of extracting pine resin which provides meagre
financial resources to the state, and creates a much larger problem regarding the
hydrological status. Changing the biodiversity profile from existing pine forests and scrub
lands will also assist in the prevention of forest fires which is assuming an alarming status in
the past decade. Forest nurseries should necessarily be stacked with saplings of indigenous
broad leaf species of trees, shrubs and grasses. Improved biodiversity would certainly assist
in securing the livelihoods of communities in such languishing river basins.

• Organic farming systems in the state need to be promoted and strengthened along with
institutionalising mechanisms for certifying such organic produce. This will enable the
surplus produce to fetch the maximum price due to increased demand for safe foods.
Certification through participatory guarantee method which is based on peer group reviews
may be a cost effective way forward.

• Clean and efficient renewable energy options need to be promoted such as, biogas units, in
order to reduce drudgery of women as well as biotic pressure on scarce forest resources.
Using methane instead of wood or kerosene to power stoves or lamps can reduce a
household’s green house gas emissions by five tonnes a year.

24
 • Involvement of local institutions and engagements with civil society organisations can help
to improve people’s resilience to the effects of climate change. Building upon the capacities
of stakeholders and initiating research on the various facets of Himalayan ecosystem is an
urgent need to strengthen the adaptation process.

To conclude, these are just some indicative suggestions based on the outcome of this study and are
by no means comprehensive.

25
Bamboo: A Potential Species for Carbon Sequestration
in the North Western Himalayan Region
Anjuli Agarwal

Abstract

Bamboo, due to its fast growing nature has a potential to increase the carbon stocks at a faster rate.
Bamboo also plays very important role in the livelihood improvement of rural population. Bamboo
can be one of the potential species for plantation in degraded or wastelands to act as a carbon sink.
In the present study, trial plantation of micropropagated Dendrocalamus asper was done in the mid
hill region of North Western Himalaya. Four sites were selected for plantation at various altitudes.
Carbon sequestered at four places ranged from 0.84 to 3.40 t ha‐1 in two year old plantation after
the establishment. A preliminary data from the foot hills of Kumaon region revealed that 735 tonnes
bamboo poles per annum are consumed for making miscellaneous articles which results in the
sequestration of 367.5 t carbon.

Introduction

To combat environmental degradation and global warming, the Indian government has released an
action plan comprising eight national missions. Out of these eight missions, two are sustaining the
Himalayan Ecosystem and creating carbon sinks by Green India. These are very closely related to
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of Kyoto protocol. CDM is a powerful mechanism for
combating climate change. According to this mechanism carbon is removed from the environment
through afforestation or reforestation. Afforestation, with fast growing species like bamboo has a
very good potential for carbon sequestration but unlike wood species, bamboo is not yet a part of
CDM projects. Bamboo accumulates biomass quickly and offers the opportunity to maintain and
increase carbon stocks through carbon sequestration. Around 75 genera and 1250 species of
bamboos are available in the world1. In India, 130 species of bamboo are found with a wide range of
distribution. India has an estimated 8.96 million ha of bamboo forests with an annual production of
4.5 million tones2.

In Uttarakhand, although bamboo occurs throughout the state but the most significant
concentrations are in Lansdowne and Kalagarh Forest Divisions. Dendrocalamus strictus is the
dominant species in the foothills, Siwalik Hills, and in adjacent plains. Bambusa bambos, Bambusa
nutans and Dendrocalamus hamiltonii are cultivated on private lands, especially on lower slopes and
valleys.

In the hills, the dominant group of species is locally known as ringaal, typically thin, shrubby,
thornless and clump forming. The culms are used for weaving mats and baskets and leaves are used
for fodder. Ringaal grows on steep mountain slopes, at an elevation of 1800‐2400m (a.s.l.) in the
Garhwal and

1
Bamboo ‐ Forest News for Asia and the Pacific (FAO ‐ Bangkok) Vol. II No. 4 Nov. 1978.
2
Rawat, V. & Pal, M. 2004. Bamboo cultivation for enhanced carbon sequestration in India. In Singh, H.P.; Dadlani, N.K. Abstracts of the
th
VII World Bamboo Congress, New Delhi, 27 February – 4 March, 2004. VIIth World Bamboo Congress, New Delhi, India, pp.
123.

26
Kumaon Hills. There are about 5 to 6 types of ringaal bamboo growing in the hills. Availability of
bamboo in Uttarakhand is summarized in table13 .

Table1. Availability of bamboo in Uttarakhand (in hectares)

Forest Division Bamboo/ringaal availability
Lansdowne 27,546
Ramnagar 14,221
Haldwani 14,777
Dehradun 1,449
North Pithoragarh 7,395
South Pithoragarh 811
East Almora 3,807
Nainital 8,842
Badrinath 44,848
Kalagarh 15,714
Total 139,410

Bamboo has several advantages over tree species in terms of sustainability and carbon fixing
capacity. Available studies conclude that bamboo biomass and carbon production may be 7‐30%
higher compared to the fast growing wood species. For instance tropical Bambusa bambos has been
measured at a total above ground biomass 287 t ha‐1 with a mean annual production of around 47.8
t ha‐1 per annum, almost twice that of the Eucalyptus clones. Sub‐tropical moso bamboo
(Phyllostachys pubescens) reaches above ground biomass of 137.9 t/ha and is generally harvested at
5‐8 years intervals. Every 5 years it would produce at least 86 t ha‐1 biomass and sequester 43 t C ha‐
3
.

Besides higher biomass, bamboo has other advantages over wood as a carbon stock. Unlike woody
crops bamboo offers the possibility of annual selective harvesting and removal of about 15‐20% of
the total stock without damaging the environment and stock productivity. Over 90% of bamboo
carbon can be sequestered in durable products such as boards, panels, floors, furniture, buildings,
cloth, paper and activated charcoal. These products have a very long life span and may retain carbon
for several decades 4.

Bamboo also plays very important role in improving the livelihood of rural population and sustaining
the ecosystem of the mountain region. A study done in three villages of Uttarakhand revealed that
the income due to produce from bamboo articles ranged from Rs. 1300 – 32,100 per village 5.

Out of big bamboo species, only few are able to grow at lower temperature or higher altitude.
Dendrocalamus asper which can be grown up to the altitude of 1500 m (a.s.l.) and can withstand
some degrees of frost is a useful species for cultivation in the mid hills of Himalayan region. D. asper

3
www.BAMBOO(NMBA).mht and http://gov.ua.nic.in
4
www.International Network for Bamboo and Rattan.htm
5
Rao, K.S. & K.G. Saxena. 1996. Minor forest products management: Problems and prospects in a remote high altitude village of Central
Himalaya. Int. J. Sust. Dev. World Ecology 3:60‐70.

27
is a clump forming species; culms are large‐sized, erect, straight and stout ranging 10‐30 cm in
diameter. Shoots are edible with high nutritious value. Leaves are broad and valuable for fodder
purpose.

The present study was performed to explore the possibility of growing D. asper in the mid hill region
of North Western Himalayas especially in the wastelands so that it can be brought under cultivation
in the mountains for improving the livelihood as well as helpful in sustaining the ecosystem of
Himalayas.

Objective

Major objective of the case study was to check the performance of D. asper in the wasteland in the
mid hill region of Uttarakhand and monitor the carbon sequestration through the biomass
produced.

Methodology

Dendrocalamus asper was propagated through micropropagation. Micropropagation is a

technique of plant tissue culture for mass producing the planting material of desired clones
under in vitro condition. In the year 2006, trial plantation of around 0.1 acre was done in
the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand at various altitudes to study the performance of D. asper
in the mountain conditions. The four places namely Majhera, Jarmila, Lamgara and Jeolikote
at an altitude of 900, 850, 1300 and 1250 m (a.s.l.), respectively were selected for the
plantation. Plantation density was 0.04 m‐2. Out of these four places, in Jarmila plantation was done
at the river bank. Data on height of plants, girth and number of culms was taken after two years of
establishment of plants. Carbon sequestered on the basis of above ground biomass produced in two
years was estimated.

Outcomes & Analysis

Among the four places with different altitudes and aspects lowest carbon sequestration was
recorded in Jarmila at the river bank (Fig. 1). Probably, it was due to soil health, sunshine hours and
flood shock during the initial years of establishment. At Jeolikote highest carbon sequestration was
recorded, which was 75.29, 71.97 & 38.82 % higher than Jarmila, Majhera and Lamgara, respectively
(Table 2).

Table 2: Carbon sequestered in the aboveground biomass of bamboo after two years of plantation at various
locations in the Kumaon region of Uttarakhand

Place Altitude (m a.s.l.) Carbon sequestered (t ha‐1)

Majhera 900 1.14
Jarmila 850 0.84
Lamgara 1300 2.08
Jeolikote 1250 3.40

28
Though several studies have been performed on the role of bamboo in carbon sequestration in India
and abroad6 7 8 9 10 but very few reports are available from the Indian mountain region. In a report
from Khaljhuni village which is on the margin of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve in the Indian central
Himalaya, during the rehabilitation programme carbon sequestration rate in vegetation was
recorded. Carbon sequestration rate was 4.3 t ha‐1yr‐1 after 7 yrs of planting of Thamnocalamus
spathiflorus (temperate species of bamboo), Aesculus indica, Quercus leucotrichophora and Juglans
regia11.. According to a study done under Kyoto research project, as per the mean of three year data
carbon sequestration rate across the studied community forests in the Himalayan region was 3.7t
ha‐1yr‐112. In the present study, carbon sequestration due to plantation of bamboo at Jeolikote (1250
m asl) is quite comparable to above mentioned studies of Himalayan region.

However, carbon sequestration through bamboo plantation in the present study performed in the
mid hill region is not as high as it is reported in the tropical regions13 but there are some important
facts which need to be highlighted:

¾ Plantation was done in the wastelands.

¾ Monitoring of carbon sequestered was based only on above ground biomass not the total
biomass.
¾ Data presented is based only on two year old plantation.
¾ Biomass produced and hence the carbon sequestered is directly correlated to the existing
quantity of biomass in the previous year in case of bamboo. A linear increase in biomass
with the age of plantation up to six years has been reported in a stand of Bambusa
bambos14. So in subsequent years of growth further monitoring and more multilocational
trials shall be needed to be perform.

6
Singh, P, Dubey, P. & Jha, K.K. 2004. Biomass production and carbon storage at harvest age in superior Dendrocalamus strictus
plantation in dry deciduous forest region of India. In Singh, H.P.; Dadlani, N.K. Abstracts of the VII World Bamboo Congress, New
th
Delhi, 27 February – 4 March, 2004. VIIth World Bamboo Congress, New Delhi, India, pp. 122.

7
. Kumar, B.M. Rajesh, G. and Sudheesh, K.G. 2005. Aboveground biomass production and nutrient uptake of thorny bamboo [bambusa
bambos(L.) Voss] in the homegardens of Thrissur, Kerala. J. of Tropical Agriculture, 43 (1‐2): 51‐56.

8
Londono, X. 2004. Environmental advantages and plant growth of Guadua angustifolia in Colombia In Singh, H.P.; Dadlani, N.K. Abstracts
th
of the VII World Bamboo Congress, New Delhi, 27 February – 4 March, 2004. VIIth World Bamboo Congress, New Delhi, India, pp.
119.

9
Isagi,Y.; Kawahara,T.; Kamo,K. & Ito,H. 1997. Net production and carbon cycling in a bamboo Phyllostachys pubescens stand, Plant‐
Ecology., 130(1): 41‐52.

10
. Kao, Y.P. & Chang, T.Y. 1989. The growth and biomass production of Dendrocalamus asper plantation. Bulletin‐of‐the‐Taiwan‐
Forestry‐Research‐Institute., 4 (1), 31‐41.

11
Saxena, K. G.; Rao, K.S.; Sen, K.K.; Maikhuri, R.K. & Semwal. R. L. 2001. Integrated natural resource management: approaches and
lessons from the Himalaya. Conservation Ecology 5(2), 14. [online
12
Singh, S.P. 2007. Himalayan Forest Ecosystem Services. Published by CHEA.

13
Singh, A.N. & Singh, J.S. 1999. Biomass, net primary production and impact of bamboo plantation on soil redevelopment in a dry
tropical region. Forest Ecology and Management., 119 (1‐3).

14
Shanmughavel, P. and Francis,K. The dynamics of biomass and nutrients in bamboo (Bambusa bambos) plantations. Journal‐of‐
Bamboo‐and‐Rattan. 2001, 1: 2, 157‐170.

29
In the central Himalayan Region, aspect related changes in biomass stocks and carbon sequestration
rates in Shorea robusta forest has been reported15. Annual increase of biomass was reported 8.73 t
ha‐1 on north eastern and 3.21 t ha‐1 on eastern aspect and hence, the carbon sequestered on both
the aspects varied. Similarly aspect related more studies in case of bamboo are required for the
Himalayan region.

Recommendation and Conclusion

Data regarding the procurement and consumption of poles for making various articles (ladders, huts,
construction accessories) in the foothills (Haldwani) of Kumaon region revealed that approximately
735 t bamboo is needed every year. There are 10‐15 workshops/shops of bamboo articles and
consumption of bamboo poles varies from 5‐8 truck (7 t /truck) loads per annum per shop. Major
supply of bamboo in Haldwani is from North East via Bareilly Mandi. Bamboo pole requirement of
Haldwani for making various articles can be fulfilled by 33 ha plantation under cultivated conditions.
Expected productivity of bamboo under cultivated conditions is 30 t ha‐1 per annum16 out of which
approximately 75% is above ground17. Scenario of bamboo cultivation, use in making the articles and
therefore, the carbon sequestered is explained Fig.2.

In Uttarakhand state, there is a great pressure on the forest in the rural areas for timber and fodder
because of which all around the villages there are lots of degraded lands, which are under village
Van Panchayats and private holdings. Area under wasteland in Uttarakhand is 2959.05 km2 which is
5.52% of the total area18. A part of these lands can be used for plantation of fast growing clonal
bamboo species up to an altitude of 1400‐1600 meters. The present study was an initiative to
motivate the local people of the area by demonstrating them the feasibility of bamboo cultivation
and its role as a sink of atmospheric carbon. Interviews held with people indicate that most of them
want to plant it but availability of good quality planting material and technical know how is the
limiting factor.

15
Singh, V.; Tewari, A.; Ram, J. & Singh, C. 2009. Aspect related changes in biomass stocks and carbon sequestration rates od Shorea
robusta (Sal) forest of Central Himalaya. Report and Opinion, 1(2), 56‐60.

16
Pande, S.K. 2004. Bamboo, sequestration and carbon trading. In Singh, H.P.; Dadlani, N.K. Abstracts of the VII World Bamboo Congress,
th
New Delhi, 27 February – 4 March, 2004. VIIth World Bamboo Congress, New Delhi, India, p 120‐121.

17
Singh, P,; Dubey, P. & Jha, K.K. 2004. Biomass production and carbon storage at harvest age in superior Dendrocalamus strictus
plantation in dry deciduous forest region of India. In Singh, H.P.; Dadlani, N.K. Abstracts of the VII World Bamboo Congress,
th
New Delhi, 27 February – 4 March, 2004. VIIth World Bamboo Congress, New Delhi, India, pp. 122.

18
Sati, V.P. 2004. System of agriculture farming in the Uttaranchal Himalaya, India. J. Mountain Science., 2 (1): 76‐85.

30
 Carbon Sequestration (t/ha)

3.5

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
850 900 1250 1300

Altitude (m)

Fig 1: Carbon sequestered at various altitudes by bamboo plantation in the Kumaon region of
Uttarakhand

31
 735 t of bamboo consumption

33 ha plantation of bamboo

After 6 years

Huts and Ladder Furniture Baskets Construction

Cottages accessories

367.5 t carbon sequestered for1

to 30 years

Fig 2: Projection on carbon sequestration through bamboo in Kumaon region

32
Impact of Biostabilization Measures on Soil Carbon Pool in
Landslide Areas‐ A Case Study of Varunavat Landslide in Uttarkashi
District of Garhwal Himalaya
Ashish Rawat

Abstract
Landslides can be considered one of the important soil degradation processes in the Indian
Himalayan Region (IHR), which not only results in serious soil erosion and water runoff problems but
also affect the soil structure and nutrient pool present in the soil. Soil has received wide attention
for its role in sequestering atmospheric carbon because carbon reserves in the soil are more
permanent in time scale compared to the carbon pool in vegetation. But landslides can constitute
damage to the self‐regulating mechanism of carbon sequestration that removes carbon dioxide
from both soil and vegetation. Changes in soil carbon pools (both increase and decrease) can be of
global significance and may either mitigate or worsen climate change. Revegetation of landslide
sites can both reduce carbon in the atmosphere by fixing carbon in vegetation and soil, and also
reduce carbon emission by preventing further ecosystem damage, vegetation degradation and
subsequent soil erosion. The re‐vegetation/ biostabilization of landslide sites can be useful for both
landslide mitigation and carbon sequestration the case study deals with the impact of such
revegetation measures on soil carbon pool.

Climate change is a shift in the “average weather” that a given region experiences. This is measured
by changes in all the features associated with weather, such as temperature, wind patterns,
precipitations and storms. Global climate change means change in the climate of earth as a whole.
The earth’s natural climate has always been, and still is, constantly changing. But today’s climate
change differs from previous climate change in both its rate and magnitude.

The temperature on earth is regulated by a system known as “green house effect”. Green house
gases (GHGs) trap the heat of the sun, preventing radiation from dissipating into space. Without the
effect of these naturally occurring gases, the average temperature on the earth would be ‐18°C,
instead of the current average of 15°C (Seth, 2005). According to the Third Assessment Report (TAR)
of Inter Governmental Panel on climate change, the anthropogenic CO2 concentration has increased
by 29%, methane by 150% and nitrous oxide by 15% since the Industrial Revolution. The GHGs in the
atmosphere trap sun energy and slow the escape of long wave radiation back to outer space. This
heat trapping quality of GHGs increase the temperature of the planet.

With the increase in the concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere, the Earth has warmed by about
0.6°C during the past century and the average global temperature has increased more in the last 100
years that at any other time in the past 10,000 years. The doubling of atmospheric CO2
concentration is predicted to cause 1.5°C to 4.5°C rise in world temperature, most scientists
agreeing with upto 3°C rise (Kerr, 2005). Out of 10 warmest years of last 125 years, nine were during
the last decades. With mean global temperature of 14.5°C, 2005 was the second warmest year in
the last 125 years.

The warming of the earth is expected to affect other parameters of climate, such as spatial
distribution of precipitation, amount of precipitation and its seasonal pattern. Such impacts of
climate change could have far‐reaching and/or unpredictable environmental, social and economic

33
consequences. The climate change problem and the related changes are the most serious of the
environmental issues that the world faces today. According to a projection, depending upon the rise
of CO2 concentration in atmosphere India’s average temperature during 2071‐2100 is projected to
rise by 2.9 ‐ 4.2°C and annual precipitation by 220‐300m (Ravindranath et al. 2006).

Ecosystems affect the climate, and will be affected in turn by a changing climate and by increasing
carbon dioxide concentration; rapid changes in climate will change the composition of ecosystems.
Some species will benefit while others will be unable to migrate or adapt to the changes and may
become extinct. Enhanced levels of carbon dioxide may increase productivity and efficiency of water
use of vegetation. The effect of warming on biological process, although properly understood, may
increase the atmospheric concentrations of natural green house gases (Saxena, 2006).

Soils are possible victims of the planet’s figurative fever. Without a greater understanding about soil
carbon dynamics of the world, remedial action will, at best, rely on some guesswork. Soil, water,
climate, flora and fauna constitute the basic natural resources and the national treasure of any
country. Soil is the most important among them. It is the basic source to produce food, fodder, fuel
and fiber ‐ the necessities of the human being. Agriculture and the other allied activities and in turn
the prosperity and economic growth of a country depend on the soil resource. It is, therefore,
important to understand the inherent potential and limitations of soil for managing it for sustained
production.

The pool of carbon in soils is one of the largest near‐surface stores of carbon on Earth. Although
estimates vary widely, most workers now agree that between 1400 and 1500 Pg C are contained in
soil organic matter, which includes undecomposed litter on the soil surface and humic materials
dispersed throughout the soil profile (Schlesinger, 1977; Post et al. 1982; Eswaran et al., 1993,
Batjes, 1996). Changes in soil organic carbon pools (both increase and decrease) can be of global
significance and may either mitigate or worsen climate change. Soil organic carbon (SOC) is vital for
ecosystem functions, with major influence on: soil structure, water holding capacity, Cation
Exchange Capacity, ability to form complexes with metal ions, fertility to store nutrients, above and
below ground biodiversity.

1.1.1 Soil Organic Carbon

Soil carbon is the generic name for carbon held within the soil, primarily in association with its
organic content. There are two discrete pools in which soil carbon is stored: the soil’s microbial
biomass and easily‐decomposed plant residues that are cycled rapidly and in which carbon may
reside for as little as a few weeks, and; the pool in which carbon is more tightly held by physical
encapsulation within soil aggregates (singular masses of coherent soil particles, or peds) or chemical
complexing and in which carbon may reside for tens of thousands of years.(Bardgett, R.D., 2005).

Soil organic carbon (SOC) refers to the amount of carbon stored in the soil—it is expressed as a
percentage by weight (g C/kg soil). Young et al., 2001, found that SOC is closely related to the
amount of organic matter in the soil (soil organic matter (SOM), according to the approximation:
SOC × 1.72 = SOM. The SOM of Australian soils ranges from 50 per cent in alpine humus soils to less
than one per cent in desert loams. Across Victoria the SOM range of both agricultural and non‐
agricultural surface soils is from 1.3 to 10.5 per cent (Leeper and Uren, 1993).

34
1.1.2 Measurement of SOC content

A simple way to determine the SOM content of a soil is to burn off the organic matter in a furnace
and determine the mass lost. To determine SOC an assumption can then be made that SOM is, on
average, 58% C. This method is called ‘Loss on Ignition’. It is a very approximate method which
varies in accuracy depending on the clay content of the soil.

Another method is to use chemical means to oxidize the Carbon in SOM to carbon dioxide (CO2) and
organic acids. The amount of the oxidizing agent used gives a measure of the mass of Carbon
oxidized. This method is called ‘the dichromate method’ as it involves oxidation by boiling the soil
sample with an acid dichromate solution. It is also referred to as the Walkley and Black method,
after the scientists who first documented its use.

1.1.3 Estimating SOC pools

When trying to assess the pool of Carbon that is held in a given area of soil (for example in a field, a
region or even a country), the depth of the soil and the compaction of the soil have to be taken into
account. Estimates of SOC pool will generally refer to a given depth of soil (e.g. the top 30 cm or top
100 cm). The amount of soil in a given depth depends on how compacted the soil is, which is
measured by determining the soil’s bulk density (BD). The SOC pool of a given area of soil with the
same soil type can then be expressed by equation.

Where SOC pool is given in Pg (1015 g), SOC content is in g C g‐1, BD is in Mg m‐3, area is in Mha and
depth is in m.

1.1.4 Soil and Carbon Sequestration

Soil carbon sequestration is the process of transferring carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the
soil through crop residues and other organic solids, and in a form that is not immediately remitted.
This transfer or “sequestering” of carbon helps off‐set emissions from fossil fuel combustion and
other carbon‐emitting activities while enhancing soil quality and long‐term agronomic productivity.
Soil carbon sequestration can be accomplished by management systems that add high amounts of
biomass to the soil, cause minimal soil disturbance, conserve soil and water, improve soil structure,
and enhance soil fauna activity. Increased long term (20‐50 year) sequestration of carbon in soils,
plants and plant products will benefit the environment and agriculture.

Land use changes and forest soil degradation affect emissions of GHGs rather strongly, thereby
causing global warming. These processes have led to a deep concern among the policy makers,
scientists and public alike. Vegetation and soils are widely recognized as carbon storage sinks. The
global biosphere absorbs roughly 2 billion tonnes of carbon annually, an amount equal to roughly
one third of all global carbon emissions from human activity. Significant amounts of this carbon
remains stored in the roots of certain plants and in the soil. In fact, the inventory of carbon stored in
the global ecosystem equals roughly 1,000 years worth of annual absorption, or 2 trillion tons of
carbon.

35
Human activity is not only responsible for emission of green house gases but also responsible for the
over‐exploitation of natural resources which has increased many folds causing disasters such as
landslides etc. Landslides are among the major hydro‐geological hazards that affect almost every
part of the Himalayan ecosystem. The hilly regions of Uttarakhand are vulnerable to landslide, the
vulnerability being accelerated by man’s activity including road construction, deforestation and
cultivation. Grazing and tree cutting are common in the region, so the natural recovery is arrested at
an early stage. (Chaudhry et al., 1996). Landslides can be considered one of the important soil
degradation processes in the hill environment, which not only results serious soil erosion and water
runoff problems but also affect the soil structure and nutrient pool present in the soil.

The landslide areas usually suffer from one or more problems such as low nutrient status, eroded
top soil, lack of soil moisture, poor soil physical and chemical condition etc. These kinds of areas can
be re‐vegetated with some management and minor investments in the establishment of permanent
vegetation (trees and grasses) that will stabilize the local environment and provide the much
needed fodder and energy resources for rural communities.

The September 23rd, 2003 Varunavat landslide in Uttarkashi district not only caused massive
devastation to properties but also devastated many of the natural resources of the area and caused
an economical loss of Rs43.40 lakhs alone due to the depletion of about 3,100 chir pine (Pinus
roxburghii) trees which is the dominant forest tree species of the area. (Soni et al., 2008). The
landslide also caused massive ecological loss to the natural habitat (Rawat et al., 2007). To restore
the Varunavat landslide areas, biostabilization measures are being undertaken in the damaged as
well as in the natural forests sites.

The carbon pool potential of landslide areas has not been studied in detail so far, by proper
biostabilization techniques. These areas, which are net emitters of carbon can become potential
carbon sinks, thereby mitigating green house effect substantially the trend of depletion of carbon
pool by landslide problems can be reversed though proper biostabilization measures.

The biostabilization measures in Varunavat landslides will not only helped to sequestrate carbon but
also will provide fuel, fodder and other useful forest resources to local inhabitants, which in turn will
help them to raise their economy, is directly linked with the sustainable development.

Objectives

• To study the carbon pool in natural, landslide damaged and re‐vegetated sites.
• To assess the carbon sequestered through the biostabilization measures in Varunavat
landslide area.

3.1.1 Sample Collection

For the present investigation random soil sampling has been done, five replicates of soil have been
collected from all the three viz. landslide damaged sites, adjoining natural forest area and 3 year‐old
re‐vegetated sites at the depth of 0‐30 cm. depth.

36
3.1.2 Measurment of SOC Percentage

As discussed in the previous chapter there are several methods for estimation of SOC content, for
the present investigation Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) was determined by Walkley and Black’s rapid
titration method as modified by Walkley (1935). This method is also called ‘The dichromate
method’ as it involves oxidation by boiling the soil sample with an acid dichromate solution.

3.2.3 Estimation of Bulk Density

Core sampler was used for collecting samples for bulk density estimation. Each sample was properly
labeled and brought to the laboratory for analysis.

3.3 Approach

The IPCC‐GPG 2003 guidelines approach has been used in this study to calculate the soil organic
carbon (SOC) pool in all the three sites viz. damaged sites, adjoining natural forest area and
revegetated sites.

To calculate the soil organic carbon (SOC) percentage needs to be converted into tones per hectare
using bulk density, depth of the soil and area (10,000 m2).

To estimate soil organic carbon {SOC) in tonnes per hectare, soil mass (t/ha) is needed to calculate
using following equation.

SOC (t/ha) can be calculated using following equation.

The result of the present investigation reveal that the SOC content in the natural forest has been
assessed by about 2.89 %, while the bulk density have been evaluated at 1.1 t/m3. In the landslie
damaged site the SOC percentage had been calculated at about 0.98 % where as bulk density had
been assessed at 1.29t/m3. In case of re‐vegetated site the SOC percentage has been estimated
about 1.21% and the bulk density has been estimated at about 1.15t/m3 (table 1.1).

The results reveals that the maximum soil mass has been calculated in landslide site (3870 t/ha)
followed by re‐vegetated site (3630 t/ha) and the minimum soil mass have been assessed in natural
forest site where it was about 3300 t/ha. The SOC pool in natural forest site has been assessed
about 95.37 t/ha. Followed by 43.92 t/ha in re‐vegetated site and 37.92 t/ha in landslide damaged
site (Table 1.2).The difference between the mean SOC pool in natural area and landslide area has
determined as the loss in carbon pool due to the catastrophic Varunavat landslide in Uttarkashi
which was calculated to be 57.45 t/ha (2.1).

The re‐vegetation process in Varunavat landslide area not only stabilizes the landslide affected sites
but also improve the soil condition of the area. The difference between the mean SOC pool in re‐

37
vegetated sites and landslide sites is considered to be the amount of SOC sequestration due to the
biostabilization measures which is calculated to be 6.00 t/ha.

The re‐vegetation and rehabilitation of such degraded ecosystems aims to regain ecosystem
integrity; that is, the maintenance of the potential to provide a certain set of goods and services for
which the site is suited; implying the maintenance of biological diversity, ecological processes and
structure, and sustainable cultural practices. The rehabilitation of such degraded forest lands also
aims to re‐establish site productivity and productivity and protective functions and many ecological
services provided by a functional forest or woodland ecosystem.

A major question in this study was to which extent biostabilization measures are important for
carbon pool in the soil and the reactivity of SOC. It can be concluded that it is possible to manage
sequestration of carbon in such degraded ecosystem by selection of proper plant species in
afforestation projects.

Table 1.1. SOC Percentage and Bulk Density of Different Study Sites

Table 1.2. SOC Pool and Soil Mass of Different Study Sites

38
Table 2.1 Loss in SOC pool and Amount of SOC Pool Sequetrated After Bio‐stabilization Measures

Literature cited

Chaudhry S., Singh S. P. and J. S. Singh (1996). Performance of Seedlings of Various Life Forms on
Landslide‐Damaged Forest Sites in Central Himalaya (The Journal of Applied Ecology, 33(1):109‐117)
pp.
Eswaran, H., Vandenberg, E., Reich, P. (1993). Organic carbon in soils of the world. Soil Sci. Soc.
Am. J. 57: 192–194.
Kerr, R. (2005). Three degree of consensus. New focus. Science 305: 932‐934.
Post, W.M., Emanuel, W.R., Zinke, P.J., Stangenberger, A.G. (1982). Soil carbon pools and world
ife zones. Nature 298: 156–159.
Rawat, A., Soni P. and Vasistha, H.B. (2007). Impact of Varunavat Landslide on Ecological and
Economical Value of Natural Resources of Uttarkashi District of Garhwal Himalaya.
International Tropical Ecology Congress. 167 pp.
Ravindranath, N.H., Joshi N.V., Sukumar, R. and Saxena, A. (2006). Impact of climate change on
forests in India. Current Science 90:354‐361.
Saxena, A.K. (2006). Carbon Pool in a Chronosequence of Restored Limestone Mines of Sirmour
District, Himachal Pradesh, Ph.D. thesis submitted to Forest Research Institute, Deemed
University.
Schlesinger, W.H. (1977). Carbon balance in terrestrial detritus. Annual Review of Ecology and
Systematics 8: 51–81.
Seth, D. (2005). Civil Services Chronical. 14‐16.
Soni P., Vasistha, H.B. and Rawat, Ashish (2008). Natural Resources Depletion and Their Ecological
and Economical Valuation in Varunavat Landslide of Uttarkashi District, Garhwal Himalaya.
Landslide Management: Present Scenario & Future Directions, 103 pp.

39
Significance of Mixed Forestry in Biodiversity Conservation and as
an adaptation Strategy for Securing Livelihood in the
Context of Climate Change
Jagat Singh ‘Jangali’

Abstract

The project was implemented for developing a unique agro‐ mixed forest model in montane zone of
the Garhwal Himalayas. This initiative was taken up by Mr Jagat Singh Chaudhary “Jangali” nearly 35
years back albeit without following any scientific design at the height of 4500 feet (about 1,600
asml) near Kot Malla Village in Rudraprayag District of Uttarakhand. More than 100 plant species
were grown in four hectares (ha) of degraded land. The initiative has been successful in raising tree
species naturally occurring at different altitudes along with various evergreen grass species and
many herbs of medicinal value. This has improved the livelihood condition of women of the village
as the restored forest and been able to meet various household needs of the villagers including that
of fuel wood and fodder. It also supports water conservation and green cover throughout the year
that helps to mitigate climate change impacts both directly and indirectly.

Overview
In mountains peoples are mainly depend on forests for
their fuel and fodder requirements. But there is rapid
depletion in resource availability due to growing human
pressure and unsustainable extraction of resources
from forests. Forests have several linkages with climate
change and have been playing a critical role in
mitigation19 and climate change adaptation as they
provide different ecosystems, goods and services that
support adaptation and help to ‘buffer’ some of the
negative effects.20 Forest also play a role in
precipitation and help to level out the impact of
extreme weather events such as droughts and flooding.
Due to changing climatic conditions and monoculture
forests, fires are occurring more frequently in
Uttarakhand forests have taken place at higher
altitudes also due to drought conditions in the winter
season. The places which earlier had water‐falls are
now experiencing drought‐like conditions. Native plant species like, Paeiya (Prunus cerasoides),
Motivation: Since my childhood I have been Formatted: Font: Calibri
seeing the struggle for fuel wood and fodder
collection from the forest; first by my
grandmother and mother and subsequently,
by my wife after marriage. They leave home
early in the morning and collect fuel and
fodder till the evening to fulfill the daily
need. This was the story of every villager.
Ultimately I decided to do something so my
family could get these resources easily from
the nearby areas. Finally I decided to create
my own forest on a non productive barren
land near to my village. But this idea was not
supported by my family members. They
intended to migrate from this place and
search for jobs in the city. The only support I
got was from my aunt, Mrs. Sita Devi, and
she has been the only inspiration and
support to initiate this work.
Jagat Singh Chaudhary ‘Jangali’

19
IPCC 2007. Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change
20
Stuki V & Smith M (2007) forest and water resources –the poor’s assets to adapt to climate chamge? Paper for third International
conference on climate & water, Helsinki

40
Kaphal (Myrica esajlanta), Pipal (Ficus religiousa), Anyar (Lyonia ovalifolis), Burans
(Rhodooendron arboretum) etc. that help in water conservation naturally are disappearing very fast
due to anthropogenic activity and forest fires. Places that received Pala (frost) during winter are no
longer facing frost condition that results in reduced moisture availability to support growth of winter
vegetation

in the Himalayan region. Farming in this region, has traditionally been dependant on forests. The
forests are the source of fodder, fuel, wood that is used in construction works, herbs, wild fruits
and vegetables, and good quality fertilizer that is obtained from the dry leaves that lay in cattle
homes. Due to growing population there is high pressure on natural resources. Change in weather
condition, irregular nature of rainfall and snowfall and reduction in water availability is now
affecting the livelihoods of the people in the mountains.

The present case study is a success story about creation of a mixed forest through an individual’s
efforts to develop a sustainable model for livelihood options which can also deal with climate
change.

Project Location

The project site is located near village Kot Malla, district Rudraprayag (30°17′N 78°59′E30.28°N
78.98°E). It has an average elevation of 4,500 feet. The climate of the district is largely dependent on
the altitude of the region. The winter season is from about mid November to March. As most of the
region is situated on the southern slops of the outer Himalayas, monsoon currents can enter
through the valley, rainfall being the heaviest from June to September. The project area was totally
barren without any source of water when work was initially started on 1.5 hectares of personal land
to create the mixed forest. Now a total of 4 hectares of land have been restored as mixed forest on
personal and community land.

The Study

To develop a self sustained model of agro‐mixed forest to support people’s livelihood this initiative
was taken up nearly 35 years ago, albeit without following any scientific design. To develop the
mixed forest, the field was protected by bio‐fencing to control cattle grazing. After bio‐fencing some
ground work was done to retain the rain water in the field and trenches were dug to facilitate water
harvesting. The next step taken was to sow the seeds of the native plant species‐ plant the saplings
and take continuous care and protect them. Successful development of the sustainable model of
mixed forestry at Kotmalla Village is an example of an individual’s effort and dedication to achieve
the goal.

41
 Different Stages of Project Development Activities and Achievements

Development Phase Activities Started Results Achieved

Phase‐I • Decided to create forest to fulfill fuel • Results were not Visible
Field protection by and fodder requirement of family
Bio fencing • Started bio‐fencing of 1.5 hector land
using spiny plants around the plot to
1974‐1980 control entry of cattle in the field
• Protection of existing small bushy trees
of Oak and Pines

Phase‐II • Starts ground work to make opposite • Increased soil moisture

Field preparation slope in field to retain rain water in the and retains for longer
field duration
1980‐1985 • Make trenches for water harvesting • Ground flora starts
• Showing of seeds of native plant coming
species during rainy season
• Starts plantation work

Phase‐III • Concept of mixed forest farming • Enhanced plant diversity

introduced including perennial grass
1985‐1995 • Fodder, fuel, fruits and cash crop are species in the field.
tried to grown at same place • More ground biomass
• Plantation of plants of different due to leaf fall and
altitude ground flora
• Pit Technique was introduced • More water retention and
• Sustainable harvesting of resources moisture availability
• Medicinal plants/herbs introduced • Control in soil erosion

• Successful model of
Phase‐IV • Continuous introduction of new plant mixed forest
species • Rich plant diversity
1995‐ Till Date • Continuous observation about • No forest fire
adaptability of mixed forest under • Get popularity in media
changing climatic conditions. and among scientific
community
• Spot for educational visit

Analysis and Outcomes

Thirty five years back the entire piece of land, where the mixed forest now stands, was barren with
only some small bushy trees of Oak and Pine were grown here and there. Initially the protection of
existing plants were taken care of and seeds of 15‐20 native plant species were collected and sown,
in a scattered manner, on the entire area during the rainy season. Plant fencing was made around
the area by growing different spiny/ thorny plants like Nagfany, Karonda, Kunja to protect the
growing plants from cattle and wild animals. As a result of continuous efforts and caring for the
plants, ultimately there was success in creating a green patch of mixed forest on the unfertile barren
land.

42
Trenches were made in the available spaces between two trees in such a way that it could stop soil
erosion by slowing water flow and retaining rainwater that could be absorbed by the soil, preventing
unnecessary runoff. This helped to insure the water availability for longer periods and support the
growth of ground flora.

Indigenous Technique
A significant success has been achieved in mixed forest farming through adapting an indigenous
“Pit Making Technique” .In this technique a pit is dug and soil dug out from the pit is put around
it and pit is filled with waste vegetation, dry leaves and litters. These litters get decomposed
and convert into good manure to use in the agriculture and forest field as bio‐fertilizer.
Rainwater collected in the pit percolate downwards that improve the availability of moisture
for longer period and provide option to grow water loving plans during rainy season in these
pits. A crop is grown on dig out soil around the pit gives higher production.

Roots of trees of mixed species made the land firm that help in controlling soil erosion. While due to
decomposition of available plant litter and biomass of ground flora the soil quality improved
continuously year after year which supports the growth of other cash crops like ginger, turmeric,
cardamom, vegetables, Feather leaves etc as under canopy crops that creates another livelihood
option.

Due to different shapes and nature of the root of the

mixed species, they make a ring beneath the earth so
that the grip of the soil becomes stronger. Growing of
cash crops is not only beneficial financially but also
strengthens the upper layer of soil by growing
perennial grasses mainly Napier, Kaksfoot, Jointstar,
Tachhula, Kanguaulaya Telia, Clovers red and white
etc., whose roots grip the earth firmly and also help in
solving the problem of fodder collection for the women
of the village. Growing lemon grass also helps on
checking landslides.

Enhanced Biodiversity:
Table 1: Plant Diversity at mixed forest site

The study site is now rich with plant diversity, with S. No. Type of plants No. of Sp.
more than a hundred plant species. (Table 1) The
1. Trees 60
uniqueness of this mixed forest model is that plants
2. Flowers 10
of different altitudes (give altitude range) are
3. Medicinal plants 25
successfully grown at the same elevation.
Due to high plant diversity more birds are spotted 4. Ferns 03
and observed. Faunal diversity also increased while 5. Evergreen grasses 25
systematic study in this regard has not been done.

43
Enhanced Water Availability

Earlier water had to be collected from about two kilometers away which then had to be carried in
vessels to the homes of the people. Now a new water source has been generated near to the mixed
forest site in the form of a small spring. This is basically due to water harvesting activities in the field
and rich plant diversity supporting water holding and percolation. There is continuous water supply
for 9‐10 months. Successful development of mixed forests help in preventing landslides as also
heavy and rapid runoff and flow of soil and stones. It also helps in recharging nearby water bodies.

Enhanced Livelihood: Due to the availability of fodder, fuel, fruits and cash crop together at one
place, in the mixed forest, the livelihood of the people of the area has improved and the
dependency of families of Kotmalla village on the forest for fuel and fodder has reduced.

Mixed Forest & Climate Change Link:

In this system, there is more green cover throughout the year due to the presence of high diversity
of plant species belonging to different altitudes. This practice also helps in sequestering more
carbon from the atmosphere and directly helps in climate change mitigation. This model of agro‐
mixed forest also helps to reduce the dependency on natural forest for fodder and fuels that helps
in natural resource conservation and management.

Field Observations

• Agro‐forest farming is attracting more birds and they are helping to protect the trees like,
Painya, Mehal, Timla, Khaina, Chanchari, Kafal, Bhimal Kharik and Telks from harmful
Insects by feeding on them (insects). Their droppings contain seeds of plants that get

44
 dispersed in the field resulting in more species on the land and also add to the fertility of the
land. It has been observed that the fertility of the land has improved, which was barren
earlier.

• The growth of those trees are faster, under which herbs and other flowering plants are
grown, in comparison to others grown in isolation.
• There is also higher yield in agricultural produce from the agricultural fields which are
within the vicinity of the mixed forest.

Replicability

This mixed forest‐agro model can be replicated in other areas but it needs long term planning and
involvement. Plants take their own time to grow and adapt to adverse conditions. Presently,
replication of this model is in progress at three locations in Uttarakdand.

• Village Kodima, Rudraprayag District by Village Panchayat

• Malu Pani, Tehri Gaehwal by DKD an NGO
• Chauras Campus of HNB Garhwal University.

Acknowledgement

I am grateful to Prof. S.P. Singh, F.N.A, Hon'ble Ex ‐Vice Chancellor H.N.B. Garhwal University, for
providing me with an opportunity to develop the mixed forest in the barren land of the University,
Chauras Campus, in collaboration with the Department of Forestry. I also thank Prof. Sri Krishna
Singh, Vice‐Chancellor HNB Garhwal Central University, for the moral support extended to me.

Lastly, I would like to thank Lead India, New Delhi, and Central Himalayan Environment Association
(CHEA), Nainital, for their support.

45
"The effect of climate change on important medicinal and aromatic
plants: Local perception in high hill temperate region of Kullu
district, Himachal Pradesh (India)"
Jagdish Singh

Abstract

Climate change is perhaps the most important factor which influences vegetation patterns
globally and is likely to significantly impact the forest ecosystems including the medicinal
and aromatic plants populations. This study investigates local people's perception about the
impact of climate change on medicinal and aromatic plants in high hill temperate region of
Kullu district of Himachal Pradesh (India). About 97 percent of people in the study region
have attributed the diminishing of medicinal and aromatic plants in the region to climate
change.

1. Introduction

There is unequivocal evidence that the Earth’s climate is warming at an unprecedented rate.
Temperature increases are geographically inequitable. Some regions, particularly at high altitudes
and latitudes, are warming more than other areas. Climates are changing more rapidly than species
can adapt and there is a high risk of mass extinctions and resulting loss of biodiversity as the planet
warms. With predicted temperature increases, changing hydrological cycles and other factors of
climate change, as many as half of all plant species may be lost over the next century. This is a
catastrophic scenario given the fundamental importance of plants to life on earth. As yet there is a
lack of published information on plant extinctions directly due to climate change but with baseline
information now being collected on the distribution, threat status and ecology of various plant
groups, monitoring schemes can be established. Plant species restricted to high‐risk habitats,
including montane, island or coastal habitats are likely to be the first casualties of climate change.
Plant conservation action needs to be increased now to ensure that options are available for the
future.

Many of the world’s poor depend directly on harvesting non‐timber forest products, edible,
medicinal and aromatic plants for livelihoods and sustenance. With increasing human pressure and
loss of natural vegetation, many of these species are already under threat. Climate change will
further threaten these species and consequently, the people who depend on them. Climate change
is affecting medicinal and aromatic plants around the world and could ultimately lead to losses of
some key species, according to researchers and conservationists, as reported in HerbalGram, the
quarterly journal of the American Botanical Council (ABC). It is in this context the present study has
been carried out to document the local people's perception about the effect of climate change on
medicinal and aromatic plants in the high altitude, temperate region of Kullu district, Himachal
Pradesh, in India.

The Kullu valley in Himachal Pradesh is situated between 31° 21' N latitude and 76° 49' 55'' East
longitude with a total geographical area of 5503 km2, altitude varying from 350 m to 6500 m above
mean sea level and has the distinction of being one of the richest repositories of medicinal and

46
aromatic plants resources in the country. Himalayan herbs have received unprecedented attention
the world over. Medicinal and aromatic plants sector has traditionally occupied an important
position in the socio‐ cultural, spiritual and medicinal arenas in the lives of the rural tribal population
living in the state. The local tribal population has traditional rights to collect medicinal herbs as
Minor Forest Produce (MFP) in designated forestland (Anderson, 1886) which has been an
important source of income for the natives (Dobriyal et al., 1997; Tondon, 1997; Badola, 1998,
2002). However over the past few decades the availability of medicinal plants in the state is
declining, according to records of the state forest department, Govt. of Himachal Pradesh. The
quantity of 10 major economically important medicinal plant species exported from Himachal
Pradesh has declined from 38,125.34 quintals in 1990‐91 to 14,015 quintals in 1999‐2000, indicating
a rapidly decreasing trend in availability of raw materials from natural resources. Chauhan(1988) has
enumerated 20 species of medicinal plants as endangered/ threatened in Himachal Pradesh.
Recently, a CAMP (Conservation of Aromatic and Medicinal Plants) workshop was organized to
assess the threat status of medicinal plants, with the support of FRLHT (Foundation for Revitalization
of Local Health Traditions) Bangalore. It was found that in Himachal Pradesh there are 12–critically
endangered, 21–endangered and 27‐vulnerable medicinal and aromatic plants.

2. Objectives

• To document local perception of the impact of climate change on medicinal plant

• To suggest management prescription for conservation and preservation of medicinal plants

3. Study Area

The Kullu district situated in the state of Himachal Pradesh, India is in the transition zone between
the lesser Himalaya to the south and the greater Himalaya to the north. The elevation of the study
area varies from 1600m to 3600m. The high hill temperate climate is characterized by dry winters
and hot, rainy summers. Average annual precipitation amounting to more than 4000 mm is primarily
due to the Monsoons. Temperature varied from a mean daily minimum of ‐150C and 00C in winter to
maximum of 200C to 300C in summer.

Fig.1. Agro‐climatic Zones of Himachal Pradesh

47
4. Methodology

For the present case study I randomly conducted semi‐structured interviews, in Hindi, with
30 people from the valley. People were asked what they thought about climate change,
details of important medicinal and aromatic plants known to them, that were available in
the region and changes in their availability over the years and to try and ascertain whether
climate change had really affected the availability of medicinal and aromatic plants in the
region. Their observations and suggestions were also solicited. Meteorological data and
secondary data were obtained from the Regional Horticulture Research Station, Mashobra,
Shimla and State Forest Department of Himachal Pradesh.

Result and Discussions

5. Perception of climate change

5.1 Effect of climate change

People perceived definite changes in the climate over a period of time. Most people in the
region blamed deforestation, population explosion and industrialization as a major cause
for climate change. Hundred percent of the respondents (n=30) felt that increased
temperature, less snowfall, untimely and erratic rainfall were the result of climate change in
the region. They further stated that due to climate change there was a definite reduction in
crop production, especially horticultural crops and increased incidence of pest infestation.
From the meteorological data (Table1&2), it is evident that there has been an increase in
the mean maximum and minimum temperatures with respect to the base line data of 1973‐
90. There is significantly less amount of rain fall in summer and winter during 2001‐07 with
respect to base line data of 1973‐90 (Fig.2). Similarly there is a significantly decreasing trend
in the amount of snow fall from 1991‐2007 with respect to base line data of 1973‐90 (Fig.
3).

5.2. Medicinal and aromatic plants

Hundred percent of the informants (n=30) believed

Rajender Sharma of village Jagatsukh
that there is less availability of medicinal and aromatic expressed that besides the climate change
plants, which they ascribe to climate change. About 60 due to less rearing of sheep and goats by
percent of the informants said that earlier collection of the people, consequently there is less
medicinal and aromatic plants served as a source for amount of manure in the forests hence less
generating extra income. The important medicinal and availability of medicinal and aromatic
aromatic plants earlier easily available (30‐40 years plants in the forests.
ago) in their region were Aconitum heterophyllum,
Angelica glauca, Picrorrhiza kurrooa, Polygonatum
verticillatum, Valeriana jatamansi, Podophyllum hexandrum, Dactylorhiza hategirea, Dioscorea
deltiodea, Berginia stracheyi and Jurinea macrocephala. They further added that nowadays the
population of these medicinal plants has been rapidly declining and are at risk of disappearing
altogether, if appropriate action is not taken in time. They said that some of the important medicinal

48
plants (Table 3) in their region, which are used in the cure of various ailments, and are of high
economic value and must be given priority for conservation. About 90 percent of the informants
suggested that for development of medicinal and aromatic plants in the region, creation medicinal
plants awareness amongst the different stakeholders is the key besides in‐situ and ex‐situ cultivation
of these species in the region.

Table 1. Mean maximum temperature (OC) variation over baseline (1973‐90)

TIME Summer Autumn Winter Spring
PERIOD (June July Aug.) (Sept. Oct. Nov) (Dec. Jan. Feb.) (March April May)

1991‐2000 +1.18 +1.51 +1.83 +1.76

2000‐2007 +1.28 +1.22 +3.42 +2.31

Table 2. Mean minimum temperature (OC) variation over baseline (1973‐90)

TIME PERIOD Summer Autumn Winter Spring
(June July Aug.) (Sept. Oct. Nov) (Dec. Jan. Feb.) (March April May)

1991‐2000 _ ‐0.14 ‐0.04 ‐0.14

2000‐2007 +0.21 +0.74 +0.97 +0.79

Fig.2. Total Rainfall in High Hill Region of Himachal Pradesh

Baseline (1973-90) 1991-2000 2001-2007
777.99
767.73

900
800
581.81
Total Rainfall (m m )

700
600
500
400
235.37
228.39
221.85
185.95
180.50

300
126.36

93.12
87.11

200
80.19

100
0
Summer Autumn Winter Spring
Season

Fig.3. Total Snowfall in High Hill Region of Himachal Pradesh

1973-1990 (baseline) 1991-2000 2001-2007
1 65 .02

180
160
T o tal sn o w fall (cm )

140
120
89 .73

100
72 .74

80
4 1.5 5
39 .85
39 .83

60
3 5.9 1
32 .91

40
6 .89

7 .05
5.99

20
3.2 4

0.67

1.49
0 .0 0
0 .0 0

0 .4 2
0 .0 0

0
49
Jan feb Mar Apr Nov Dec
 Table.3. Important MAP's of high hill temperate region of Himachal Pradesh and their
uses
S.No Species Name Common Family Part Used Uses Plant Group Habit
name
1. Achillea millifolium L. Chuna Asteraceae Leaves Digeton and toothache Angiosperm Herb

2. Aconitum heterophyllum Patish Ranunculaceae Roots Gastric problem Angiosperm Herb

Wall.

3. Allium humile Dunu Amaryllidaceae Digestion Angiosperm Herb

4. Angelica glauca Edgew. Chora, chaura Apiaceae Roots Spices & Flatulence, Angiosperm Herb
dyspepsia, Odema
5. Berginia stracheyi Engl Dal‐kya‐hawo Saxifragiaceae Roots & Blisters Angiosperm Herb
flowers

6. Betula utilis D. Don Bhojpatra Betulaceae Bark Eye disease Angiosperm Tree

7. Dactylorhiza hategirea Hathpanja Leguminosae Roots Cuts & wounds Angiosperm Herb
D.Don

8. Dioscorea deltiodea Wall. Singli‐Mingli Dioscoreaceae Rhizome Soap & contraceptive Angiosperm Shrub
pills
9. Gentiana karooa Royle Karoo Gentianaceae Flowers Cough Angiosperm Herb

10. Heracleum candicans Wall. Tunak Apiaceae Flowers & liver complaints Angiosperm Herb
Leaves
11. Jurinea macrocephala Dhoop Asteraceae Roots Stimulent and fever Angiosperm Herb
Royle

12. Nardostachys grandiflora balchora/jata Valerianaceae Roots gastric problem and Angiosperm Herb
DC mansi hystria

13. Picrorhiza Kurroa Royle ex Hoglen Scorphulariaceae Rhizome Fever &blood Angiosperm Herb
Benth. purification

14. Podophyllum hexandrum Bankakri Berbaridaceae Roots Stomach and vomiting Angiosperm Herb
Royle

15. Rhododendron Tangal Ericaceae Leaves Cold and cough Angiosperm Tree
anthopogon D. Don

16. Rumex nepalensis Spreng Maleri/ malori Polygonaceae Leaves Gastric problem Angiosperm Herb

17. Saussurea obvallata Wall. Brahma kamal Asteraceae Roots Bruises & cuts Angiosperm Herb

18. Taxus baccata Rakhal Coniferae Leaves Cancer treatment Gymnosperm Tree

19. Valeriana jatamansi Jones. Mushkbala Valerianaceae Roots Gastric problem Angiosperm Herb

20. Viola odorata L. Banafsha Violaceae Flowers Cough & cold Angiosperm Herb

50
5.3. Climate mitigation

More than 85 percent of the informants were of the view that one can mitigate the effect of
climate change by planting more trees in the forests, by enabling the natural regeneration
of the forests, by adopting modern techniques of agriculture, by reducing the emission of
poisonous gases by factories and by encouraging organic cultivation.

6. Policy implications/Recommendation

It is evident from the local people's perception that climate change has affected them in various
fields including the medicinal and aromatic sector. From the study, the following recommendations
can be made:

• Creating awareness about medicinal plants amongst the people and the different
stakeholders.
• Promotion of in‐situ and ex‐situ cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants to conserve
important species in their natural habitat.
• Plantation of more trees in the forested and non‐forested areas, and taking steps at
improving the natural regeneration of the forest.
• Promoting organic cultivation amongst the farmers.
•
7. Conclusion

In the future many of the medicinal and aromatic plants species found in the wild are likely to
become extinct due to the effects of climate change which is already imposing huge costs.
Uncertainty about how climate change unfolds or what the response of species and habitats will be
must not prevent us from taking urgent action now. It is the need of the hour to make our best
efforts to conserve and preserve the rich and valuable resources of medicinal and aromatic plants in
the region for maintaining the rich biodiversity and sustained income generation of the rural
communities.

51
The effect and contribution of BALWADIS in Environment and
Climate Change
Manish Khanna

Precis of case study

Objective

The objective of case study was to determine the role played by Balwadis in:
a. conserving the environment;
b. mitigating the effects of climate change at local levels

Methodology

Survey and interviews were undertaken. 14 Balawadis with 184 children were visited

Finding

a. There was a marked decline in the incidence of diseases such as malaria, fever and
diarrhoea;
b. The recovery time from disease was reduced by 60‐70%
c. Children were sensitized to the importance of conserving the environment in
general and the importance of trees in particular within the framework of Water –
Forest – Earth (Jal – Jungal – Zameen)
d. Springs that were dying started rejuvenating
e. Children often prevented their parents from adopting practices (such as feeling of
trees) prejudicial to the environment
f. The parents of children were also influenced by the teachings at Balwadis and were
encouraged to adopt practices that would conserve the local environment
g. Since women in households had ample time to take care of other chores while
children were away in Balwadis, the quality of life improved.

52
dsl LVMh dk fo"k; & i;kZoj.k ,oa tyok;q ifjorZu ds izfr tkx:drk gsrq
ckyokfM+;kas dk ;ksxnku
Jh euh"k [kUuk

tyok;q ifjorZu esa oukas ,oa izkd`frd lalk/kuksa dk egRoiw.kZ ;ksxnku gS- ouksa ds ykHkksa dks ns[krs gq, Bhd ukjk fn;k
x;k gS & ^^cPpk ,d o`{k vusd** bl mn~?kks"k esa tula[;k jksddj vkSj o`{k yxkdj i;kZoj.k 'kq) djus dk mik;
lq>k;k gS- o`{kkjksi.k dk dk;ZØe 'kq) i;kZoj.k fuekZ.k dk izkjEHk gS- o`{kksa dh l?kurk i;kZoj.k iznw"k.k ls gesa cpk
ldrh gS- gekjs m|ksxksa ds fy, ouksa dh vko';drk gS mlls vf/kd vko';drk i;kZoj.k fuekZ.k esa 'kq) ok;q ,oa
'khry ty iznku djus dh {kerk ouksa esa gksrh gS-
ok;q iznw"k.k ;fn ,d ckj mRiUu gks tkrk gS rks mldks nwj djuk ljy ugha gS- iznwf"kr ok;q dk 'kks/ku euq"; ds
gkFk esa ugha gS ok;q 'kks/ku dk dk;Z izd`fr Lo;a djrh gS- gkWa] euq"; mu dkjdksa esa o`f) dj ldrk gS tks fd izd`fr
dh 'kks/ku {kerk esa o`f) dj ldrs gSa- ,sls dkjdksa esa isM+&ikS/kksa ls Hkwfe dk <duk izeq[k gS- ;fn orZeku dkcZu xSlksa
dh nj fLFkj Hkh dj nsa rks Hkh dkcZu xSlksa dks vkWDlhtu
esa cnyus ds fy, ?kus ouksa dh O;oLFkk djuh gksxh-
lEiw.kZ Hkwe.My ds 40 izfr'kr Hkkx ?kus ouksa ls vkPNkfnr
gksus ij gh dkcZu xSlksa dh ek=k ij fu;a=.k ik;k tk
ldrk gS- ;fn ouksa dk foLrkj dj fn;k tk; rks
tho/kkfj;ksa ds fy, izk.k ok;q vkWDlhtu ds fuekZ.k dh
fØ;k lrr~ gks tk;sxh nwljh vksj vkstksu ijr ij izgkj
djus okys vkWDlkbM xSlksa dh ek=k ?kVus yxsxh- ou
yxkus ls i`Foh ds tho/kkjh ldq'ky jg ldrs gSa- i`Foh
dk dop i;kZoj.k Hkh vkUrfjd {k; ls cp ldrk gS vkSj
varfj{k ds nq"izHkkoksa ls j{kk gksxh- tyok;q ifjorZu dks
jksdus ds dkjdksa esa o`f) djus ds fy, gj oxZ ds tu
leqnk; dks blds fy, iz;kl djus pkfg,- tuin vYeksMk ds [kyxkM {ks= dk ifjn';
bUgha esa ,d oxZ Hkkoh ihM+h ;kuh uUgsa&eqUus ,d ,sls ek/;e gSa ftUgsa i;kZoj.k laj{k.k ,oa LokLF; ds izfr Hkh cpiu
ls gh tkx:d fd;k tk ldrk gS- yxHkx izR;sd xzke esa ljdkj }kjk lapkfyr ckyokM+h dsUnzksa esa i;kZoj.k laj{k.k
ls lEcfU/kr f'k{kk bu uUgsa&eqUuksa dks nh tkrh gS- ckyokM+h dsUnzksa ds ek/;e ls nh tkus okyh LoPNrk ,oa tyok;q
ifjorZu dks jksdus gsrq fd;s tk jgs iz;klksa ds fy, vYeksM+k tuin ds [kqyxk<+ tykxe {ks= esa lapkfyr dh tk
jgh dqy 14 ckyokfM+;ksa dk v/;;u fd;k x;k gS-
i;kZoj.k ,oa tyok;q ifjorZu] LoPNrk ,oa cPps vkjEHk ls gh esjh ftKklk dk ,d fo"k; jgk gS- ,sls esa tc esjs
}kjk Lo;alsoh laLFkkvksa ds ys[kk ijh{k.k fd;k tkrk gS ftlesa ckyokM+h ls lEcfU/kr dk;ksaZ dk fooj.k Hkh izLrqr gksrk
gS lkFk gh esjs }kjk ckyokM+h ls lEcfU/kr dk;ksaZ esa ;ksxnku Hkh fn;k tkrk gS- ckyokM+h ds ek/;e ls tyok;q
ifjorZu dks de djus ,oa i;kZoj.k laj{k.k ds fo"k; us eq>s izHkkfor fd;k x;k ftlds dkj.k eSus bl fo"k; dks
viuh dsl LVMh dk ek/;e cuk;k-

dsl LVMh ds mís';

¾ ckyokM+h ,oa tyok;q ifjorZu] i;kZoj.k laj{k.k ,oa LoPNrk esa lEcU/k
¾ ckyokM+h esa i;kZoj.k laj{k.k ls lEcfU/kr fd;s tk jgs fØ;k&dyki
¾ ckyokM+h dk i;kZoj.k laj{k.k ;k tyok;q ifjorZu dks jksdus esa ;ksxnku
¾ ckyokM+h LFkkiuk ds i'pkr~ xzkeh.k i;kZoj.k] tu leqnk; ds LokLF; esa ifjorZu
¾ ckyokM+h dks vkSj lqn`<+ cukus ,oa vf/kd izHkkoh cukus gsrq lq>ko

53
ckyokM+h ,oa tyok;q ifjorZu] i;kZoj.k laj{k.k ,oa LoPNrk esa lEcU/k
;g loZnk lR; gS fd fdlh Hkh fo"k; ls lEcfU/kr rF;ksa dks lh[kus ,oa mudks vius nSfud mi;ksx esa ykus ds fy,
fo|ky; egRoiw.kZ lzksr gksrs gSa- blh ifjizs{; esa 1 ls 5 o"kZ rd ds cPpksa ds fy, ckyokM+h f'k{kk dsUnzksa dh LFkkiuk
dh tkrh gS- ckyokM+h esa cPpksa dks mBus] cSBus] [kkus] ihus] izkFkfed f'k{kk ds lkFk gh f'k{kkizn i;kZoj.k lEcU/kh
fo"k;ksa tSls LoPNrk] i;kZoj.k bR;kfn dh f'k{kk Hkh
tkrh gS- izd`fr dks cpk;s j[kus esa orZeku le; esa xzke
Lrj ij lapkfyr ckyokM+h@vkaxu ckM+h vius egRoiw.kZ
;ksxnku ns jgh gSa- tgkWa ,d vksj Hkkoh ihM+h dks izd`fr
ds lalk/kuksa dks cpk;s j[kus ds tkx:d fd;k tk jgk
gS ogha cPpksa ds ek/;e ls muds vfHkHkkodksa dks Hkh bl
tkx:drk vfHk;ku ls tksM+k tk jgk gS-
ckyokM+h dsUnzksa ds ek/;e ls nh tkus okyh LoPNrk ,oa
tyok;q ifjorZu dks jksdus gsrq fd;s tk jgs iz;klksa ds
fy, vYeksM+k tuin ds [kqyxk<+ tykxe {ks= esa
lapkfyr dh tk jgh dqy 14 ckyokfM+;ksa dk v/;;u
[kqyxkM+ {ks= esa ckyokM+h }kjk yxk;s x;s o`{k fd;k x;k gS- ftudk fooj.k vxzor gS%

Ø- ckyokM+h xzke dk LFkkiuk o"kZ orZeku esa fo"k; f'k{kk dk ek/;e

uke cPpksa dh
la[;k

1. [kWwV ebZ] 1991 10 'kkjhfjd LoPNrk] v{kj Kku] [ksydwn] xhr

i;kZoj.k ddM+& iRFkj

2. pkWa.k 2006 15 'kCn &cks/k] v{kjksa dk Kku] [ksy&dwn] xhr

i;kZoj.k lEcU/kh

3. Vkuh 2007 12 v{kj Kku] 'kCn cks/k] vad Kku] dadM+& iRFkj] xhr
'kkjhfjd LoPNrk] i;kZoj.k ,oa ,oa pkVZ] [ksy dwn
lkad`frd

4. nsoyh[kku 1999 12 'kCn cks/k] v{kj Kku] LokLF;] [ksydwn ,oa xhr]
lkaLd`frd] ns'k HkfDr ,oa i;kZoj.k ukVd
f'k{k.k

5. MkScjk 1995 10 'kCn cks/k] v{kj Kku] LokLF;] [ksydwn ,oa xhr]
lkaLd`frd] [ksydwn] ,oa i;kZoj.k ukVd
f'k{k.k

6. fcekSyk 1998 9 'kCn cks/k] v{kj Kku] LokLF;] [ksydwn ,oa xhr]
lkaLd`frd] [ksydwn] ,oa i;kZoj.k ukVd
f'k{k.k

7. /kkjh 2002 08 'kCn cks/k] v{kj Kku] 'kkjhfjd [ksydwn] xhr]

LoPNrk] lkaLd`frd] [ksydwn] ,oa ukVd]
i;kZoj.k f'k{kk

8. /kkel 2001 20 'kCn cks/k] v{kj Kku] 'kkjhfjd [ksydwn] xhr]

LoPNrk] ,oa i;kZoj.k f'k{kk ukVd]

9. pEik[kkyh 1990 15 'kCn cks/k] v{kj Kku] 'kkjhfjd xhr] ukVd ,oa
LoPNrk] laLdkj ,oa i;kZoj.k f'k{kk [ksydwn

54
10. cylk 1991 10 'kCn cks/k] v{kj Kku] 'kkjhfjd xhr] ukVd ,oa
LoPNrk] laLdkj ,oa i;kZoj.k f'k{kk [ksydwn

11. ukSyk 2002 28 'kCn cks/k] v{kj Kku] 'kkjhfjd xhr] ukVd ,oa
LoPNrk ,oa i;kZoj.k f'k{kk [ksydwn

12. dQydksV flrEcj] 2005 10 'kCn cks/k] v{kj Kku] 'kkjhfjd [ksydwn] xhr
LoPNrk ,oa i;kZoj.k f'k{kk ddM+& iRFkj]
ukVd

13. rYyk [kwaV 1991 15 LokLF; j{kk] [ksydwn] lkaLd`frd xhr] [ksydwn
dk;ZØe

14. ljyk 1992 10 lkekU; Hkk"kk] LoPNrk] [ksydwn] [ksydwn] ukVd

lkaLd`frd dk;ZØe dgkfu;ka] xhr

ckyokM+h esa i;kZoj.k laj{k.k ls lEcfU/kr fd;s tk jgs fØ;k&dyki

ckyokM+h dsUnzksa dk le; xfeZ;ksa izkr% 7&11 cts ,oa vU; ekSle esa 10 ls 02 cts rd gksrk gS ml le; ij cPpksa
dh ekrk,a viuk dk;Z vklkuh ls dj ikrh gS ftlls muds ekufld :i ls ncko ugha iM+rk lkFk gh dqN le;
Lo;a ds fy, Hkh fudky ikrh gSa-
cPpksa dks [ksy&[ksy esa] xhrksa] ukVdksa }kjk isM+&ikSa/kksa dh tkudkjh] muds uke ,oa egRo dks le>k;k tkrk gS ,oa
fo'ks"k jk"Vªh; ioksaZ ij o`{kkjksi.k fd;k tkrk gS- bu {ks=ksa esa lky esa rhu ckj gjsyk dk R;kSgkj euk;k tkrk gS ftlesa
xsgwWa] /kku] nky] eDdk bR;kfn Qlyksa dks ,d NksVs MCcs esa feV~Vh Mkydj mlesa cks;k tkrk gS rFkk ?kj esa iwtk ds
LFkku ij 10 fnu rd j[kk tkrk gS ftlesa ;s ikSa/kksa
6&7 bap rd cM+s gks tkrs gSa rFkk 10 fnu bl ikSa/kks dh
ifÙk;ksa dks dkVdj igys Hkxoku dks p<+k;k tkrk gS
fQj ?kj ds lnL;ksa dks yxk;k tkrk gS- ;g eq[;r;k
Qly] izd`fr laj{k.k ds lkFk gh lq[k lEink ls
lEcfU/kr gS- ckyokM+h esa Hkh bl ioZ ij cPpksa ds fy,
i;kZoj.k laj{k.k ls lEcfU/kr dk;ZØeksa tSls o`{kkjksi.k]
tkx:drk vfHk;ku] ukVd] xhr] [ksy bR;kfn dk
vk;kstu dj iq:Ld`r fd;k tkrk gS- cPpksa dks
NksVs&NksVs ikSa/kksa ds izfr tkx:d djus ds fy, xzke
Vkuh dh ckyokM+h us ukjk fn;k x;k gS&
cksyks isM+ gekjs gS] izk.kks ls Hkh I;kjs
gS] vfHkHkkodksa ls cPpksa dh ckjs esa ppkZ djrh f'kf{kdk,a
ykBh xksys [kk;saxs] vius isM+ cpk;saxs-
xzke eYyk [kWwaV dh ckyokM+h us cPpksa dks bl rjg tkx`r fd;k gS%
^^ioZr ds lc cPpksa us fey ,d vkokt mBkuh gSA
ugha dVsxs isM+ ;gk¡ ds ge cPpks us Bkuh gSAA**
xzke foeksyk dh ckyokM+h ds cPps ,d dk;ZØe esa xhr xkrs gSa&
o`{k yxk;sa /kjk ltk;s] o`{k yxk;sa /kjk ltk;s]
mÙkjk[k.M ds bl dksus dks] uUnu ou lk :Ik]
o`{k----------------
o`{kksa dh Hkh lgu'khyrk] Hkh gS vijeikj
vfeV gks os ns nsrs gS] e/kqj Qyks dk ;s migkj
o`{k----------------
55
 vkvks ge lc] fey o`{k yxk;s] /kjk ltk;sa
mÙkjk[k.M ds bl dksus dks] uUnu ou lk :i ltk;s]
o`{k----------------
ckyokM+h esa cPpksa dks vkl&ikl ds i;kZoj.k dks LoPN j[kus rFkk VkWQh ds fNyds] Qyksa ds fNyds ,d txg ij
,d= djus mUgsa dwM+snku esa Mkyus ds fy, izsfjr fd;k tkrk gS- cPpksa dks fcekfj;ksa ls cpkus ds fy, ikuh mckydj
ihus] mYVh nLr esa ued phuh dk ?kksy cukdj ihuk] flj nnZ o rst cq[kkj gksus ij flj ij B.Ms xhys diM+s dh
iV~Vh j[kuk bR;kfn lykg nh tkrh gS ftls ?kj tkdj vius vfHkHkkodkas dks Hkh crkrs gSa-
ckyokM+h esa cPpksa dks muds uk[kwu dkVuk] cky dkVuk mUgsa lkQ j[kuk] Luku djuk bR;kfn 'kkjhfjd LoPNrk ds
lEcU/k esa tkudkjh iznku dh tkrh gS- lgh txg ij ey R;kx djuk] mlds i'pkr~ lkQ ikuh ,oa lkcqu ls gkFk
/kksuk] [kkuk [kkus ls igys gkFk lkQ djuk bR;kfn
cqfu;knh ckrsa cPpksa dks ckyokM+h esa fl[kkbZ tkrh gS
D;ksafd ;s lc fØ;k&dyki cPps ckyokM+h esa Hkh djrs
gSa rks mUgsa lh[kus esa vklkuh gksrh gS lkFk gh og bl
ckrksa dk vuqlj.k ?kj tkdj vius ekrk&firk ds lkFk
Hkh djrs gSa-
ckyokM+h esa f'k{kk dk ek/;e% cPpksa dks [ksydwn] ukVd]
dgkfu;ksa] isM+&ikSa/kksa ,oa dadM+ iRFkjksa ds ek/;e ls Hkh
f'k{kk nh tkrh gS ftlls mUgsa ,d vksj vad cks/k] v{kj
Kku rks vkrk gh gS lkFk gh izd`fr ls yxko Hkh cuk
jgrk gS- bldk ,d mnkgj.k bl izdkj gS&
^^,d NksVk lk uUgk ikS/kk fcYdqy ckyokM+h esa cPpksa dks xhr fl[kkrh f'kf{kdk,a
esjs tSlk gSS A
fdruk NksVk fdruk dksey fcYdqy esjs tSklk gSAA**
bl {ks= esa vkerkSj ij phM+] ckWat] cqjka'k] Hkhey] QY;kV] vdsf'k;k] esgy bR;kfn oU; iztkfr;ka ik;h tkrh
Fkh tcfd tkx:drk ds dkj.k vc xzkeokfl;ksa }kjk pkjk] QuhZpj] dqVhj m|ksxksa gsrq 'kgrwr] pkSM+h iRrh
okyh o`{kksa bR;kfn dk jksi.k o`{kkjksi.k ds ek/;e ls fd;k x;k gS- xzke /kkel dh ckyokM+h ds cPps dgrs
gSa&
^^D;k gS taxy ds midkj feV~Vh] ikuh vkSj C;kjA
ftUnk jgus ds vk/kkj] ikuh vkSj C;kj**AA
losZ{k.k ds nkSjku ik;k x;k fd ckyokM+h LFkkiuk ls iwoZ cPpksa esa cq[kkj] fueksfu;k] mYVh&nLr] QksM+s bR;kfn dh
leL;k,a cgqr vf/kd ,oa yEcs le; rd ejht blls ihfM+r jgrs Fks ijUrq ckyokM+h esa cPPkksa dks Hkstus ds i'pkr~
blesa vkSlru 60&70 izfr'kr dh deh gqbZ gSa- igys ls cq[kkj 04&06 fnu esa Bhd gks ikrk Fkk tks fd vc 1&3 esa
Bhd gks tkrk gS- fueksfu;k& ihfy;k bR;kfn dks Bhd gksus esa 1&2 ekg yxrs Fks tks vc 10&20 fnu esa Bhd gks
tkrk gS- lkFk gh lkQ &LoPN jgus ds dkj.k ;g laØked fcekfj;ka QSyrh Hkh de gSa-

vfHkHkkodksa }kjk ckyokM+h esa nh tkus okyh f'k{kk dk fooj.k

Ø- la- xzke dk uke vfHkHkkodksa ds uke v{kj Kku 'kkjhfjd LoPNrk Ik;kZoj.k f'k{kk lkekU; Kku
/ku flag ™ ™ ™ &
1. pEik[kkyh izdk'k flag ™ ™ ™ ™
galh nsoh & ™ ™ &
izdk'k jke & ™ ™ &
2. dQydksV iuh jke ™ ™ ™ &
Mwaxj jke ™ ™ ™ &
3. ukSyk xhrk nsoh ™ & ™ &
lkfo=h nsoh ™ ™ ™ &

56
 fd'ku yky ™ & ™ &

fnus'k ikBd ™ ™ ™ &

4. ljyk lqUnj 'kkg ™ ™ ™ ™
ljLorh nsoh ™ ™ ™ &
5. fcekSyk i:yh nsoh & ™ ™ &
galh nsoh ™ ™ ™ &
6. /kkjh
cyoUr flag ™ & ™ &
eksgu ™ ™ ™ ™
7. cylk
tkudh nsoh ™ ™ ™ &
tkudh nsoh ™ ™ ™ &
8. /kkel xhrk fc"V ™ ™ ™ &
nhik fc"V ™ ™ ™ &
ds'ko yky ™ ™ ™ &
9. eYyk [kwWaV clar yky ™ ™ ™ ™
izrki yky & ™ ™ &
gsek nsoh ™ ™ ™ &
10. rYyk [kwWaV
nhik nsoh ™ ™ ™ &
11. nsoyh[kky nhik tks'kh ™ ™ ™ &
dSyk'k tks'kh ™ ™ ™ ™
12. Vkuh
iwju tks'kh ™ ™ ™ &
ljLorh nsoh & ™ ™ &
13. pkW.k mesn flag ™ ™ ™ &
cps flag ™ ™ ™ &

ckyokM+h dk i;kZoj.k laj{k.k ;k tyok;q ifjorZu dks jksdus esa ;ksxnku

xzke Vkuh ckyokM+h esa cPpksa dks i;kZoj.k laj{k.k ls lEcfU/kr ckrksa dks cPpksa }kjk vius vfHkHkkodksa dks crkrs gSa
ftlls vizR;{k :i ls muds vfHkHkkod Hkh i;kZoj.k ds izfr tkx:d gks tkrs gSa- blh lEcU/k esa xzke cylk ds Jh
eksgu pUnz us crk;k fd muds vkaxu ds ,d isM+ ls lfnZ;ksa esa Nk;k gksrh Fkh ftls mUgksaus dkVus dk fu.kZ; fy;k
,oa dkVus yxs rHkh mudk 5 lky dk cPpk tks fd ckyokM+h esa tkrk gS] ^^us dgk fd ;gh isM+ gesa xfeZ;ksa esa /kwi ls
Hkh rks cpkrk gS rks D;k bldk dkVuk t:jh gS-** bl ij gekjk /;ku mldh ckr ij x;k gS vkSj geus fQj ml
isM+ dks ugha dkVk- lkFk gh mudk cPpk Lo;a gh lqcg mBdj nkar lkQ djus] [ksy ds ckn gkFk& eqag /kksus ,oa
[kkus ls igys lkcqu ls gkFk /kksus bR;kfn fuR;fØ;kvksa dks Lo;a djrk gS- gesa mlls dgus dh vko';drk ugha gksrh-

xzke esa ,d O;fDr us crk;k fd igys ls tyok;q ifjorZu@xehZ vf/kd gksus ds dkj.k cPpksa ds 'kjhj esa QksM+s gksus]
mYVh] nLr] cq[kkj dh leL;k,a vke ckr Fkh ij tcls ckyokM+h esa cPps tkus yxs os Lo;a gh lkQ ,oa LoLF; jgrs
gSa- vc rks QksM+s] mYVh tSlh leL;k,a cgqr de gksrh gSa- lkFk gh mudh ekrk,a tks cPpksa ds ns[kHkky ds fy, ijs'kku
jgrh Fkh vc fuf'pUr gksdj viuk dk;Z iw.kZ dj ysrh gSa rFkk cPPkkas ds vkus ij mUgsa I;kj ls Hkkstu djkuk]
ugykuk bR;kfn dk;Z djrh gS ftlls cPpksa dk LoLF; ifjos'k esa fodkl gks ikrk gS- cPpksa dk LoF; eu gh mUgsa
LoPN jgus ,oa i;kZoj.k dks LoPN j[kus ds fy, izsfjr djrk gS-

xzke eYyk [kwwWaV ds d{kk 4] 6 ,oa 8 esa i<+ jgs cPps egs'k] dfiy ,oa lfjrk tks fd ckyokM+h ls f'kf{kr gS] mUgksaus
crk;k fd geus ckyokM+h esa isM+ksa dh j{kk djuk] cM+ksa dk vknj djuk] 'kkjhfjd LoPNrk] vkl&ikl ds i;kZoj.k dks
LoPN j[kuk vkfn lh[kk tks vkt Hkh gekjh nSfud fØ;kvksa esa 'kkfey gS tSls lkQ&lqFkjs diM+s iguuk] uk[kwu
dkVuk] cky dkVuk o ugkuk bu lc ds fy, gesa Lo;a gh djrs gSa- gels buds fy, fdlh dks dgus dh t:jr
ugha gksrh- bu cPpksa us i;kZoj.k ds rhu vaxks dks egRoiw.kZ crk;k fd ^^ty] taxy vkSj tehu** ge lnk budh j{kk
djsaxs- buls gesa LoPN gok feyrh gS] ueh cuh jgrh gS] o"kkZ gksrh gS rFkk xfeZ;ksa esa tc ge /kwi esa Fkd tkrs gSa py
jgs gksrs gSa rks budh Nkao esa gesa vkjke feyrk gS- mUgksaus crk;k fd os ges'kk Ldwy ,oa xzkeokfl;ksa ds lkFk feydj
o`{kkjksi.k dk;ZØeksa esa Hkkx ysrs gSa- muds }kjk os ckyokM+h esa lh[ks bl ukjs dk vHkh Hkh iz;ksx djrs gSa&

57
 ioZr ds lc cPpksa us fey] ,d vkokt mBkuh gSA
ugha dVsxs isM+ ;gk¡ ds ge cPpksa us Bkuh gSAA
,d&,d isM+ feydj lHkh yxk;s A
mÙkjk[k.M dks fQj ls LoxZ cuk;s AA
ou tkxs ouoklh tkxs] vkt fgeky; tkxsxk A
o`{kkjksi.k djsaxs vkSj nwj dqYgkMk Hkkxsxk AA

blh rjg cylk xzke ds ,d fo|kFkhZ Jh lqjs'k pUnz us crk;k fd ^^ckyokM+h esa o`{kkjksi.k lEcU/kh Kku] o`{kkjksi.k dk
egRo fn;k x;k Fkk bl ckr dk eq> ij bruk izHkko iM+k fd rHkh eSaus isM+ yxkus o budh lqj{kk ds nkf;Ro dk
iz.k fd;k vkSj vkt rd eSus Lo;a 8 isM+ yxk;s tks vc cM+s gks x;s gSa- vkxs Hkh bl dk;Z dks djrk jgwwaxk**

blh xzke dh nks cPpksa dh ekWa Jherh ljLorh nsoh] xzke cylk dh Jherh pUnzk nsoh o xzke dQydksV dh Jherh
i:yh nsoh us ckrk;k fd esjs nkuksa cPps ckyokM+h tksrs gSa rks eSa fpUrkeqDr gksdj ?kj ds dk;Z djrh gWwa igys esa
budh ns[k&js[k ,oa yM+kbZ >xMs+ ls ijs'kku gks tkrh Fkh ijUrq vc nksuksa ?kj vkdj vkjke ls ,d & lkFk [ksyrs gSa
vkSj ,d&nwljs dk /;ku Hkh j[krs gSa- LoLFk okrkoj.k esa jgus ls cPps u fcekj gksrs gSa vkSj u gh xyr vknrsa
lh[krs gSa- cPps dgrs gSa& ,d cusaxs usd cusaxs] feydj lc dke djssaxs-

[kWwV] ¼eYYkk½ xzke Jh ds'ko ykyth ds nks cPps ckyokM+h dsUnz esa tkrs gSa os vius cPPkksa dh lkQ&lQkbZ]
mBus&cSBus] cksyus ,oa muds le>nkjh ls csgn izHkkfor gSa ,oa [kq'k gS fd muds cPpksa esa vPNs laLdkjksa dk fodkl
gks jgk gS lkFk gh muds cPps LoPNrk ds dkj.k chekj ugha gksrs-

ckyokM+h LFkkiuk ds i'pkr~ xzke esa] tu leqnk; ds LokLF; esa ifjorZu

ckyokM+h dsUnz [kqyus ls iwoZ dh fLFkfr ckyokM+h dsUnz [kqyus ls ckn dh fLFkfr
cPpksa dks o`{kkjksi.k] i;kZoj.k bR;kfn dh dksbZ tkudkjh ckyokM+h tkus ls cPps i;kZoj.k dks LoPN j[kus]
ugha Fkh o`{kkjksi.k mudh lqj{kk bR;kfn ds izfr izfrc) fn[kkbZ
nsrs gSa-
xkze esa ty lzksr lw[kus yxs Fks- dbZ ukSyksa esa ikuh lekIr o`{kkjksi.k ds dkj.k iqu% ty lzksr ,oa ukSyksa esa ty
gks x;k Fkk Hkjus yxk gS-
xfeZ;ksa esa vR;f/kd xehZ ,oa lfnZ;ksa esa Hkh xehZ tSlk ekSle dksbZ [kkl ifjorZu ugha gqvk gS ijUrq o`{kksa ds dkj.k
jgus yxk gS- xfeZ;ksa esa BaMh gok fQj ls cgus yxh gS-
cPpksa esa lkekU;r% mYVh &nLr] QksMs+ vU; Ropk lEcU/kh ckyokM+h tkus okys cPpksa esa chekfj;kWa cgqr de gksrh
jksx] cq[kkj bR;kfn chekfj;kWa gksrh Fkh Fkh-
igys ls cPpksa dks chekfj;ksa dh tkudkjh o LoPNrk dh ckyokM+h tkus ls cPpksa esa 'kkjhfjd LoPNrk ds izfr
tkudkjh ugha jgrh Fkh tkx:drk rFkk chekfj;ksa dh tkudkjh mudks nwj
djus ds mik; Hkh vkrs gSa-
fcekfj;ksa dks Bhd gksus esa yEck le; yxrk Fkk ckyokM+h esa tkus ds ckn cPpksa esa fcekfj;ksa dks Bhd
60&70 izfr'kr de le; yxrk Fkk
igys ls cPpks dks [kqys esa ey R;kx djus esa dksbZ f>>d ckyokM+h esa tkus ds ckn cPps 'kkSpky; dk mi;ksx
;k 'keZ ugha gksrh Fkh djrs gSa ,oa [kqys esa tkus esa 'keZ eglwl djrs gSa lkFk
gh mUgsa ;s ekywe gS fd [kqys esa 'kkSp tkus ls LokLF;
lEcU/kh ijs'kkfu;ka gks ldrh gS-
1&5 lky rd ds cPps fnu Hkj ?kj ij jgdj xUns] ckyokM+h tkus ls cPpksa esa cM+ks esa vknj dk Hkko o
fpM+fpM+s ,oa >xM+kyw izo`fr ds gksrs Fks- vius lkFk ds cPpksa esa viukiu jgrk gS-
vfHkHkkodksa dks cPpksa dk /;ku j[kuk gksrk Fkk ftlls muds ckyokM+h tkus ls vfHkHkkodksa dks fpUrkeqDr dk;Z djus
?kj ds dke ckf/kr gksrs Fks- esa lgk;rk feyrh gS-
efgyk,a cPpksa ,oa ?kj ds dk;ksZa ls Fkd tkrh Fkh ftlls cPPkksa ds ckyokM+h tkus ls mUgsa Lo;a ds fy, Hkh le;
muds ekufld ,oa 'kkjhfjd LokLF; ij izHkko iM+rk Fkk- fey tkrk gS ftlls mudk LokLF; Bhd jgrk gS-

58
ckyokM+h dks vkSj lqn`<+ cukus ,oa vf/kd izHkkoh cukus gsrq lq>ko

¾ ljdkj dks vius okf"kZd ctV esa ckyokM+h gsrq foÙk dk izkfo/kku j[kuk tkuk pkfg, ftlls cxSj O;o/kku
ds ckyokM+h lqpk: :i ls pyrh jgs-
¾ izR;sd ou iapk;r ds lkFk ,d ckyokM+h dk izkfo/kku gksuk pkfg, rFkk ckyokM+h dk izfrfuf/k ou iapk;r
dk Hkh lnL; gksuk pkfg,-
¾ ikSa/kkjksi.k ,oa ou laj{k.k dk;ZØe gsrq ckyokM+h ds izR;sd vfHkHkkodksa dks Hkh ikS/kksa ds cM+s gksus rd mldh
lqj{kk dh ftEesnkjh nh tkuh pkfg,-
¾ lky esa 2&3 ckj gjsys ds R;ksgkj ds fnu i;kZoj.k dk;ZØe j[kk tk; ftlesa ikS/kkjksi.k ,oa tyok;q
ifjorZu ls lEcfU/kr fo"k;ksa dks 'kkfey dj tkx:drk vfHk;ku pyk;k tkuk pkfg,-
¾ usiky esa cPpkas dks xzhu ,escsLMj ds :i esa pquk tkrk gS tks fd i;kZoj.k izksRlkgu,oa ljdkj esa
izfrfuf/kRo djrk gS- mlh izdkj mÙkjk[k.M esa izR;sd ckyokM+h ls xzhu ,escsLMj pquk tkuk pkfg,-

59
Perceptions of Local Communities on Climate Change in the
Headwaters of the Ganges River
Manoj Bhatt

Summary

The study highlights the satisfactory level of awareness regarding climate change amongst the
marginal farming communities‐ including women, living in the remote areas of rural Himalayas. This
could be because the main source of livelihood for these communities is agriculture which is directly
dependent on the use of natural resources. Most community members link environmental changes
at the local level such as, degradation of forests, as a cause for climate change The communities are
able to highlight the adverse effects of climate change in their lives. The most encouraging aspect
that the study points out is that most people think that they should and can take action at the local
level to combat climate change. Hence, there is a strong need to support local communities in their
efforts at improving the health of local ecosystems, ensure resource availabitity for these efforts and
to make sure that the actions are ecologically appropriate. There seems to be a lack of awareness
regarding the need for conserving water and adaptation of crops which can give better yield under
changed climatic conditions.

Introduction

It is important to understand the extent and ways in which awareness about climate change and its
impacts on local communities, have reached the grassroots level in these regions. Dwelling in an
ecologically fragile area, these communities could be among the worse hit by climate change.
Nonetheless, these communities should not merely be perceived as the potential victims, but as
potential key players in mitigating the effects of climate change.

Objectives

• To document the experiences and understandings of local marginal farmers about climate
change issues, residing in a micro‐watershed close to the place of origin of the Ganges River.
• To understand what the community members think can be done by the individual families,
the communities and their village institutions.

Methodology

A cluster of 6 villages near the source of the Ganges River were selected for the study keeping in
mind the following:

i) That the population is mainly dependent on agriculture and animal husbandry,

ii) The selected location is situated at an altitude ranging between 1800 meters to 3400
meters above mean sea level and has been receiving good local rains in the past years,
iii) It is a micro‐watershed,
iv) The village population in the area has interaction and relationship with the ecologically
sensitive alpine grasslands called Dayara,

60
 v) The village population is close to the Gangotri glacier that has been in the news for the
last several years because of issues relating to climate change.

The villages (Barsu, Bandrani, Kyark, Raithal, Pala, Bhatwari) where the study was conducted all lie in
a micro‐watershed area. The communities in the micro‐watershed are primarily engaged in
agricultural work. They have relatively better land resources as compared to the other villages in the
Garhwal area. The coordinates where the study was conducted are: Elevation – 5671 ft, N‐
30.82112, E‐ 078.61592 (Kyark village) and Elevation ‐ 7150 ft, N‐ 30.81705, E‐ 078.60266 (Raithal
village)

The brief profile of the villages taken for the study is as following:

Table‐1
S.N. Name No. of Population Literacy Total Total Average
families Rate agriculture community/ agriculture
land in non‐ land
hectares agriculture holding
private land per family
in hectares
1 Barsu 106 495 73.00% 66.728 79.116 0.629
2 Bandrani 60 215 67.72% 44.135 62.324 0.735
3 Kyark 60 247 69.06% 35.438 34.211 0.590
4 Raithal 223 1211 73.24% 211.290 163.779 0.947
5 Pala 81 350 68.08% 117.852 281.685 1.454
6. Bhatwari 351* 1531 82.85% 26.495 89.103 0.075
Total/Average 881 4049 72.32% 83.656% 118.369 0.737
* The 351 families include around 200 non‐agriculture families living in the small Bhatwari town/block head office. These
families were not included in the study.

A total of 92 persons from the villages were interviewed and two focus group discussions were
conducted in which around 40 were women participants. The respondents were selected randomly
covering all the helmets/sub‐villages. In this way, around 25 % of the total adult population of the
watershed was interviewed.

The profile of the respondents of the questionnaire survey and focus group discussions is as
following:
Table‐2
S.N. Name of the Male Female Total Occupation
Village
AgricultureGovernment Student
Job /Business
1. Barsu 7 8 15 14 ‐‐ 1
2. Raithal 11 4 +18 15 15+ 18 ‐‐ ‐‐
3. Kyark 13 7+ 22 20 16 +22 1 3
4. Bandrani 5 6 11 9 ‐‐ 2
5. Bhatwari 9 9 18 11 3 4
6. Pala 6 7 13 12 ‐‐ 1
Focus group meetings 1. Focus group meeting with 18 adult women in Raithal village
with women 2. Focus group meeting with 22 adult women in Kyark village
Total 51 81 132 117 4 11

61
Assessment/Analysis/Key Outcomes

Awareness Regarding Climate Change

The survey team selected the respondent randomly and found that all of them were aware of
climate change. All of them thought of climate change as a clear and present problem. The answers
to the following questions highlight this situation:

Table ‐3
SN Question Options and the % of response
Yes No
1 Have you heard about climate change? 100% 0%
2. Is climate change real? 100% 0%
3. Is climate change a problem? 100% 0%

Understanding on Climate Change‐ Natural or Human Induced or both?

The respondents were asked to select their choice and give their responses regarding how they
perceived climate change. The responses they had to choose from were:

i) it is natural
ii) it is human induced
iii) it is both natural and human induced
iv) do not know.

Most of the respondents were of the opinion that climate change is both natural and human
induced. Below is the illustration of the perception about climate change of the local population

Table‐4
Question Options and the % of response
Climate Change Climate Change Climate Change is Do not know the
is natural is human natural and answer
induced human induced
both
Is climate change 9% 30% 61% 0%
natural or human
induced or both?

Factors Responsible for Climate Change

The respondents were given an open ended question to express their opinion of what they thought
were the factors responsible for climate change. The respondents gave the following list of factors
which they thought were important for aggrevating climate change:

1. Clearing of forests for commercial use, fire wood, fodder (47%)

2. Forest fires (24%)
3. No effective plantation activities (5%)
4. Misuse of natural resources (7%)

62
 5. Corruption in forest department and their ineffective programs (9%)
6. Overload of unproductive domestic animals (2%)
7. Air pollution (18%)
8. Unplanned development (4%)
9. Industrialization (7%)
10. Use of plastic (3%)
11. Pollution in rivers and rivulets (5%)
12. Ineffective government policies (3%)
13. Dam construction on rivers (12%)
14. Road construction (3%)
15. Human interference in the high altitude areas (6%)
16. Population growth (12%)

The factors listed above by the respondents can be categorized into 7 different sections. These
sections are helpful in understanding their perceptions about the factors responsible for climate
change.
Table‐5
SN Factors responsible for Climate Change Respondent who think it is among the factors
1 Forest degradation 100%

2 Industrialization/modernization and related factors 40%

3 Ineffective government policies 3%

4 Dam construction on rivers 12%
5 Population growth 12%
6 Human interference in the high altitude areas 6%
7 Road construction 3%

It is clear from the above table that according to the local people forest degradation is the most
important factor responsible for climate change.

Can communities take action to mitigate climate change?

All the respondents, barring one, thought that local communities could take action to combat
climate change. The respondents were asked about the nature of such action, to mitigate the effects
of climate change. They responded by listing several actions. A summery of these responses is given
below with the percentage indicating the respondents who indicate it

Actions that local communities can take to mitigate climate change

1. Plant trees for regeneration of native forests (67%)
2. Protect local forests from overuse (37%)
3. Protect forests from forest fires (13%)
4. Conserve bio‐diversity (1%)
5. Control river and water pollution (3%)
6. Ban on plastic should be imposed (2%)
7. Control of local environmental pollution (13%)
8. Adopt cleaner technologies (4%)

63
 9. Effective population control (1%)
10. Restriction on human movement in glacial areas (3%)
11. Water conservation (4%)
12. Building community awareness regarding climate change (15%)
13. Not hindering the natural flow of rivers (4%)

The answers of the respondents are categorized into 8 broad categories to better understand what
local communities think they can do to mitigate climate change.

Table‐6
SN Actions that can be taken by the communities? Respondent who think the action
can be taken locally

1. Protection of forest and biodiversity in the local area 100%

2. Control of pollution in local rivers and rivulets, control of 18%

environmental pollution and water pollution
3. Adoption of new sources/technologies (4%)
4. Population control (1%)
5. Prevention of human traffic in glacial areas (3%)
6. Water conservation (4%)
7. Building community awareness regarding climate change (15%)

8. By not stopping the natural flow of rivers (4%)

Perception regarding the major risks of climate change

The respondents were given an open ended question to list the risks/ problems they perceive will
result as a result of climate change. The respondents listed the following risks:

1. Increased Water Scarcity (42%)

2. Increase in the number of disasters such as land slides (41%)
3. Increase in Temperature (9%)
4. Crop yield will decrease (25%)
5. Occurrence of famines etc (2%0)
6. Incidences of droughts can increase (13%)
7. Increase in the rate of glacial melt (23%)
8. Problem of fodder and grasses will intensify (4%)
9. Drying up of plants, herbs, decline of birds and wild animal populations (13%)
10. Increase in the number of diseases (3%)
11. Reduction in oxygen levels (4%)
12.
Work that the individuals /villages/ village institutions have done for climate
change mitigation

On asking what actions have been taken so far by individuals or village institutions for mitigation of
climate change the respondents listed several actions that have been taken for environmental

64
protection at the village level. The actions are listed below with the percentages indicating the
number of respondents.

1. Tree Plantation (60%)

2. Prevention of forest fire/ degradation (13%)
3. Reduction of pollution (5%)
4. Proposed schemes in the Panchayats (4%)
5. Water Conservation (6%)
6. Community Awareness (7%)
7. No action has been taken (5%)

Focus group discussions with women groups

Two focus group discussions, with women groups from Raithal and Barsu villages, were organized to
understand the perceptions of local women regarding changes in temperature, rain, yield in
agriculture, and water availability in last 20 years. The observations of the women groups are
summarized below:

Change in temperature in last 20 years and the major reasons behind this change

The women have observed a rise in temperature in their area, during the last 20 years. According to
the women groups the major reasons behind temperature rise are as follows:

• Cutting/degradation of the local forests

• No/ very limited plantation
• Rapid growth in local population

Change in the pattern of rain in last 20 years and the major reasons behind this
change

The women have observed that the average rainfall has reduced in their respective village areas. In
their opinion the major reasons for this change are:
• Delay in Monsoon
• Forest depletion
• Use of forest/green land for construction of houses

Change in agriculture and milk production in last 20 years and the major reasons
behind this change

Being active farmers in their villages, the women have been closely observing change in the crop
and milk yields. These women have observed that initially the production in agriculture increased
because the farmers had started using chemical fertilizers, but subsequently the yield started
declining due to the ill effects of these very chemical fertilizers. The use of compost and other
natural manures helped farmers bring back the quantity of yield to its original levels. Despite this
improvement, they have observed an overall decline in the crop yield. Similarly the yield in milk

65
production has gradually reduced in the last 20 years. The main reasons behind this decline in
production are:

• Limited use of compost in the fields has led nutrition deficiency in the fields
• Delay in Monsoon has been creating difficulty
• Unpredictable rains and storms have been damaging crops
• Lack of availability of good breed of the dairy animals in the region
• Scarcity of fodder grasses and leaves in the forest areas

Change in availability of water in the village in last 20 years and the major reasons
behind this change

The women have been observing that the availability of water in the area has gradually decreased in
the last 20 years. According to them the reasons behind this change have been the following:
• Drying‐up of the main sources of water
• Over exploitation of the forests and their resources
• Widespread construction activities like construction of roads and dams
• Lack of proper maintenance and conservation of the water sources

Policy Implications/Recommendations

It is very clear from the study that the local communities are well aware about climate change and
its possible consequences. The important issue then is to find a way to turn this knowledge into
action. For example, it is very important to aid and assist the local people in their plantation and
forest protection efforts.

However, promoting afforestation and reforestation work without keeping in mind the principles of
the “ecosystem approach” can have adverse environmental consequences on the local ecosystem.
Hence these actions should be carefully undertaken. It will be important for the high altitude areas
such as the study area to promote afforestation and reforestation of native tree species and restrict
the use of foreign species.

The communities should be made aware about the importance of promotion of natural succession
processes to increase species diversity in the area. It will be vital for the communities and
authorities to promote afforestation and reforestation activities that contribute to the restoration of
ecological connectivity and ecological corridors.

What the communities lack at this point of time is the understanding and awareness of the
importance of water conservation. However women’s groups in the focus group discussions had
highlighted that they had been observing a decline in water availability in the region. This perception
though has not yet been translated into action taken by the villagers. Only three out of the total 92
respondents had emphasized that there was a need for water conservation measures in the area. It
is possible that the respondents linked water availability to the health of the forests‐ and assumed
that by improving the situation of forests, they would be able to tackle the problem of water scarcity
in the region. Similarly, despite the fact that they had been observing gradual decline in the

66
agriculture yield, the communities did not seem to have been aware about the possibilities of
changing the crop varieties which were better suited to the new climate.

Conclusion

Since the communities have strong realization that afforestation and protection of existing forest
areas can be an effective measure for mitigating the effects of climate change, it is vital to support
the communities in this venture.

Keeping the above factors in mind, the environmental NGO called Research, Advocacy and
Communication in Himalayan Areas (RACHNA) has launched an innovative process for developing
and implementing a community based systematic annual 'Conservation and Climate Risk Reduction
Work Plans'. The communities have been supported by RACHNA in developing a data base on
environmental health of the micro‐watershed to develop the work plan in a well defined
participatory manner. These local data based work plans will work as micro‐level roadmaps for the
stakeholders including the government, private sector, hydropower companies and NGOs to partner
with the local communities in their environmental action. The collaboration, learning and success of
this micro‐watershed will be replicated in different parts of the Himalayan region.

As a next step, there is a strong need to interview the stakeholders mentioned above to understand
their perceptions. This will help in developing a strategy to involve other stakeholders in
development and implementation of the 'Conservation and Climate Risk Reduction Work Plan'
developed by the local communities to combat climate change.

67
Organic Agriculture Practices to Cope Climate Change:
A Case Study From The Valley Of Uttarakhand
Pankaj Tewari

Abstract/Summary

Village communities in Himalayan state of Uttarakhand (lying between 28o 44' & 31o 28' N latitude
and 77o 35' & 81o 01' East longitude), India have been involved in traditional agricultural practices
since generations and natural resources were key to fulfill their daily needs of fodder, fuel wood and
biomass for agriculture. Similar practices were popular till 1960 in the study area and shift towards
advance techniques occurred first in the seventies for promoting high income generating
commercial crops with use of chemicals becoming a necessity since the nineties.

Practices to gain maximum production have resulted in reduced soil fertility and tolerance
developing among pests, insects etc. with extensive use of chemicals pesticides. Irregular climatic
cycles has also diminished production in rain‐fed and rain‐shed conditions. The extensive use of
harmful chemicals has also resulted in the destruction of the natural preditors of the pests & insects
by adversely affect their life cycles. Continuous increase in production cost has also depleted net
profit and also deteriorated the quality and shelf life of produce in the last two decades.

Present study is an attempt to analyze the impact of farmer's adoption of organic practices and its
relevance with climate change mitigation and their sustainable livelihoods. Enhancing Livelihoods of
rural farmers through organic interventions in study area has shown enthusiastic results. Appropriate
technologies and its positive impact on existing natural resources through this intervention has
resulted in attitudinal shift among farmers and such intervention plays a key role in reduction of
input cost for various vegetable crops on one hand and address to mitigate the climate change issues
on the other.

Overview/Introduction
In the rapid pace of development we have inflicted serious damage to the natural resources and
consequently we are now faced with questions as ‐ where is that Sujalam (clean water)? Where is
that Suphalam (healthy crop)? And where is that malayaja shitalam (refreshing air)? These
questions have given rise to a process of serious thinking to safeguard the environment and the
quality of natural resources for sustainability21. The case study linked to mission 06 i.e. Sustainable
Agriculture of the National Action Plan on Climate Change.

Green revolution technologies involving greater use of synthetic agrochemicals such as fertilizers and
insecticides/pesticides with adoption of advance techniques of cultivation have boosted production.
However, this increase in production has slowed down and often marked significant externalities,
affecting natural resources and human health as well agriculture itself. This has brought a major shift
in consumer preference towards food quality that is safe and hazard free.

As a result more and more emphasis is being given towards returning to nature and adoption of
organic agriculture. It has also been experienced in last few years that organic farming can bring

21
Mangala Rai Secretary, (DARE) & Director General, I.C.A.R. Millennium Guest Lecture, ANGRA University, Tirupati

68
about increased product value, reduced cost of production, direct market access, and decreased
dependency on external inputs22. Organic farming is more than just renounce to chemical pesticides
and fertilizers and takes natures cycles as model. Organic farming provides the greatest guarantee in
area of food security and provides an important contribution to the well being of man and the
safeguard of the environment.

Study area Tarikhet development block

is distinguished for horticultural
practices consisting 126 village
panchayats and 267 revenue villages.
Total population of the block is around
69,580 (census 2001) and farmers
cultivate variety of crops of during the
year. Development block on the basis of
its geographical condition could be
divided two parts i.e., valley and high
altitude areas. The valley area is called
Khuchgarh Ghati (Khuchgarh valley) and
well known for its vegetable production
with major crops as pea, potato, tomato, capsicum, cauliflower, wheat, finger millet, horse gram, etc.
Villages in Khuchgarh belt are responsible for continuous supply of vegetables to different mandis.
The production of different vegetables in the above area is enough to make a huge share in Haldwani
mandi during April to October. In all 5 villages (Daurab, Bajina, Bajol, Malona and Khusalkot) were
selected, as given in location map for the study.

Based on data collected during project implementation and studies reviewed those conducted by
various institutes/departments indicates the consumption of insecticide/pesticide is relatively very
high in study area in contrary to hill horticulture23. Study areas faced various problems due to
climate alteration and usage of chemicals and are as follows:

• Climate alteration increasing dry period in rain fed condition resulting in increased frequency
of irrigation in different crops.
• Soil properties have been adversely affected which is responsible for maintaining the fertility
resulting in depletion of production.
• Insects and pests liable for damaging crop have developed their tolerance capacity against
chemicals.
• Contamination of water springs and decreased soil moisture.
• Deterioration of product quality and reduction in shelf life.
• Human health along with cattle's is also under danger as the excessive chemicals remain in
crop for a long duration.
• Increase in cost of cultivation and due to hike in quantity of chemical usage.
• Population of natural enemies of different insects is shrinking.

The Study

22
Singh, G.R., Chaure, N.K. and Parihar, S.S.; Organic farming for sustainable agriculture. Indian Farm., 2001
23
Dasila Deepa and Singh, N.P.; Agrochemical usage pattern in the vegetable belts of Uttaranchal. COF, UOCB, Dehradun. 2004

69
The study has been made to unravel above challenges following organic practices as an adaptation
strategy in rain fed area against altering climate. Present study attempts to analyze climate alteration
during last decade and relevance of organic practices to climate mitigation and their livelihoods with
following main objectives:

• to study the climatic data and agrochemical usage pattern over the past few years
• to study the shift in cropping pattern over the time
• to compare the economics of farming systems in study area
• to study the attitude of community towards adoption of organic farming
• to study the impact of organic practices in sustaining natural resources and livelihood

Methodology: 5 villages selected for in area were CHEA is already implementing the organic
intervention programme supported by State Organic Commodity Board, Dehradun and funded by Sir
Ratan Tata Trust. The extensive field survey was made before final selection of villages and the
following tools were taken into consideration for appropriate selection keeping in view the
objectives of the programme:

¾ Review of literature and general observations

¾ Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and transect walk
¾ Focus group discussions (FGDs) and individual interviews
¾ Collection of secondary data from allied departments
¾ Soil analysis and data compilation for different crops studied
¾ Community perception through schedules/questionnaires for individuals

Sample size: The number of households in the selected villages varied from 30 to 135 with total of
370 households. In all 150 households (about 40%) were selected for project intervention and
accordingly the above case study is based on data collected from all 150 households separately as
well as through group discussions. Representation of all categories (in terms of land holding size) was
also ensured for significant output.

Schedule/questionnaire: It was designed to collect primary information regarding land use, cropping
pattern, climate change, assessment of organic practices and its impact on yield, livelihood and
natural resources. Interviews were also undertaken from allied government agencies for assessing
the impact of intervention in study area.

Assessment/ Analysis/ Key Outcomes

To validate secondary data and literature reviewed, observation were made in study area and
farmers including older representative were conferred and accordingly following is being uncovered:

The paradigm shift: Traditional practices of cultivation were popular till 1960 in the study area and
low productivity crops occupied 99% of area, responsible for providing basic livelihood. The major
crops cultivated were wheat, paddy, finger millet, black soya‐bean, horse gram, urd, etc and
vegetables i.e., bottle‐guard, turai, marrow, lady finger, radish, brinjal, gaderi, ginger, green
vegetables near their houses for own consumption.

The shift in above mentioned scenario came in the seventies when the government through IGADA
launched a project. The objective of the project was to motivate farmers to change their traditional
practices of cultivation and to adopt high income generating commercial crops. Initially few
aggressive farmers adopted the programmme, which gave outstanding results, and the production

70
increased up to 5 times in first two years. Seeing the results of the farmers who had taken to the
newer practices, those in dilemma also approached for the programme and in a span of five years
the whole area was transformed into a vegetable production belt in Kumaon. In the eighties and the
nineties use of chemicals became a necessity to generate enough income from the same fields which
were only providing them grains and in past24.

Further the cultivation practices were strengthened before the new millinia through implementation
of Government of India sponsored Integrated Horticulture Development Project (IDHP) in selected
compact area of Tarikhet. Continuous efforts and regular meetings in these villages has brought
enormous awareness and today these farmers have excellent knowledge about the varieties of
different vegetable seeds and their appropriate season for sowing and transplanting them. However,
the practice to get maximum production have depleted net profit due to uncontrolled use of
chemical fertilizers and insecticide/pesticide for reducing damage to the crop and enhancing
production by use of fertilizers since last two decade25.

Climate rhythms: While interacting with community they were motivated to explore their
knowledge towards climatic factors for last two decades. Accordingly community elucidated their
knowledge for different climatic features presented here under:

Sl. Particulars Outlook of farmers

1. Temperature ƒ Increase is felt in temperature with time however, it is asymmetrical in
different years
ƒ The winters have turned warmer in last 06 years
ƒ Snowfall in upper hills has reduced by 70% than in 80s
ƒ Severe cold is almost negligible
2. Rainfall ƒ Rain showers in winters have reduced and are almost negligible with
infrequent rainfall
ƒ Average annual rainfall is diminishing with maximum rainfall during July and
August
ƒ Dryer period has prolonged in most of the years i.e. October to April rainfall
in negligible
ƒ Heavy rains in short span of period resulting in soil erosion and adverse
affect on crops
ƒ Unequal distribution of rainfall pattern
3. Humidity ƒ Increased humidity during rains and autumn season during last 08 years
4. Water availability ƒ Water availability has came down due to increased demand and infrequent
rainfall
ƒ Soil moisture has reduced due to excessive synthetic input usage in
cultivable land
ƒ Natural water resources and springs are in the verge of extinction due to
imbalance climate
ƒ Slight improvement in soil moisture of organic adoption agricultural fields
The meteorological collected from ARS, Majhera (research station of GBP Univ.), Garampani and
VPKAS (an institute of ICAR), Almora were also analyzed to compare general observation with valid
logical support.
Minimum Temperature
Maximum Temperature
36
25
33
Temp (degree celsius)

Temp (degree celsius)

20
30
15
27
10
24
5
21
0
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 18
Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Year
24 Winter Spring Sum m er Rainy Autum n
Winter Spring Sum m er Rainy Autum n
Techno‐economic feasibility study report for Almora district. CDS, Nainital. 1997
25
Baseline study report. CHEA, Nainital. 2005

71
The figure revealed that temperature as well rainfall pattern has shown irregular trend with increase
in temperature and decrease in rains during winter resulting in reassessment of whole cropping
pattern in study area26.

Affect of biotic interference in micro climate alteration: After the advent of practice of off season
vegetable cultivation, farmers restored to apply Rainfall

chemical fertilizers and pesticides in uncontrolled 150

120
and immense way to increase crop yield and

Rainfall (mm)
90
thereby the net returns. The increasing cost of 60
plant protection and accelerating pest incidents 30

make agriculture a risky and less profitable 0

2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
enterprise. At the same time toxic materials Year

generated from chemical farming pollute Winter Spring Sum m er Rainy Autum n

environment. The practice was continued by all

interviewed families till 2005 with following perceptions:

Sl. Particulars Outlook of farmers (during 2005 before project intervention)

1. Usage of chemicals Excessive chemical usage have adversely affected micro climate and
need felt for appropriate eco friendly package of practices
2. Soil Soil structure has changed from granular to blocky and massive
properties/fertility resulting in creation of hard upper crust of land
Availability of micro organisms and elements is declining as evident
from decreasing productivity
3. Soil moisture/ Soil porosity has declined due to change in soil structure resulting is
water holding poor retention of moisture so has the water holding capacity
capacity
4. Pest attack Incident of pest attack are increasing with various new species with
enhanced tolerance against chemicals
5. Friendly insects Natural predators are also declining
6. Irrigation frequency Decline in soil structure has resulted in more irrigation requirement
for vegetable crops resulting in additional pressure over water
resources
7. Livestock Reduction in availability of fodder has resulted in decrease of cattle
number and also decline in supply of organic manure

Adaptation attempted to extricate problems: Keeping in view the climate alteration and micro
14
Shift in Cropping Pattern climate change various adaptive measures has been
12 Days (forw ard)
Days (back w ard)
undertaken by the farmer families in consultation
10
with CHEA for sustainable agriculture in rain fed and
No. of Days

8
6 rain shed area to ensure food security. Most vital
4
2
measure is to make a shift in cropping pattern. The
0 analysis of the questionnaires revealed that sowing
during Rabi season is being taken forward while in
Kharif season it has been carried out before

26
Meterological data from VPKAS, Almora and ARS, Majhera, Nainital

72
previous time by 7 to 10 days due to increase in winter temperature.

Preparation and adoption of different techniques of composting and bio pesticides has been
attempted by all the families to utilize unused raw material for cutoff in production cost and
improving the soil health. Soil treatment through soil solarization and cultural practice was also
followed by farmer families to reduce the usage of chemicals required for controlling various soil
borne diseases.

Keeping in view the rain fed situation, attempts to demonstrate the seed varieties recommended
for such areas were made followed by its treatment Production of Organic Inputs
with bio agents to avoid seed borne diseases. To Compost (Qt)
Vermi wash (lt)
Liquid manure (lt)
CPP (kg)
700 650
resolve the acute problem of irrigation appropriate 600
600

natural techniques of water conservation were 500

400 369
adopted, through the creation of micro reservoirs along 300
324

with roof water harvesting tanks for rain water 200

140
160
87 100 90
collection. Efforts are being made among 50 families 100 45
0 0 0 0
5 16

0
with positive impact in reducing the scarcity of water in 2005 2006 2007 2008

uneven climatic conditions.

Achievements to diminish the climatic alteration: The compact area of 9.92 ha was taken under
conversion for sustainable agriculture during initial
Area under organic intervention (ha) stage and positive response of farmers resulted in
35
bringing 31.40 ha under conversion.
31.4
30

25 Rabi
Comparative soil analysis for conversion as well as
Area (ha)

20 16.74 Kharif
15
9.9
10
3.6
5.74
8.9
inorganic area revealed that difference in values is
5

0
2006 2007 2008
minimal, but the values are positive in context of soil
Year improvement. The acidity of soil has slightly reduced
while the organic matter and available N, P, K has
increased to an extent.

A v a i l a bl e N i t r og e n ( k g/ ha ) Organic Matter (%)

2.05
183
182 2
181
Or gani c 1.95
O M (%)

180 Organic
Inor gani c
179 Inorganic
1.9
178
177 1.85
2006 2007 2008
1.8
Y ear
2006 2007 2008
Year

A v a i l a bl e P hospo r u s ( %)
Available Worms (nos/cubic feet)

70
Available Worms (nos/cubic

0.0226
60
0.02255 50
0.0225 Or gani c 40 Organic
feet)

0.02245 Inor gani c 30 Inorganic

0.0224 20

0.02235 10
2006 2007 2008 0
2006 2007 2008
Y e ar
Year

73
Beside worms count also indicates positive effect in assisting the worm's availability in soil under
organic conversion. Improvement in soil porosity due to organic intervention has developed the
spongy feature in soil resulting in reduced water stress and retention of moisture. The improved soil
moisture has reduced irrigation frequency and also assisting production even in dry periods.

Usage of organic PoPs has promoted sustainable production with stability even during longer dry
periods due to improved soil structure and usage of organic inputs. Data collected reveals that the
Comparative Production Cost (Rs. in Lacs) Comparative Production (Qt)
1.1 170
2005 O 2008 O 2005 I 2008 I
1 2005 O 2008 O 2005 I 2008 I
150
0.9

Production (Qt)
Rupees (in lacs)

0.8 130
0.7
110
0.6
0.5 90
0.4
70
0.3
0.2 50

Potato
Pea

Tomato
Potato

Capsicum
Pea

Cauliflower
Tomato

Capsicum
Cauliflower

production came down during first year of organic intervention which took pace from second year
and after third year it is almost equal or slightly lower than first year with stability in production.
However, production cost has slightly declined since last 3 years in comparison to inorganic
practices resulting in maximizing net returns to producers even if production is almost stable.
O= Organic; I= Inorganic

The data collected for 5 vegetable crops indicated that organic PoPs has extremely cut do wn the
production cost in capsicum, cauliflower and tomato than potato and pea as chemical
pesticides/insecticides were applied immensely in past by farmers.

Shift in mind‐set of community for food security and sustainable agriculture in existing
environment through organic intervention is the intended result of adaptation in study area.
Expansion of organic area and involvement of farmers in adopting different techniques has been
observed. Reduction in consumption of chemicals by replacing it through organic inputs has been
well adopted since last three years and is continued for mitigating climate alterations27.

Perception of community to mitigate climatic changes revealed positive response for all the factors
and their attitudinal shift to avoid chemical consumption is the major outcome of the programme
Usage pattern of chemicals Usage pattern of organic inputs
which would be
200
further publicized
120 80 35

180
160 through
100
70

60
30

140 25
120 documentary. Thus, it
80
50
20
100 60
40
80
60
can be concluded 40 30
15

10
40
20
that in rain‐fed and
20
20

10 5
0
2005 2006
Year
2007 rain‐shed conditions
2008
0
0
2005 2006 2007 2008
0

Year

Forat 10G (kg) M-45 (kg)

for sustainable
Nuvan (lt) Trichoderm a (kg/lt) Pseodom onas (kg) Oil based insecticide (lt)
Neem based insecticide (lt) B.basiana (lt) Nelpek (kg)
Rogor (lt)
Chloropyriphos (lt)
Bavistin (kg)
Urea (Qt) agriculture organic
Endosulphan (lt)
DAP (Qt) Annapurna (Qt)

intervention is only option to resist the altered climate and also to contribute in developing
appropriate/favorable micro climate and environment.

27
Annual Report. Organic intervention in excessive chemical prone belt. 2007

74
 Community Perspective for Organic Farming in Climate Mitigation
Community Perspective for Organic Farming in Climate Mitigation Com m unity Vie w on Chem ical Usage

70 Yes No Don’t Know

70
Yes No Don’t Know 70
60
C o m m u n it y P ro s p e ct ( % )
60 60

Community Perspect (%)

50 50 50 2003-04 2008-09

View (%)
40 40
40

30 30
30
20 20
20 10
10
10 0
0

Favorable

Unfavorable

Unfavorable
Indifferent
P o llu tio n

S u st a in ab le
s o il a e ra t io n
in c re as e

c o n tro l

Highly
In cre a s e in

a g ric u lt u re
0
T e m p e ra t u re

In cre a s e in
m o is t u re
W a te r
c o n t ro l

Increase Increase Effective in Increase in Increase in net Increase in

s o il
Population of Population of Controlling production income managing bio
Natural Earth Worms insects/pests w astes
Predators

Although various factors have been undertaken during study however, still detail faunal information
is lacking. Additional information on contamination status of water bodies also need to be studied.
Correlation of organic intervention with climate mitigation with in depth scientific study would be
vital for policy advocacy. The making of documentary films has also not been undertaken and that
can assist in popularizing the concept to a wider network.

Policy implications/ Recommendation

Agriculture is not only affected by climate change but also contributes to it. Ten to twelve percent of
global greenhouse gas emissions are due to human food production. Agriculture is the main emitter
of nitrous oxides and methane according to current practice and knowledge. Global warming
potential of methane is 20 times that of CO2, while that of nitrous dioxide is as much as 300 times
greater. By sequestering carbon dioxide in the soil, organic agriculture may contribute to the carbon
cycle in a positive way28.

Organic agriculture is self‐sufficient in nitrogen. Mixed organic farms practice highly efficient
recycling of manures from livestock and of crop residues by composting. Agriculture has the
potential to be a considerable CO2 sink, if organic farming practices. Organic agriculture is claimed
to be the most sustainable approach in food production. It emphasizes recycling techniques and low
external input and high output strategies. It is based on enhancing soil fertility and diversity at all
levels and makes soils less susceptible to erosion29.

Organic practice ensures economic advantages through low crops production or yield failure due to
biotic and abiotic factors in all of these simultaneously. In rain‐fed systems, organic agriculture has
demonstrated to outperform conventional agricultural systems under environmental stress
conditions30. Thus, based on study following can be the policy recommendations:

ƒ Emphasis on organic practices for commercial agriculture in rain‐fed areas

ƒ Improvement in soil structure by following crop rotation and cultural operations
ƒ Reduction in pest attack and increase in population of natural predators through organic
techniques
ƒ Sustainable production in long dry season by creating favorable micro climate

Various studies as well as observation made points to expand organic practices at farm level by
promoting latest technologies based on trials and research. Analysis of contents in organic
products and low cost village based technologies need to be attempted for minimizing the

28
Organic Farming and Climate Change. Technical paper.ITC.2007
29
Ramesh, P., Singh Mohan and Subba Rao, A. Organic farming; Its relevance to the Indian context. Current Science. 2005
30
Stanhill, G. The comparative productivity of organic agriculture. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 1990

75
production cost on one hand and also to diminish dependence of farmers on different agencies for
ensured supply on other.

At grassroots level efficient campaigning is required for attitudinal shift among commercial
producers towards organic intervention and publicizing its immense value in countering climate
alteration for sustaining agriculture. Demonstration of organic PoPs at farmer field along with
organization of capacity building programme by government could also accelerate organic farming
in present circumstances.

Conclusion

The challenge is that organic farming produces enough food for everybody and be able to provide
food security. It is common claim that large scale conversion to organic agriculture would result in
drastic reduction in world food supplies or large increases in conversion of undisturbed lands to
agriculture. However, in India only 30% of cultivable area has irrigation facilities with application of
chemicals while in rest of the arable land, which is mainly rain‐fed chemical usage is limited. In
traditional rain‐fed and rain‐shed agriculture, organic farming has the potential to increase the yield
by 5‐10% would definitely help in growth rate. Organic practices can deliver agronomic and
environmental benefits both through structural changes and tactical management of farming
systems.

Thus in context of hill farming the concept of organic intervention could be made replicable by
ensuring the extension of appropriate low cost technologies and wider networking with government
to cope with climate change and assurance to sustainable agriculture and food security.

Integrated Approach for Sustainable Agriculture

Model village Daurab is popular for off season vegetable production however, continuous application of
chemicals and climate alteration has resulted in gradual decline of production and net returns. To cope
inauspicious climatic conditions farmers were united by forming farmer interest groups (FIGs) to ensure
consolidated farming. Discussing and reviewing the reason for decline in production along with adaptive
measure to sustain agriculture in change climatic situations various issues were uncovered and accordingly
organic intervention were proposed on demonstration basis.

During initial stage only 1/3 of farmer families were convinced with organic interventions and area was also
only 3.3 ha. With positive results of intervention and increased awareness among FIG members today all 45
families have adopted organic practices and one belt of 15.5 ha is under conversion. All families are now
aware from the benefits of organic practices as it has not only reduced the cost of production but also
improved soil structure which has also reduced irrigation frequency and even in altered climate production is
comparatively higher than in chemical prone belts. According to FIGs now they have developed expertise to
produce organic manure at farm level which has resulted in reduction of chemical usage by 80% and
cooperative at road head which was supplying chemical fertilizers has almost shut down due to adaptive
measure taken by farmers in a form of organic practices to offset the challenge of climate alteration. Natural
techniques to improve water harvesting, soil structure and control of pest and diseases through rain water
harvesting tanks, soil solarization, composting and liquid manure is specific feature and is replicable model
rain‐fed and rain‐shed areas in change climate.

Quotes

76
Sri Mohan Singh narrated "I have initiated cultivation of marigold in bunds of vegetable fields, which have
not only reduced the attack of insect and pests but also provided additional income from flowers during
marriage season".
"I have ensured production and income due to organic intervention as soil fertility and moisture level has
improved. Usage of raw material into productive manure has also leaded to clean environment" as
expressed by Khusal Singh.

77
People’s Perceptions on the Effect of Climate Change: A Case Study
from Tribals of Sailai block, Sirmaur District of Himachal Pradesh
tyok;q ifjorZu ,oa LFkkuh; ifjfLFkdh
Prabhu Dayal Sharma

{ks= dk ifjp;

fodkl[k.M iPNkn] ftyk fljekSj] fgekpy izns'k ds fiNM+s ftys dk ,d [k.M gS- bl fodkl [k.M dh dqy
vkoknh 70]000 gS- fodkl [k.M esa dqy 30 xzke iapk;rs gSa- orZeku lk{kjrk nj 75 izfr'kr gS tks fd jkT; dh
lk{kjrk nj ds cjkcj gS- {ks= ds fiNM+siu ds vusd dkj.k jgs gSa- fiNM+s iu ds dkj.k yksxksa dk :>ku ukSdjh is'ks
dh rjQ ugha jgk- vkt Hkh {ks= ds 80 izfr'kr yksx d`f"k ,oa Ik'kqikyu ds dk;ksZ ls viuh vkthfodk pyk jgs gSa-
fodkl [k.M ikPNkn dks HkkSxksfyd n`f"V ls rhu Hkkxkska esa ckaVk x;k gSa-

1‐ f/kUuh ?kkM+ 600 ls 800 eh- dh ÅWpkbZ okyk {ks=

2‐ /kkjVh/kkj 800 ls 1300 eh- dh ÅWpkbZ okyk {ks=
3‐ lS.k/kkj 800 ls 1800 eh- dh ÅWpkbZ okyk {ks=

tyok;q ifjorZu dh n`f"V ls rhuksa {ks=ksa esa fHkUurk gksus ds dkj.k d`f"kZ mRiknu esa Hkh QdZ ns[kus dks feyrk gS-
tyok;q ifjorZu dks ysdj geus ;g dsl LVMh rhu rjg ds yksxksas ds lkFk dh-

1 cqtwxZ 70 o"kZ ls Åij dh vk;qoxZ

2 efgyk,a
3 ;qok oxZ 25 ls 50 o"kZ

dsl LVMh dk fo"k;% tyok;q ifjorZu ds {ks=h; izHkko-

mn~ns';%

1- rRdkfyd izHkko-
2- Hkfo"; dh pqukSfr;ka-

dsl LVMh esa eq[; eqn~ns ftu ij geus yksxks ls ckrphr dh o tkudkfj;ka ,d= dh%
1- d`f"k dk;Z ,oa i'kq ikyu
2- ty lzksr
3- ouLifr
4- jkstxkj ,oa ;qok oxZ
5- ikfjokfjd ladV

d`f"k dk;Z ,oa i'kqikyu

{ks= ds 80 ls 85 izfr'kr yksxks dh vkthfodk dk lk/ku d`f"k gS- 70 o"kZ ls Åij dh vk;qoxZ ds yksxksa ls tc geus
ckrphr dh rks mUgksus crk;k fd djhc 50 o"kZ igys rd xkao esa vUu dk ladV Fkk] mRikndrk de Fkh] cjlkr
T;knk gksrh Fkh blfy, d`f"k izHkkfor gks tkrh Fkh ,oa jklk;fud [kknksa dk izpyu ugha Fkk- reke tehuksa esa ikuh

78
vlj djrk Fkk] ;kfu vk/ks&vk/ks [ksr esa gh cjlkr dh Qly dk mRiknu gksrk Fkk] ;kfu vk/ks&vk/ks Hkk"kk esa ^tkcy*
dgrs gSa Qly esa tkcy yx tkrk Fkk vkSj lnhZ dh ekSle esa mUgha tkcyh txg esa ikyk vlj dkjd Fkk ikys dh
ysoh teh jgrh Fkh ekSle dk vlj bruk izHkkodkjh Fkk fd {ks= esa 600 ehVj dh ÅWpkbZ okys LFkkuksa rd lnha;ksa esa
oQZ iM+ tkrh Fkh ftlls tehu ds reke dhV irax ej tkrs Fks- fdlh Hkh rjg dh jklk;fud nokbZ;ka fNM+dus dh
vko';drk ugha Fkh vkSj u gh ;g feyrh Fkh- i'kqikyu esa yksx vf/kd /;ku fn;k djrs Fks- yksx xkscj dh [kkn ,oa
nw/k ds fy, i'kq ikyu dk;Z djrs Fks- bruk ?kh o nwX/k mRiknu gksrk Fkk fd ;fn /kj esa vUu dh deh jgrh Fkh rks
?kh nw?k [kk dj yksx viuk isV Hkj ysrs Fks- cjlkr ds izHkko ls d`f"k dks cpkus ds fy, dksnk] dko.kh] puas] dqyFk
,oa pkSykbZ vkfn Qlysa cksbZ tkrh Fkh-

1960&70 n'kd esa tc ns'k esa gfjr ØkfUr dh 'kq:okr gqbZ rks mlls igkM+h {ks= Hkh vNwrk ugh jgk ;gka ij Hkh
fdlkuksa ds fy, dqN cht o jklk;fud [kknksa dks ckaVus dk dke 'kq: gqvk ljdkjh foHkkxksa }kjk ;g igys eqQr ds
ckaVs x;s- ftu yksxksa us budk iz;ksx fd;k og bruk izHkko'kkyh Fkk fd /khjs&/khjs lHkh yksxksa us viukuk 'kq: fd;k
blls xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa vUu mRiknu c<+k- yksx vUu mRiknu esa vkRefuHkZj gksus yxs- ftyk fljekSj esa udnh Qlyksa
ds uke ij vnjd vkSj vkyw dh [ksrh gksrh Fkh- vnjd ls lwaB cukus dk ;gka ij igys ls gh izpyu jgk- tyok;q
ifjorZu ds dkj.k ,f'k;k Hkj esa viuh xq.kork ds fy, igpkus tkus okyk vnjd fiNys rhu n'kdksa ls lM+u jksx
ls xzflr gS ftl dkj.k vkt vnjd mRiknu esa dkQh deh vkbZ gS- 70 ds n'kd esas 19]800 gsDVs;j Hkwfe ij mxk;s
tkus okys vnjd dh [ksrh vc fleV dj ek= 1600 gsDVs;j ds yxHkx jg x;h gS- tyok;q ifjorZu ds dkj.k
yxkrkj vnjd mRiknd fdlkuksa dh la[;k esa fxjkoV vk jgh gS- vkt lewps ftyk esa vnjd dh [ksrh ek= 04
izfr'kr rd jg xbZ gS- lewps ftyk esa tgka vnjd dh [ksrh dk {ks=Qy ?kVk gS] ogha iSnkokj esa Hkh deh vkbZ gS-

o"kZ [ksrh gSDV;j mRiknu fDoaVy izfr gSDV;j

1970&75 19]800 162
1980&85 1]720 129
1986&90 1]125 103
1991&95 1]410 110
1996&2000 1]390 105
2001&05 1]702 104
2006&07 1]435 109
2008&09 1]600 105

dqN yksx igkM+ks esa uxnh Qly ds :i esa vQhe dh [ksrh Hkh djrs Fks- blls Hkh yksxksa dks vPNh vkenuh gks tkrh
Fkh ysfdu 1950 ds ckn ;g ,d izfrcfU/kr Qly ?kksf"kr dh xbZ- 1980 ds ckn xkWo esa vkfFkZd ØkfUr dh vkSj
vxzlj gq,- blls igys ftyk fljekSj esa dsoy ,d gh udnh Qly vnjd dh gqvk djrh Fkh- /khjs&/khjs uxnh
Qlyksa dks c<+kok feyk- ;gka ij uxnh Qlyksa esa o ekSleh lfCt;ksa ds mRiknu dh vksj yksxksa us :[k fd;k-
fo'ks"kdj ;qok oxZ bl dk;Z ls cgqr izHkkfor gqvk- 1970&80 dk n'kd xzkeh.k mRFkku ds fy, bruk izsj.kknk;d jgk
fd bl n'kd esa cseksleh lfCt;ksa dk mRiknu vkSj nqX/k ØkfUr xzkeh.k vk; dk ,d izeq[k lk/ku mHkjdj lkeus
vk;k vkSj xzkeh.k yksx vkfFkZd :i ls laiUurk dh vksj c<+us yxs vkSj f'k{kk dh vksj uo;qodksa dks vxzlj gksus dk
ekSdk feyk- vHkh rd yksxks dks LFkkuh; lalk/kuksa dh deh ugha [kyrh Fkh] u ikuh dh deh eglwl gksrh Fkh vkSj u
gh ?kkl] pkjs] bZ/ku bR;kfn dh- cSekSleh lfCt;ka vkfFkZd lalk/kuksa esa izeq[k :i ls mHkj dj lkeus vkbZ vkSj dksbZ
Hkh ;qok bl dk;Z dks ?kkVs dk dk;Z ugha ekurk Fkk- ;g ,d ,slk jkstxkj mHkjdj lkeus vk;k fd vf/kdka'k ifjokjksa
dks bl dk;Z ls jkstxkj feyk vkSj lkewfgd :i ls dk;Z djus ds volj blesa Fks- dhVuk'kdksa o jklk;fud [kknksa
dh 'kq:&'kq: esa bruh vko';drk ugha jgh- dksbZ Hkh O;fDr] cqtqxZ] efgyk ;g lksp ugha ldrs Fks fd ;g dk;Z dHkh
ladVe; cu ldrk gS- bl dk;Z us /khjs&/khjs ouLifr] ty lalk/ku o vU; Qlyksa dsk yhyuk 'kq: dj fn;k vkSj
o"kZ 2000 rd vc LFkkuh; yksxksa dks Hkh pqukSfr;ksa dk lkeuk djuk iM+ jgk gS vkSj vkt fLFkfr ;g gS fd nwj os
ekSleh lfCt;ska us vU; Qlyksa dks [ksrksas ls nwj dj fn;k ftlls vU; Qlyksa dk mRiknu {ks= esa ux.; gks x;k gS-
xUus dh Qly vkt igkM+ksa ls iwjh rjg xk;c gS- xsgWwa dh Qly fiNys nl o"kksZ ls xk;c gS- fdlku gj o"kZ xsgWwa
dk cht eksy [kjhndj [ksr esa Mkyrk gS vkSj dkVus ds le; esa mls dqN Hkh izkIr ugha gksrk ;gka rd fd vc gj
o"kZ yksxksa dks i'kq pkjk ¼rqMh½ iatkc gfj;k.kk ls eaxkuh iM+rh gS- bl o"kZ {ks= esa djhc 10 yk[k :i;s dk pkjk
ckgj ls {ks= esa vk pqdk gS- tks jsV iatkc esa fdlkuksa dks xsgWwa dk izkIr gksrk gS ml jsV esa ;gka ds fdlkuksa dks rqMh
fey jgh gS- gj o"kZ blds jsV esa c<+ksRrjh gks jgh gS- fiNys o"kZ ;g 6 : izfr fdyks Fkk bl o"kZ 8 : izfr fdyks

79
rd gS- ,slh fLFkfr esa ;qok oxZ i'kqikyu O;lk; dks Hkh de rjthg ns jgk gS- xkao esa i'kqikyu dk dk;Z fnu
izfrfnu ?kVrk tk jgk gS- tks yksx i'kqikyu dk dk;Z dj jgs gSa og taxyksa dh ouLifr dks cqjh rjg ls mtkM+ jgs
gSa- ckWt ds ikS/ks o gjs Hkjs pkjs okys ikS/kksa dh ifÙk;ka dks Vguh lesr dkV nsrs gSa ftlls pwYgk tykus ds fy, ydM+h
o i'kq pkjs ds fy, ifÙk;ksa dk iz;ksx djrs gSa iwjs taxy izHkkfor gks jgs gS- blls ikS/kks esa dkcZu dsk vo'kksf"kr djus
dh {kerk ?kV tkrh gS tks tyok;q ifjorZu dk ,d dkj.k cu tkrk gS- ;qok oxZ vc d`f"kZ dk;Z dks NksM+dj vU;
dk;ksZ dh rjQ c<+uk 'kq: gks x;k gS D;ksafd d`f"kZ dk;ksZ ds fy, ekSle u djoV ys fy;k gS xzkeh.k yksxks ;qokvksa]
cqtqxksZ] efgyvksa ls tc bl fo"k; dks ysdj ppkZ gksrh gS rks og tyok;q ifjorZu esa cnyko rks t:j crkrs gSa
ijUrq og ,slk ugha lksprs fd og ifjfLFkfr fnu izfrfnu ladVe; gksrh tk jgh gS- og ekurs gSa fd b; ckj ,slk
gqvk gS gj ckj ,slk ugha gksxk- gkaykfd cqtqxZ ;g ckr t:j dgrs gSa fd euq"; viuh vko';drkvksa d fy, izd`fr
dk vfr nksgu dj jgk gS ftldk ;g ifj.kke gS- bulku gj pht dks t:jr ls T;knk bLrseky dj jgk gS- ;qok
oxZ bl ckr dks utjvankt dj jgk gS ftldk ifj.kke lc ds lkeus gS-

ty lzksr
gkaykfd xkao esa ihus ds ikuh dh deh rks igys Hkh gqvk djrh Fkh exj ;g xehZ ds ekSle esa gksrh Fkh- xkao esa
ljdkjh ;kstukvks dk ikuh ugha Fkk vf/kdrj yksx ckoM+h ls ikuh ykrs Fks- xkao es vklikl ds ty lzksr dk xzkeh.k
yksx izcU/ku djrs Fks lkQ lQkbZ djrs Fks- i'kqvksa ds fy, xkao esa ;gka ij igys ls gh rkykc @tksgM+ cukus dh
ijEijk jgh gS] ;gh ugha xkao ds fdlh u fdlh ifjokj }kjk xkao ds bu ty lzksr dh lQkbZ ds fy, lkeqfgd
Jenku djus dk cgqr izpyu jgk ftls LFkkuh; Hkk"kk esa [k.kkbZ] gsYyk cqvkjk dgrs gSa ftlls ;g jkLrs ckoM+h
tksgM+ ,oa rkykc lajf{kr jgrs Fks vkSj lky Hkj bues aikuh Hkjk jgrk Fkk- flapkbZ O;oLFkk xkao esa de Fkh- flapkbZ
okys [ksrks ,oa unh ukyksa ds vkl&ikl ;k dqgy okyh tehu esa gh iSnk dh tkrh Fkh- ijUrq izd`fr ij yksxksa dks
bruk Hkjkslk Fkk fd ckfj'ksa le; ds vuqdwy gksrh jgrh Fkh lnhZ ds ekSle esa te dj B.M gksrh Fkh reke {ks= esa
cQZ iM+rh Fkh vkSj ikyk iM+us ij cQZ te tkrh Fkh tks dbZ&dbZ fnuksa rd iM+h jgrh Fkh- ckfj'k Hkh B.M esa [kqc
gksrh Fkh ftlls /kjrh ij ueh dh deh vksj ty lzksrksa esa ikuh dh deh ugha gksrh Fkh- cjlkr dk eghuk vk"kk<+]
Jko.k] Hkknksa vkSj 'kmt ds eghuksa esa Hka;dj ckfj'ksa gksrh Fkh- dbZ ckj rks ,d ,d lIrkg rd fnujkr dk irk
yxkuk eqf'fdy gksrk Fkk- unh ukyksa esa ikuh cgrk Fkk rks unh ukyksa ls ikuh dh ?kwe ?kwe dh vkokt xkao dh
nwj&nwj cfLr;ksa rd lqukbZ nsrh Fkh-

vukt filkbZ ds fy, reke unh ukyksa esa ?kjkV cus gq, Fks ftlls jkstxkj Hkh izkIr gksrk Fkk exj vkt ;g lc
phtsa lekIrh dh vksj gS- vdsys iPNkn ckyd esa 300 ds djhc ?kjkV Fks tks vkt [k.Mgj dh fLFkfr esa ekStwn gS
vkSj iwjs {ks= esa vkt dsoy 50&60 ?kjkV pfyr voLFkk esa gS- ?kjkV Lokeh Hkh ;g crkrs gS dksbZ vukt ysdj ?kjkV
esa ugha vkrk yksxksa ds ikl pkj eghus dk vukt gksrk gS ftls og pfDd;ksa esa ys tkrs gS] ckfd ikuh dh leL;k ds
dkj.k budks pykuk Hkh dfBu gks x;k gS-

xkao esa ty lzksrksa dh gkyr cgqr gh n;uh; gS gj o"kkZ ty lzksr lw[k tkrs gS ftlls xkao esa vc ikuh dk ladV
xgjk x;k gS- xkao esa VSadjksa o xkfM+;ksa ds ek/;e ls ikuh dh lIykbZ dh tkrh gS exj og rks fMIiks esa jk'ku dh
nqdku ds leku gS] dsoy lM+dks ds vkl ikl ds ?kjksa dks nwj njkt dh cfLr;ksa esa rks og Hkh ugha feyrk ftl
dkj.k yksxksa dks unh ukyksa o tksgM+ksa rkykcksa ls lafpr ikuh dks ihuk iM+rk gS ftlls ubZ ubZ fcekfj;kWa QSy jgh gS-
fiNys 8&10 o"kksZ ls {ks= esa cQZckjh ugha gks jgh gS ;g ekSle cnylo dk Li"V ladsr gS- ckfj'k u gksus ds dkj.k
Qlyksa dk u"V gksuk Hkh tyok;q ifjorZu dk ladsr gS- {ks= esa pkjsnkj ikS/kksa dh deh dk gksuk o [ksrksa esa pkjs okyh
?kkl dh txg vU; tgjhys o daVhys ?kkl dk mxuk tyok;q ifjorZu dks Li"V n'kkZrk gS- unh ukyksa ls xk;c
gksrk tkrk gS- tks fd igys 12 eghus jgrk Fkk- iqjkus ijEijkxr ikuh lafpr djus ds fy, tks rjhds Fks tksgM+
rkykc vkt muesa ikuh ugha Bgjrk- feV~Vh esa ikuh dks jksd dj j[kus dh 'kfDr dk detksj gksuk bl rjg ds
vusd dkj.k tyok;q ifjorZu ds izHkko dks n'kkZrsa gS ftlls gekjs ty lalk/ku foyqIrrk dh vksj gS- ;qok oxZ vkt
iDds VSad cukus dks T;knk rjght nsrs gS] ftl Hkh xkao esa tkvksa yksxksa dks ikuh dh deh rks [kyrh gS exj mudh
ekax ,d lh jgrh gS fd VSad cukuk gS- eryc iDdk VSad lhesaV ls ;k vkj-lh-lh ls- dPps tksgM+ ;k rkykcksa esa
mUgsa T;knk :fp ugha gS- fiNys dbZ o"kksZa ls ljdkj }kjk vusd ;kstukvksa ds ek/;e ls xkao xkao esa dPps&iDds dbZ
rjg ds tksgM+] VSad cuok, x;s gS ysfdu muesa ls fdlh Hkh tksgM+ esa t::r ds le; ds fy, ikuh ugha feyrk rks
yksxksa dk ekuuk gS fd ,sls tksgM+ rkykc cukus ls D;k Qk;nk ftlesa ikuh ugha Bgjrk] mYVk tehu dk gh uk'k gS-
gekjh laLFkk }kjk xkao esa dqN tksgM+ksa dk fuekZ.k IykfLVd fQYe rduhdh ls djok;k x;k ftudh ikuh laxzg.k

80
djus dh {kerk 10 yk[k fyVj ls 20 yk[k fyVj gS mlesa ges'kk cjlkr esa ikuh jgrk gS tks yksxksa ds fy, cgqr
Qk;nsean lkfcr gq, gS- bl rjg ds tksgM+ksa dh cgqr ekax jgrh gS] D;ksafd buds izR;{k izHkko yksxksa ds lkeus gS-
cgqr vPNs izHkko yksxksa us crk;s fd gekjs xkao {ks= esa fiNys o"kZ vDVwcj ls vkSj vkt tqykbZ 2009 dk eghuk Hkh
lekIr gksus dks gS dksbZ ckjh'k ugha gqbZ gS] bruk lw[kk iM+us ds ckotwn Hkh vHkh rd gekjs xkao esa bUgha rkykcksa ls
ikuh izkIr gS tcfd xkao esa vU; dksbZ ikuh dk lk/ku ugha gS- ;kfu yksxksa dk dguk Fkk fd ge DykbZesV psat dh
leL;k ls bl rjg ds fodYiksa ls Hkh dqN gn rd fuiV ldrs gS-

ouLifr%
fiNys 50 o"kksZa esa LFkkuh; ouLifr esa cgqr rjg ds iforZu ns[kus dks feyrs gS- ,slh lkjh ouLifr;kWa gS tks vkt
xkWo o taxyksa ls xk;c gSa- foyqIrrk ds dkj.k rks taxyksa esa vkx dk yxuk ekurs gS- vkx yxus ds dkj.k ljdkjh
ikS/k jksi.k esa phM+ ds ikS/kksa dk yxkuk ekuk tkrk gS- ;g ,slk ikS/kk gS tks tehu dks :[kk ,oa lw[kk cuk nsrk gS
rFkk tehu ls iwjs iks"kd rRoksa dks pwl ysrk gS rFkk tehu ls ikuh o ueh dks pwl ysrk gS bldh Toyu'khy ifÙk;ksa
ls taxyksa esa vkx QSyrh gS ftlls iwjh rjg ls ouLifr yqIr gks tkrh gS ;g nsu lc foHkkxh; fufr dh gS- igys
phM+ ds taxy de Fks rks bruk uqdlku ugha gksrk Fkk- dqN ,sls cht gok o pjokgksa ds lkFk ckgj ls vk tkrs gS
tks taxyksa o tehuksa esa cgqr rhozrk ls QSyrs gSa vkSj LFkkuh; ouLifr yqIr gks tkrh gS tSls&ySaVkuk] ,ftjsVk]
ikjFksfu;e] dVhyh ?kkl bl rjg ds vusd cht vkt ?kklfu;ksa [ksrksa o taxyksa esa iSnk gks x;s gS tks [krjs ds
ladsr gS] i'kqvksa dks pkjs dh leL;k iSnk djrs gS yksx buls futkr ikus ds fy, vkx Hkh yxkrs gSa ftlls cgqr
dqN u"V gks tkrk gS ;gka rd fd gj o"kZ ?kklfu;ksa esa ?kkl dk de iSnk gksuk Hkh ,d tyok;q ifjorZu dk ladsr
yksxksa dks fey jgk gS ijUrq lek/kku ugha feyrk- ,alh rdfufd;kWa Hkh yksxksa ds lkeus ugha gSa tks csdkj ouLifr;ksa
¼ck;ksekl½ dks mi;ksx esa yk ldsa-

;g xEHkhj fo"k; yksxksa ds lkeus ,d fodjky leL;k ds :i esa [kM+k gS ,sls Hkh cgqr yksx gS tks viuh t:jrksa dh
iwrhZ ds fy, pkjsnkj ikS/kksa dks dkV dj ydM+h cspdj /ku dekus dk ykyp j[krs gSa o bekjrh ydM+h xkao ls iwjh
rjg fcd pqdh gS- ouLifr dk de gksuk tyok;q ifjorZu ds fy, ,d xEHkhj pqukSrh gS-

LFkkuh; efgykvksa us crk;k fd ge [skrh ckM+h vkSj i'kq ikyu dss dk;Z ls viuh vkthfodk pykrh gSa exj vc fnu
izfrfnu gekjs fy, ;g ,d pqukSrh Hkjk dk;Z gks x;k gS- vc u rks [ksrksa esa ?kkl feyrh u ?kklfu;ksa esa- taxyksa esa Hkh
pkjs nkj ikS/kksa dh deh gks xbZ gS ,sls esa i'kq ikyu dk dk;Z dSls djsa- bl o"kZ ckjh'k gh ugha gqbZ isM+ ikS/kksa esa Hkh
ubZ dksaiys ugha vk ldh Qynkj ikS/kksa esa Qwy gh ugha vk;s- tks FkksM+h cgqr Qwy vk;s lc pqukSfr;ka fdlkuksa ds Åij
gh gSa ;kfu tyok;q&ifjorZu ls lcls T;knk nq"izHkko fdlkuksa dks gks jgk gSa-

jkstxkj ,oa ;qok oxZ&

tyok;q ifjorZu dh ekj ls ;qok oxZ cgqr vkgr gS mls vHkh ;g cgqr Li"V ugha gS fd ;g tyok;q ifjorZu ds
dkj.k gS ;k Xykscy eUnh dss dkj.k- [ksrksa esa mRiknu ugha gS tks Qlysa yxkrs gSa og izd`fr dh HkssaV p<+ tkrh gS
vkSj dHkh nke ugha feyrs dHkh iSnkokj gh ?kV tkrh gS dHkh taxyh tkuojksa dk izdksi c<+ tkrk gS ,sls esa ;qok oxZ
[ksrh ds dk;Z esa fcYdqy Hkh :fp ugha ys jgk gS tks vkus okys le; ds fy, ,d xEHkhj leL;k dh psrkouh gS- ;qok
oxZ jkstxkj dh rqyuk d`f"k dk;ksZa ls fcYdqy ugha djrs- mUgsa ekfld vk; okyk jkstxkj pkfg, D;ksafd og Xykscy
VªSaM+ ls tqM+s jguk pkgrs gSa tks fd d`f"k dk;ksZa ls igkM+ksa esa NksVh&NksVh tksrksa esa lEHko ugha gS-

ikfjokfjd ladV&
xkao esa jkstxkj ds lk/ku ?kVus ls ifjokjksa ds lkeus fur u;s ladV iSnk gks jgs gSa- ,d rks d`f"k mRiknu dk fxjuk]
Qlyksa dk VwVuk ;g lc ikfjokfjd ladV dks c<+kok nsus okys rF; gSa- yksxksa ds lkeus vkt Hkw[kejh dh leL;k
iSnk gks xbZ gS- xkao o ifjokj dks NksM+dj dgkW tk,a- ;qok oxZ xkWo NksM+ dj dgkW tk ldrs gSa ,sls esa ikfjokfjd
ladV xgjkrk tk jgk gS-

81
ljdkjh ;kstukvksa ;qok oxZ ds vkxs [kks[kyh lkfcr gks jgh gS- ekSle pØ ;fn lgh pyrk jgs rks ;qok oxZ vius
[ksrksa ls viuk jksth jksVh dek dj ikyu dj ysrk gS- ysfdu tSls tyok;q ifjorZu ds >Vds bl ckj yxs gS
¼vDVwcj 2008 ls tqykbZ 2009½] rd ckfj'kksa dk u gksuk fdlkuksa o eos'kh ikydksa ds fy, ,d rckgh epkus ds
leku gS- fdlkuksa dh Qlysa rks blls igys Hkh dbZ ckj u"V gqbZ gS- dbZ ckj ck<+ o lw[ks dh fLFkfr dks fdlku us
>syk gS- exj ;g nksgjh ekj fgeky; ds yksxksa us o {ks= ls iwjh rjg unkjn gq, gSa isM+ ikS/kksa dh ifÙk;kWa >wyluh
'kq: gks pqdh gSa] ikuh ds fy, =kgh&=kgh ep jgh gS vkSj ljdkj jk;YVh ds pDdj esa {ks= dk ikuh vehj jkT;ksa o
fnYyh dks csp jgh gS] ;fn ,d fnu jk'ku ckaVus dh ukScr vk x;h rks ljdkj D;k dj ysxh- ;g lc lEkL;k,a xkao
eas ;qok oxZ dks >d>ksM+ jgh gS- ljdkjh Ldhesa cM+s&cM+s vkadM+ksa esa rS;kj gksrh gS tLVhfQds'ku ds ihNs dk jkt
rduhdh gksrk gS] tks lk/kkj.k yksxksa dh le> ls ijs dh ckr gS- xkao esa ftruh leL;k,a gksxh vQlj 'kkgh dks
mlds lek/kku ds fy, izko/kku djus dk volj izkIr gksrk gS- exj fu"d"kZ lkFkZd ugha gksrs] vkSj leL;k T;wa dh
R;wa cuh jgrh gS- bl rjg ds cgqr loky ;qok oxZ ds lkeus xkao ls jkstxkj gVus ds dkj.kksa esa 'kkfey gS tks xkao
dh vkfFkZdh o ikfjokfjd ladV ds :i esa mHkj dj lkeus vk jgs gS- ;fn gekjs lkekftd <+kapsa esa u;s ifjorZu ykus
ds fy, ;qokvksa dks xkao ds yksxksa dks 'kkfey ugha fd;k x;k tks ;g tyok;q&ifjorZu ls gksus okyh ;g leL;k ,d
cgqr cM+s ladV ds :i esa ns'k ds lkeus gksxh- ;gh leL;k,a gekjs fy, Hkfo"; dh pqukSfr;kWa gSa ftuds lek/kku ds
fy, ge lHkh dks bl fo"k; ij ,d lkFkZd igy djuh gksxh-

82
A commentary on the work of Rama Bisht entitled as " Impacts of
climate change on natural springs: A case study from three villages
of Naintal District, Uttarakhand
Rama Bisht

Rama Bisht has been working with community of Bhimtal development block for the last 09
years. She is very much concerned about the diminishing water resources in the hills. She
has noticed change in natural water resources in her work area also. She has a great wish to
address the problem and find out the causes of diminishing water resources in the hills.
After being selected as Climate Change Leader (CCL) and attending the training programmes
on climate change, she organized village meetings with various age classes of people in the
three villages i.e. Tirchhakhet, Dhulaigaon and Sirorifarm in Bhimtal development block of
Nainital district in Uttarakhnad. Using the tools and techniques of participatory rural
appraisal (PRA) and personal interviews of key resource people in the study villages, she
came up with interesting results about the problem through community experiences.

The main objective of her study is to understand the underlying cause of diminishing natural
water resources in the three villages of Bhimtal development block in Uttarakhand.

She conducted various meetings with the groups of different age classes of people i.e.,
young mass (20 to 35 years), middle aged (36‐50 years) and above 50 years, in order to
understand the status of natural springs 30‐40 years before through the experiences of old
aged people and status of these resources at present. This helped her to have a
comparative account of natural resources and various factors influencing the condition of
these resources.

The main outcomes of her study can be summarized into following points:

™ The natural water resources such as springs, naula and dhare have degraded over the
last 20‐30 years. Not only quantity of water has decreased but also quality of water
has degraded. Further, the many of these resources has already dried up.

™ The main cause behind the diminishing natural resources is change in climate
particularly rainfall pattern, snowfall pattern and increasing temperatures.

™ The rainfall pattern has changed. Earlier in the study area rainfall commenced before
15 June regularly till 1980‐90 but now there has been seen delay in its
commencement. It usually commences at the end of June or Ist week of July.

™ Snowfall pattern has also changed significantly. Earlier 10‐15 feet of snow used to
occur which has now decreased to 1 foot only and in some year even no snowfall.
Further, the time of snow fall has also changed. Earlier in 1980‐90 it used to happen in

83
 November and lasted in March, but now it occasionally happens in December or
January that too very little.

™ The vegetation composition has also changed over these years. Earlier there used to
be dense vegetation comprising of Oak, Phliyant, Kaphal which are known for water
recharging but now due to over exploitation of these species not only there density
has decreased but species composition has also changed and species like Chirpine
have started invading the areas.

™ Earlier villagers used to dig micro reservoirs in the slopes which helped recharging the
natural water resources. With the passage of time this traditional know how depleted
and resulted into less number of micro reservoirs which impaired with water quantity
in natural water resources.

84
tyok;q ifjorZu dk ty lzksarks ij izHkko% dqekaÅ fgeky; ds Hkherky fodkl[k.M ds
rhu xzkeksa dk v/;;u
(Impacts of climate change on natural water resources: A case study
from three villages of Nainital District, Uttarakhand)

lkjka'k
mÙkjk[kaM ds xzkeh.k vapy ds yksx viuh is;ty dh vko';drk dh iwfrZ gsrq eq[;r% izkd`frd ty lzksrksa ij fuHkZj
jgrs gSa- fiNys dqN n'kdksa ls fgeky; ds ioZrh; {ks=ksa esa is; ty dh leL;k us xaHkhj :i /kkj.k dj fy;k gS
D;kasfd tyok;q ifjorZu ds dkj.k izkd`frd ty lzksrksa ij vR;f/kd nq"izHkko iM+k gS- buesa ls cgqr vf/kd la[;k esa
;k rks ty lzksr lw[k pqds gSa ;k muesa ikuh dh ek=k dkQh de gkss x;h gS- Hkherky fodkl[kaM ds vUrxZr rhu
xkaoksa frjNk[ksr] /kqybZxkao ,oa fljksM+hQkeZ esa foxr 30&40 o"kksZ esa izkd`frd ty lzksrksa esa vk;s ifjorZu ,oa muds
dkj.kksa dks le>us gsrq xzkeh.kksa ds vuqHko ij vk/kkfjr ;g v/;;u fd;k x;k gS- xzkeh.kksa ds vuqlkj fiNys 30&40
o"kksZ esa v/;;u xzkeksa ds izkd`frd ty lzksrksa dh fLFkfr esa dkQh cnyko vk;k gS- izkd`frd ty lzksrksa esa ls dkQh
ty lzksr lw[k x;s gSa ,oa dbZ ty lzksrksa esa ikuh dh ek=k dkQh de gks x;h gS- xzkeh.kksa ds vuqlkj bldk eq[;
dkj.k rkieku o`f)] taxyksa dk dVku] izkd`frd vkink,a tSls HkwL[kyu ,oa pkSM+s iRrs okyh iztkfr;ka tSls ckat]
rq"kkj] Hkhey] ine bR;kfn dk de gksuk-

ifjp; (Introduction / Overview)

mÙkjk[k.M ds mPp fgekPNkfnr {ks= esa oQZ ds :Ik esa ikuh dk vFkkg Hk.Mkj ekStwn gS- xaxk] ;equk] dkyh] HkkxhjFkh]
jkexaxk ufn;kW fgeunh ls tUe ysrh gSa- mÙkjk[k.M ds xzkeh.k vapy esa xzkeh.k ihus ds ikuh ds fy, eq[;r% izd`frd
lzksrks tSls ukSys] /kkjs] ,oa 'khj&lkssrksa bR;kfn ij fuHkZj jgrs gSa- iwoZ esa ;g bu ty lzksrksa esa ikuh dh ek=k Ik;kZIr
ek=k esa miyC/k jgrh Fkh ysfdu le; ds lkFk&lkFk buesa u dsoy ikuh dh ek=k de gskrh x;h vfirq buesa ls
dkQh la[;k esa lzksr iw.kZ :Ik lw[k x;s- ;g izkd`frd lzksr u dsoy ikuh ds fy, egRoiw.kZ Fks oju buls xzkeh.kkas dh
/kkfeZd ,oa lkaLd`frd ekU;rk,sa Hkh tqM+h gksrh Fkh-

mÙkjk[k.M ds lwnwjorhZ; xzkeh.k vapyksa esa vusdksa ty lzksrksa dks ysdj NksVh&NkssVh vlhfer xkM++ x/ksjksa ls lapkfyr
gksdj ,d o`gr unh dk :Ik ysrh Fkh- fjef>e o"kkZ ls Hkwfexr ty lzksr Hkjs jgrs Fks vkSj unh&ukyksa esa ikuh Hkjk
jgrk Fkk- tgkW&rgkW ij 50 fdeh- dh nwjh ij pky&[kky cus gq, ik;s tkrs Fks ftudh xzkeoklh ns[kjs[k Hkh fd;k
djrs Fks- xzkeksa ds bnZ fxnZ lnkcgj jgus okyh ufn;kW] xzkM+ x/ksjs ik;s tkrs Fks- mnkgj.k ds RkkSj yxHkx 500 xkM+
x/ksjs dkslh unh esa lek;s gq, gSa- cqtqxksZ dk ekuuk gS fd izR;sd ftys ds Cykd Lrj ds nwjLFk xzkeh.k {ks=ksa esa 1 ls 2
fdeh- dh nwjh ij pky [kky o ukSys /kkjk ty Jksr ik;s tkrs Fks rFkk ;s lnkckgj ?kus o`{kkas ls <dk jgrk Fkk-
muds erkuqlkj crk;k tkrk gS fd izR;sd ukSyk /kkjk esa lkr ls ysdj ikWp /kjk,sa gksrs Fks ftlesa ls 1 ls rhu /kkjk
dk ikuh cgqr gh 'kq) ekuk tkrk Fkk- ftlesa pky [kky cgqr ik;s tkrs Fks pky&[kky dk ikuh /khjs&/khjs fj>rk gq,
ty lzksr Jksr ukSyksa dk :Ik ys ysrk Fkk- tks dbZ xquk fQV ;k fdeh- dh nwjh ls 'kq) gksdj cgrk Fkk- ;g ukSyk dk
ikuh ehBk cgqr B.Mk gksrk Fkk- d`f"k dk;Z [ksrh dh flapkbZ ds fy, mi;qDr o tkuojksa ds fy, Ik;kZIr gksrk Fkk-
xzkeh.kksa ds vuqlkj bu tylzksrksa ikuh dh ek=k de gkrs tk jgh gS- xzkeokfl;ksa ds vuqHkoksa ij vk/kkfjr ;g v/;;u
ty lzksrksa dh iwoZ ,oa orZeku fLFkfr;ksa dk rqyukRed v/;;u djuk gS-

orZeku esa fgeky; ds ioZrh; {ks=ksa esa ihus dk ikuh xzkeh.kksa dh ,d eq[; leL;k gS- ;gkW ds vf/kdrj yksx ihus ds
ikuh gsrq izkd`frd ty lzksrksa tSls ukSyksa] /kkjs] 'khj&lzksr bR;kfn ij fuHkZj jgrs gSa foxr dqN n'kdksa ls izkd`frd
ty lzksrksa dh la[;k ,oa muesa ikuh dh ek=k esa vR;f/kd deh eglwl dh x;h gS ftlds ifj.kke Lo:Ik xzkeh.kksa
dks ihus ds ikuh dh leL;k dk lkeuk djuk iM+rk gS- gkykafd ty lzksrksa ds lw[kus ,oa muesa ikuh dh deh ds
cgqr ls dkj.k gSa tSls tula[;k c`f)] 'kgjhdj.k] o"kkZ ,oa fgeikr esa deh rFkk c<+rk gqvk rkieku rFkkfi yksxksa dk

85
ekuuk gS fd tyok;q ifjorZu bldk ,d eq[; dkj.k gS- bl v/;;u ds }kjk yksxksa ds vuqHkoksa ls ;g tkuus dk
iz;kl fd;k x;k gS fd tyok;q ifjorZu bldk eq[; dkj.k gS-

dk;Z{ks= dk fooj.k (Description of study area)

orZeku v/;;u {ks= mRrjk[kaM ds uSuhrky ftys ds Hkherky fodkl[k.M esa vkrk gS+ mijksDr v/;;u gsrq bl
fodkl [k.Mksa ds rhu xzke frjNk[ksr] /kqybZ xkWo ,oa fljksM+hQkeZ dk p;u fd;k x;k gS mDr xzkeksa dk p;u dk
vk/kkj lh-lh-,y- dk bu {ks= yEck dk;ZkuqHko jgk gS rFkk lh-lh-,y- }kjk xzkeh.kkas ds lkFk feydj fofHkUu ty
lzksr th.kksZ)kj dk;Zdzeksa dk vk;kstu fd;k x;k gS- {ks= ds yksx vius ihus ds ikuh gsrq eq[;r% ty lzksrksa ij fuHkZj
jgrs gSa xzkeh.kksa dk eq[; O;lk; d`f"k ,oa Ik'kqikyu gS d`f"k esa eq[; :ils xsgw] /kku] tkS] eDdk] eMqvk] nky ,oa
lkx&lfCt;ksa mRiknu fd;k tkrk gS-

mn~ns'; ¼Objective½
bl v/;;u dk eq[; mn~ns'; izkd`frd ty lzksrksa dh la[;k ,oa muesa ikuh dh ek=k esa vk;s cnyko ds dkj.kksa dk
v?;;u djuk gS-
dk;Z fof/k
mijksDr v/;;u gsrq eq[;r% lgHkkxh xzkeh.k v/;;u fof/k dk mi;ksx fd;k x;k- ifjos'k esa vk;s cnyko dks
le>us gsrq eq[; :Ik ls lgHkkxh xzkeh.k v/;;u ¼PRA½ dh fofHkUu rduhdksa tSls le; js[kk v/;;u] ekSleh
fo'ys"k.k vkfn dk mi;ksx fd;k x;k- xzkeh.kksa dks rhu vk;q oxksZ tSls 20&35] 36&50 ,oa 50 ls Åij lewgksa esa
foHkftr fd;k x;k bldk eq[; mn~ns'; 30 ls 40 o"kZ iwoZ ty lzksrksa ,oa tyok;q ls lEcfU/kr xzkeh.k cqtxksZ ds
vuqHkoksa ls ,d rqyukRed v/;;u djuk Fkk] lkFk gh vU; lewgksa }kjk orZeku fLFkfr ds ckjs esa ty lzksrksa ,oa
tyok;q ls lEcfU/kr tkudkjh izkIr dh x;h- bl izdkj izkIr tkudkjh dk rqyukRed fo'ys"k.k dj ty lzksrksa ij
izHkko dk v/;;u fd;k x;k- blds vfrfjDr f}rh;d vkad.kksa tSls o"kkZ] rkieku ,oa oQZ bR;kfn dk Hkh ladyu
fd;k x;k ;g vkdM+s ekSle foKku dsUnz jktdh; b.Vj dkyst Hkherky csclkbV] lekpkj i=ksa ,oa i= if=dkvksa
ls ladfyr fd;s x;s-

vkdyu] fo'ys"k.k ,oa fu"d"kZ ¼Assessment/ analysis/key outcome½

1- izkd`frd ty lzksrksa dk vkadyu
lgHkkxh xzkeh.k v/;;u ,oa f}rh;d vkdM+ksa ls Kkr gqvk fd orZeku xzke frjNk[ksr ds ,d cqtqxZ mRre flag
esa frjNk[ksr] /kqybZxkWo ,oa fljkSM+hQkeZ esa dze'k% rhu] ikWp ,oa ikWp fc"V ds vuqlkj ^^iwoZ esa fgeikr ,oa o"kkZ
izkd`frd ty lzksr gSa- 1970&80 ds n'kd esa bu xzkeksa esa 10&20 ds nksuks gh dkQh ek=k esa gqvk djrs Fks
e/; ty lzksr gqvk djrs Fks rFkk buesa Ik;kZIr ek=k eas ikuh miyC/k ftldh otg ls ty lkszr Hkh dkQh
jgrk Fkk- frjNk[ksr esa bu lzksrksa dh la[;k 8&10] <qybZ xzke esa la[;k esa gksrs Fks ,oa buesa ikuh dh ek=k
15&16 ,oa fljkSjh QkeZ esa 10&12 gqvk djrh Fkh ysfdu tSls&tSls Hkh Ik;kZIr gksrh Fkh- tula[;k c`f) ds
le; cM+rk x;k tyok;q esa Hkh ifjorZu gksrk x;k- eq[; :Ik ls dkj.k] taxy ,oa tehu ij ncko cM+rk
fgeikr ,oa o"kkZ dh ek=k ,oa vko`fÙk esa cnyko eglwl fd;k x;k- x;k ftl dkj.k tyok;q ds lkFk&lkFk
budk lh/kk izHkko ty lzksrksa ij iM+k- vf/kdrj yksxks us Lohdkj bu ty lzksrksa dh fLFkfr fcxM+rh x;h**-
fd;k fd bu ty lzksrksa esa ikuh dh deh ds lkFk&lkFk ikuh dh
xq.koÙkk esa Hkh gzkl gqvk gS-

86
mijksDr xzkeksa esa tylzksrksa dh fLFkfr fuEukafdr fp= esa izLrqr dh xbZ gS- xzke frjNk[ksr esa orZeku esa 5 tylzksr gSa
ftlesa ls dsoy 3 lzksr gh orZeku esa ,sls gSa ftuls xzkeokfl;ksa dh o"kZ Hkj is;ty dh vkiwfrZ gksrh gS- 'ks"k 2
tylzksrksa esa ikuh lkekU;r% o"kkZ _rq esa gh miyC/k jgrk gS-
fljkM+hQkeZ xzke dh ,d vU; cqtqxZ efgyk xzke /kqybxkao esa esa orZeku esa 7 tylzksr gSa ftlesa ls dsoy
ek/koh esgjk ds vuqlkj ^^igys rks bu ty 5 lzksr gh orZeku esa ,sls gSa ftuls xzkeokfl;ksa dh o"kZ Hkj
lzksrksa esa ty 'kq) gqvk djrk Fkk vkSj ikuh Hkh is;ty dh vkiwfrZ gksrh gS 'ks"k 2 tylzksrksa esa ikuh lkekU;r%
Ik;kZIr gksrk Fkk ysfdu vkt rks u gh ikuh o"kkZ _rq esa gh miyC/k jgrk gS vU; efguksa esa ;s lzksr lw[k
Ik;kZIr gS vkSj u gh 'kq)- bl dkj.k yksx tkrs gSa- ,slh gh fLFkfr xzke fljksM+hQkeZ dh gS tgka orZeku esa
vdlj fcekj Hkh gks tk;k djrs gSa**- dsoy 7 gh lzksr 'ks"k gS ftlesa ls dsoy 3 lzksrksa esa ikuh o"kZ
Hkj miyC/k jgrk gS tcfd 'ks"k 4 lzksr lw[k pqds gS buesa
dsoy ojlkr ds le; ikuh jgrk gS- la{ksi esa ;g dgk tk
ldrk gS fd 1980 dh rqyuk esa mijkDr xzkeksa esa 47 izfr'kr tylzksr lw[k x;s gSa- xzkeksa esa tylzksrksa dh la[;k ,oa
orZeku fLFkfr dks fuEukafdr rkfydk esa izLrqr fd;k x;k gS%

izkd`frd ty lzskrksa dh fLFkfr esa cnyko ¼Change in location of natural springs½

izkd`frd ty lzksr eq[;r% /kkjkas ds mnxe LFky esa iwoZ dh rqyuk esa dkQh cnyko vk;k gS- iwoZ esa tgkW ;s lzksr xzke
ls 500&600 QhV Åij gqvk djrs Fks vkt f[klddj 200&300 QhV uhps vk x;s gSa- mnkgj.k ds rkSj ij xzke
frjNk[ksr esa dQyqvk lzksr 80 ds n'kd esa xzke ls
500 eh- Åij gqvk djrk Fkk vkt f[klddj dsoy 1980&1990 1990&2000 2000&2009
200 QhV uhps vk x;k gS- blh izdkj fljkSM+hQkeZ frjNk[ksr 08 06 05
/kqybZxkao 16 12 07
xzke esa [ktkuh lzksr tks dHkh 300 QhV mij gqvk
fljkM+hQkeZ 12 09 07
djrk Fkk vkt dsoy 100 QhV esa vk x;k gS- /kqybZ
xkWo esa fLFkr /kqjk uked lzksr Hkh xzke ls dsoy 200 QhV rd vk x;k gS- ;g lzksr 1980 ds n'kd esa 400 QhV
mij gqvk djrk Fkk- xzkeokfl;ksa ds vuqlkj bldk eq[; dkj.k vfu;fer o"kkZ dk gkuk gS- dHkh dHkh o"kkZ cgqr
vf/kd gksrh gS rks dHkh dHkh cgqr de- ftldh otg ls HkwL[kyu gksrk gS vkSj ty lzksrksa ftlls tylzksr cwjh rjg
izHkkfor gksrs gS-

frjNk[ksr dh ,d xzkeh.k efgyk nsodh vk;kZ ds ds

vuqlkj ^^gesa ikuh ds fy, twu ekg esa dkQh eqf'dyksa
dk lkeuk djuk iM+rk gS] lzksr vDlj lw[k tkrs gSa]
ftu lzksrksa esa ikuh gksrk Hkh gS og xzke ls 3&4 fdeh-
nwj fLFkr gksrs gSa muesa Hkh ikuh dh ek=k bruh de
gksrh gS fd gesa ?k.Vksa ikuh ds fy, bUrtkj djuk
iM+rk gS- rc tkdj dgha ikuh fey ikrk gS**

,d vU; efgyk ghjk fc"B xzke frjNk[ksr ds vuqlkj

^^ge lqcg 4 cts gh ikuh ds fy, pys tkrs gSa rc Hkh
gesa viuh ckjh ds fy, vk/kk ls ,d ?k.Vs rd
bUrtkj djuk iM+rk gS**-

87
fgeikr ,oa o"kkZ esa cnyko ¼Change in precipitation pattern½%
fiNys dqN n'kdksa ls v/;;u {ks= esa o"kkZ ,oa oQZ dh vko`fÙk ,oa ek=k esa vHkwriwoZ cnyko eglwl fd;k
x;k gS- 70 izfr'kr vf/kd yksxksa dk ekuuk Fkk fd o"kkZ dky iwoZ esa tgkW 15 twu l igys

xzke dk uke ty lzksr dk ty lzksr esa

uke ikuh dh fLFkfr ,d xzkeh.k teu flag xzke fljksM+hQkeZ ftudh vk;q 55 o"kZ
frjNk[ksr ?kVxkM+ o"kZHkj
dsyk/kkjk o"kZHkj gS] vius vuqHko crkrs gq, dgrs gS fd ^^iwoZ esa uoEcj ls gh
frfeyikuh ojlkrh oQZokjh dh 'kq:okr gks tk;k djrh Fkh vkSj oQZ dh ek=k
dQyqvk o"kZHkj
bruh gksrh Fkh fd O;fDr ds iko 5 ls 6 QhV uhps /kl
ukSyk o"kZHkj
Hkwedk ojlkrh tk;k djrs Fks vkSj vkt ;s fLFkfr gS fd oQZ dHkh&dHkh
'ksj/kkjk o"kZHkj gksrh gS vkSj mldh ek=k bruh de gksrh gS fd lqcg dk
csrkxSj ojlkrh
/kqybZxkao /kwjk o"kZHkj fgeikr 'kke rd fi?ky tkrk gS** 45 o"kZ ds ,d vU;
xaxukFk o"kZHkj xzkeh.k Jh xksfoUn flag egjk tks xzke fljksM+hQkeZ ds fuoklh
dksjfn;ksj ojlkrh
gS] ds vuqlkj ^^iwoZ esa dHkh&dHkh ,slk Hkh gksrk Fkk fd tc
nwuh ojlkrh
/kqybZ o"kZHkj ge ,d lqcg mBrs Fks rks ?kj dk iwjk njoktk oQZ ls <dk
ikjdk/kkj o"kZHkj feyrk Fkk vkSj vkt rks ;g dsoy dYiuk ek= gh jg x;k
?kksM+k[kky o"kZHkj
teuk o"kZHkj
[kqVkuh ojlkr
vkjEHk gks tk;k djrk Fkk og vkt twu vfUre lIrkg ;k
cgsM+hlzksr ojlkr dHkh&dHkh tqykbZ izFke lIrkg ls vkjEHk gks ikrk gS rFkk o"kkZ Hkh
pdcgsM+hlszkr o"kZHkj vfu;fer rkSj ij gqvk djrh gS- bl dkj.k o"kkZ dky ls igys
fljksM+QkeZ [ktkuhlzksr o"kZHkj
,M+hlzksr o"kZHkj igys izkd`frd lzksr ;k rks lwq[k tkrs gSa ;k muesa ikuh dh ek=k
nqns.khlzksr o"kZHkj dkQh de gks tkrh gS-
y[kkuhlzksr o"kZHkj
tksbZlzksr xzkeokfl;ksa ds vuqlkj tkM+ks esa fgeikr esa Hkh dkQh deh vk;h
ojlkr
eNyhlzksr o"kZHkj
gS iwoZ eas tgkW ekg uoEcj ls ekg ekpZ rd vDlj dbZ ckj
MkMjlzksr o"kZHkj
dkQylzksr oQZokjh gqvk djrh Fkh og vc dsoy fnlEcj ;k tuojh rd
o"kZHkj
ySus/kkjlzksr ojlkr
lhfer jg x;h gS- bl izdkj yxHkx lHkh xzkeokfl;ksa dk Li"V
ekuuk Fkk fd 1970&80 ds n'kd ds eqdkcys vc oQZ dh ek=k
,oa vko`fÙk Hkh vR;f/kd de gks x;h gS ftldk eq[; dkj.k tkM+ksa ds rkieku esa o`f) gksuk gS ftldh otg ls
oQZokjh dk le; ,oa ek=k izHkkfor gksrh gS-
lHkh vk;q oxZ ds vf/kdrj yksxksa dk ekuuk Fkk fd izkd`frd ty lzksrksa dh fLFkfr esa vk;s cnyko dk eq[; dkj.k
fgeikr ,oa o"kkZ dh vko`fÙk ,oa ek=k dh vfu;fe;rk ,oa deh dk gksuk gS- o"kkZ Øe ds ifjorZu ls xehZ;ksa esa ty
lzksr lw[k tkrs gSa blh izdkj fgeikr ds de gksus ls Hkwfexr ty lzksr i;kZIr ek=k esa fjpktZ ugha gkss ikrs gS-a
QyLo:i xzkeh.kksa dks xfeZ;ksa ds ekSle i;kZIr ek=k esa ikuh miyC/k ugha gks ikrk gS-

rkieku esa cnyko ¼Change in tempetrature½

/kqybZxzke ds Ekksgu mizsrh ds vuqlkj
xzkeoklh eq[; :i ls oqtqxZ yksxksa ¼50 ls vf/kd vk;q½ dk ekuuk Fkk ^^rkieku rks lHkh xehZ _rqvksa tkM+s]
xehZ ,oa cjlkr esa c<+k gS ysfdu
fd fiNys dqN n'kdksa ls {ks= ds rkieku esa vUrj eglwl fd;k x;k gS- tkM+ksa esa rkieku o`f) us igkM+ks esa
gkWykfd rkieku esa ;g cnyko fu;fer ugha gS rFkkfi 1970&80 dh oQZokjh ds le; ,oa oQZ dh ek=k
dks vR;f/kd izHkkfor fd;k gS**-
rqyuk essa orZeku esa rkieku esa fuf'pr :i ls c`f) gqbZ gS- bldk izHkko

88
u dsoy _rq pØ esa iM+k gS oj.k Qly pØ ,oa ty lzksr Hkh blls izHkkfor gq, gSa xzkeh.kksa ds vuqHko dgrs gSa fd
rkieku c`f) dk ty lzksrksa ij lh/kk izHkko iM+rk gS- blls e`nk ,oa ikni lrgksa ls ok"ihdj.k dh nj esa c`f) gks
tkrh gS QyLo:i Hkwfexr ty lzksrksa esa Hkh ikuh dh deh gks tkrh gS-
izkd`frd ouLifr esa cnyko (Change in vegetation composition)
xzkeokfl;ksa ds vuqlkj izkd`frd ouLifr;ksa dh la[;k ,oa izdkj esa vk;s cnyko Hkh dkQh gn rd tyok;q ifjorZu
ds fy, mÙkjnk;h gSa lkFk gh blls izkd`frd ty lzksr Hkh izHkkfor gq, gSa- iwoZ esa bu xkWoksa esa ckWt] cqjka'k] QY;kWV]
ine ,oa dkQy bR;kfn ds c`{k vR;f/kd ek=k esa gqvk djrs Fks vkSj ;g o"kkZ ds ty dks Hkwfe dh fupyh lrgksa rd
igqpkus esa lgk;rk djrs Fks ftlls ty lzksrksa esa ikuh o"kZ Hkj cuk jgrk Fkk- foxr dqN n'kdksa ls tula[;k cf)
,oa txyksa ij nksgu c<+rk x;k gS ,oa bldh otg ls tyok;q ds lkFk lkFk izkd`frd ty lzksr Hkh izHkkfor gq, gSa-
blls u dsoy budh ek=k esa deh vk;h oju phM+] dqjh tSlh iztkfr;ksa us budk LFkku ys fy;k-

pky [kkyksa dh la[;k esa deh ¼Decrease in the number of microreservoirs½

iwoZ esa xzkeoklh ty lzksrks ds Åijh {ks=ksa esa pky&[kky cukrs Fks ftuls o"kkZ ,oa oQZ ds }kjk ikuh fu;af=r :Ik ls
e`nk dh fupyh lrgksa esa pyk tk;k djrk Fkk bl izdkj ty lzksr fu;fer :Ik ls fjpktZ gksrs jgrs Fks ftldk
ifj.kke gksrk Fkk fd muesa ikuh dh ek=k o"kZ Hkj Ik;kZIr ek=k esa miyC/k jgrh Fkh- ysfdu le; ds lkFk&lkFk bl
ikjEifjd Kku dk gzkl gksrk x;k gS rFkk lkFk gh tyok;q ifjorZu ds dkj.k ty lzksrks dh fLFkfr vkSj Hkh vf/kd
n;uh; gksrh pyh x;h-

fu"d"kZ (Consclusion)
mijksDr v/;;u ls fuEukafdr fu"d"kZ fudkys tk ldrs gSa
1- fiNys 30 o"kksZ esa o"kkZ dh ek=k ,oa fgeikr esa vHkwriwoZ ifjorZu vk;k gS- o"kkZdky 10&15 fnu foLFkkfir gqbZ gS
rFkk fgeikr dh vko`fÙk @ ek=k esa ifjorZu ty lzksrksa dh orZeku fLFkfr dk dkj.k gS-
2- xzkeokfl;ksa ds vuqlkj rkieku esa c`f) Hkh fuf'pr :Ik ls gqbZ gS gkWykfd ;g vfu;fer gS ,oa tkM+ks esa vkSlr
rkieku c<+k gS ftldh otg ls fgeikr Hkh izHkkfor gqvk gS-
3- tula[;k c`f) ,oa taxyksa dk dVku Hkh ty lzksrksa ds iru dk ,d izeq[k dkj.k gS-

lq>ko (Recommendations)
1- ty lzksrksa ds th.kksZ)kj gsrq lzksr ds mijh Hkkxksa esa pky @ [kkyksa dk fuekZ.k fd;k tkuk pkfg, rkfd foijhr
ifjfLFkfr esa Hkh xzkeokfl;ksa dks is;ty miyC/k jgs-
2- vPNh iztkfr ds ?kkl eq[; :i ls pkSM+h iRrh iztkfr;ksa dk jksi.k fd;k tkuk pkfg, ftlls o"kkZ dk ty Hkwfe
ds fupys Lrjksa rd tk lds-

89
Naula of Tirchakhet Spring rejuvenation in Tirchakhet village

Dhulaigaon Dhara Plantation of broad leaved species above water springs

Experience sharing at Village meeting Water source at Dhulaigaon

90
Response of Himalayan butterflies towards the forces of climate
change: a case study from the lake region of Bhimtal and Sattal,
Kumaun Hills
Ravindra K. Joshi

Introduction

Countries across the globe have realized the potential consequences of climate change on the lives
of flora, fauna and human societies. There is increased evidence that climate change is stressing
various forms of lives through higher mean temperatures and causing altered precipitation patterns
and more frequent and extreme weather events. Numerous long‐term as well as short term changes
have been observed in aquatic and terrestrial life forms in response to or as adaptive measures to
combat climate change impacts. Such as overwintering, change in distributional range, distributional
shift and phenotypic modifications. Insects like butterflies, dragonflies, moths’ beetles and other
insects are now living in higher latitudes and altitudes, where previously it was too cold to survive
butterflies response to CC studies elsewhere (C&I India Update, July 2008).

Similarly, changes in the timing of appearance of adult butterflies (which is dependent primarily on
temperature) are well documented. This may lead to mismatches between the appearances of
populations and the abundance of food plants at an appropriate growth stage. Migratory species
being more mobile will have a greater capacity to adapt to these changes than sedentary species
(which often rely on highly specialized habitats), so are less at risk than other species (Migratory
species and climate change, UNEP, CMS).

Kumaun hills in the western Himalayan region are well known for its bio‐diversity. As elsewhere, this
region has also started showing the impacts of climate change. Butterflies are known to be highly
sensitive to the micro‐climatic changes. This case study was therefore conducted in the Bhimtal and
Sattal lake catchment areas (two prominent lakes in Nainital district of Kumaun region of
Uttarakhand state) which is rich in its biodiversity. The study area once surrounded by lush green
forests Oak and Pine and well‐kept agricultural terraces are now gradually turning into complexes of
hotels, resorts and govt. offices. Loss in vegetation, abandonment of croplands, and siltation of the
lakes has thus come up as a recent phenomenon owing particularly to increasing tourist influx (Negi
et al. 2009).

91
Methodology

The survey was carried out during the month of February and March, 2009, which is considered bad
– to fair time for butterfly appearance in this part of the Himalaya (Wynter ‐ Blyth, 1957). The survey
was carried out during the day time and special consideration was given to the potential habitats
and preferences (presence of larval food / nectar plants, along the streams etc.). A high resolution
digital camera / personal observation were used to document the presence of the species and
subsequently the date and other aspects of the concerned species were recorded. The identification
was done by the author himself through various reference books (Wynter ‐ Blyth, 1957) (Chart‐ page
5), and finally shown the findings for confirmation of the butterfly species and for their appearance
timings in the Himalayan region to Mr. Fredrick Smetacek (Jr.)31.

Results & Discussion

A total of fifty three species were documented from the lake region of Bhimtal and Sattal (Table 1).
The result in terms of number is quite surprising as the timing is considered bad‐fair for their
presence in this part of the Himalaya. Further analysis of the dataset produced more surprising facts
as seventeen butterfly species whose timings of appearance are reported in April‐May by (Wynter‐
Blyth, 1957), have shown their timings of appearance in cooler months of February to March in this
study carried out during April‐May (Table 2). This advance shift of about 1‐2 months in the
occurrence of butterflies forewarns the impacts of changing climate. However, in the absence of
data on atmospheric temperature and moisture regimes and also the availability of food guild (as
indicated earlier that vegetation and croplands of the study area have been drastically altered to
habitations and built up areas) the link of this finding with climate change is yet to be established
and warrants further investigations.

This case study of short duration also calls for preparedness to combat the impacts of climate
change on timing of crop sowing, crop cycle and related issues for reproductive success of crops
(agriculture/horticulture) as the occurrence of population of pollinators (butterflies and most
probably other insects also) has advanced by 1‐2 months in the study area. This study therefore
provides some clue of linkage of climate change with biodiversity and food security aspects in the
western Himalayan mountains.

31
Fredrick Smetacek (Jr.), Chief Co‐ordinator, Society of Appeal for Vanishing Environments (S.A.V.E.),Bhimtal Nainital
Renowned entomologist and ecologist who has been perusing the legendary work of his father and studying the colourful Himalayan
butterflies for last thirty or more years. He also maintains huge collection of insects, particularly butterflies and moths of the Himalayan
region, probably the biggest in Asia. The collection came into existence due to the seventy years of untiring effort started by his father in
nineteen fifties and presently looked after by Fredrick Jr. himself who has been bed ridden for last ten years due to fracture in the
hipbone and cerebral fits.

92
93
 Table: 1. Butterflies (Lepidoptera) of the lake region of Bhimtal and Sattal recorded during late February and March, 2009.

Family
S.N. Papilionidae Pieridae Lycanenidae Satyridae Nymphilidae Hesperidae
1. Papilio protenor protenor Pieris canidia indica Evans Lycaena pavana Mycalesis perius blasius Dodona durga (Kollar) Coladenia dan
Cramer (Kollar) (Fabricius) Fabricius
2. Papilo polyctor ganesha Pieris brassicae nepalensis Celestrina huegelli Lethe verma verma (Kollar) Libythia leptia Moore Taigaides litigiosa
Boisduval Doubleday huegelli Moore Moschler
3. Papilio polytes romulus Catopsilia pomona Zizeeria maha maha Yaptima Sp. Neptis hylas astola Moore
Cramer (Fabricius) (Kollar)
4. Papilio machaon Gonepteryx rhamni Lampides boeticus Melanitis leda ismene Precis iphita siccata (Cramer)
punjabensis nepalensis (Doubleday) (Linnaeus) (Cramer)
5. Papilio aristolachae Eurema laeta laeta Heliophorus sena Callerebia scanda (Kollar) P. orithya Hubner
(Boisduval)
6. Graphium cloanthus Colias electo fieldi Amblypodia dodonea Orsertriaena medus P. lemonias (Linnaeus)
(Westwood) Menetries Fabricius
7. Colias erate (Esper) Anapheis aurota Cynthia cardui (Linn.)
(Fabricius)
8. Delias belladoma Fabricius Talicada nyseus Vanessa indica indica Herbst
(Gurein)
9. Delias eucharis (Drury) Kaniska canace Himalayan Evans
10. Agalis cashmirensis aesis
Fruhstofer
11. Symbrenthia lilea Moore
12. Ariadne merione (Cramer)
13. Parathyma perius (Linnaeus)
14. P. opalina orientalis Elwes
15. Argyreus hyperbius (Johanssen)
16. Cyrestis thyodamas (Kollar)
17. Danaus genutia (Cramer)
18. D. chrysippus (Linnaeus)
19. D. aglea (Moore)
20. Euploea core Cramer
21. E. mulcider Cramer
22. Tirmula limniace leopardus
(Butler)
Total 06 09 08 06 22 02
Grand total 53

94
 Table: 2. Showing Change in appearance timings of butterflies in the
Himalayas (on page 8)

S. N. Name of the species Appearance timings’ of the species in Timings recorded during the
the Himalayan region (Wynter‐Blyth, present study (February‐March,
1956) 2009)
1. Papilo polyctor ganesha March to October February
Boisduval
2. Papilio machaon punjabensis March to September February
3. Gonepteryx rhamni nepalensis March to October February
(Doubleday)
4. Colias electo fieldi Menetries March to until July March
5. Delias eucharis (Drury) May on wards* March
6. Delias belladoma Fabricius April to June February
7. Zizeeria maha maha (Kollar) Autumn February
8. Lampides boeticus (Linnaeus) March to April February
9. Dodona durga (Kollar) Spring to Autumn March
10. Libythia leptia Moore April to Autumn March
11. Neptis hylas astola Moore Throughout the year February
12. P. orithya Hubner Spring to Auntumn March
13. Kaniska canace Himalayan Early Spring to Autumn February
Evans
14. Symbrenthia lilea Moore April to June February
15. P. opalina orientalis Elwes April to October February
16. Argyreus hyperbius (Johanssen) April to October March
17. Cyrestis thyodamas (Kollar) Early May Until the Autumn March

95
96
Acknowledgements

The author records due acknowledgements to Fredrick Smetacek (Jr.), Chief Co‐ordinator, Society of
Appeal for Vanishing Environments (S.A.V.E.), Bhimtal (Nainital) for is guidance and identification of the
butterflies despite of his illness. Thanks are also due to Dr. L.M.S. Palni, Director, to G.B. pant Institute of
Himalayan Environment & Development, Kosi‐Katarmal, Almora for providing facilities to carry out this
work. This study was supported under the Lake Development Authority, Nainital funded project entitled,
“Participatory Conservation of Bhimatal Lake Catchment”, to GBPIHED.

References

Conservation network India update. Indian Institute of Forest management, Bhopal, Newsletter Vol. 6,
No. 4. July, 2008.
Negi, G.C.S., S.S. Bisht, T.C. Upreti & D. Pande. 2009. Participatory Conservation of Bhimtal Lake
Catchment. Annual Report submitted to Lake Development Authority, Nainital.
Wynter‐Blyth, M.A. 1957. Butterflies of Indian Region. The Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.: XX
+ 523 pp.

97
“Flying is no escape… Effect of Climate Change
on Migratory Birds”
Sarfaraz Hasan “Malik”

We all know that our climate is changing both naturally and due to man’s action. Both animals and
vegetation are being affected in their behavior and distribution respectively. To escape from the severe
winter or in search of feeding grounds more then one hundred species of birds fly from one place to
other. These migratory species of birds are more vulnerable to climate change as their behaviour usually
involves seasonal movement from icy colder places to warmer across the national boundaries.
Researches proved that Migratory Birds are loosing their numbers in last ten years. Evidences suggest
that warmer winter is linked to fewer migratory birds. They are very punctual, unless they are delayed
by bad weather and unusual circumstances related to disturbance in their flight. Their arrival and
departure time have been changed. It has direct effect on their reproduction, population, distribution
and behaviour.

Introduction to Migration of birds

• Movement of birds from one geographical place to other in search of food and breeding habitat is
called Migration.
• In winter time birds migrate from cold to warmer places in search of food and breeding hubs. Being
a warmer country with unique topography, India is a favorite destination for migratory birds.
• Birds are meant for flying so they are most common among the migrants as they are easy to fly from
one place to other to escape from unfavorable climate.
• Some birds cross the international boundaries and cover more then ten thousands of miles to
escape from unfavorable climatic conditions.
• Phenomenon of Migration of birds is uniquely important for the flora and fauna of a country as it
has direct effect on agriculture and economy.

Effects of Climate change on Migration of Birds

• Unusual rain fall resulting either flood or drought which directly reducing the availability of food
and breeding habitats for all living beings.
• Melting of Glaciers resulting in raise of sea level which ultimately destroying wetland sites, the main
habitat for food and breeding of the birds.
• Feeding and breeding sites of migratory birds are being used by men for agriculture and
industrialization resulting food and breeding crisis for them.
• Dense Electronic Radio Signals of Mass communication and ever increasing concentration of CO2
and other GHGs in atmosphere have disturbed the earth’s magnetic field which is used as navigator
help by Migratory Birds.
• Unusual change in ecosystems disturbing prey distribution which resulting in the breakage of food
chain from Planktons to Larvae to Birds.
• Warmer winters changed the breeding time 2‐3 weeks earlier in Birds. Breeding season has not
really shifted but it is the environment that has shifted away from their breeding season.
• Unusual Hurricane, Rains, Lack of visibility by condensation of GHG, Lack of Oxygen on high
altitude are by products of climate change and Migratory birds are loosing their ways due to these
factors and dieing before returning to their homeland.

98
• Mismatch between peek food supply and nestling caused by recent climate change resulting in
reduction of parental energy expenditure as Gonad Maturation in Birds is directly linked to Climatic
Temperature.

Major Man‐made Barriers to Migration

Man has played an important role in Global warming and climate change with his direct and indirect
consumption and alteration of natural resources. Some modern technologies are turning to be the curse
for other living beings such as the Migratory Birds.

(1) Communication towers

Communication towers are commonly high structures located on elevated points of land and their
supporting wires are extremely dangerous for migratory birds. Fast flying birds simply can not
notice them. Stormy nights and bad visibility make supporting wires even more dangerous for birds and
dramatically increase the risk of collision. Brightly lit towers in the similar adverse conditions make bird‐
strikes even more likely. Birds, especially nocturnal birds traveling in weather conditions like fog or mist,
loose their navigation cues and get disoriented by the flash lights of towers. Mistaking them for
constellations, birds tend to circle around the lights and rarely escape fatal hits against the wires and
other supporting elements.

(2) Windows and tall buildings

Windows of all sizes and types, even small and narrow windows, from those found on tall buildings to
those used in residential houses are very dangerous for birds. Ornithologists usually call them “invisible
killers” due to the large number of deaths and injuries they cause. Attracted by the reflection of trees or
plants located near the windows, birds try to pass through them, sometimes, at top speed. This can lead
to fatal or other injuries and end up falling to the ground and thus becoming easy prey.

(3) Wind turbines

Wind turbines, especially when standing isolated in large‐scale wind farm, also represent a severe
potential hazard for migratory birds. Their blades rotate at speeds of up to 200 kilometers per hour and,
when placed along the major migratory routes of birds, wind turbines become extremely dangerous
obstacles causing both injuries and fatalities. Like other obstacles that are surrounded with lights for air
traffic safety, wind turbines equipped with bright lights can also attract disorientated birds and lead to
fatal injuries during the night. Wind farms are often built along coastlines and mountaintops, usually in
areas that have high wind potential, and which often lie along the flight paths of many migratory birds.
Unfortunately, wind farms are still being built along coastlines, mountain ridges and wetlands,
sometimes without any prior assessment of their potential environmental impact.

(4) Power lines

Power lines and fences are believed to pose a particular risk to migratory birds. Overhead power lines
stretch for millions of kilometers globally and the resulting carpet of surface cables continues to
increase. Apart from the risk of electrocution, which poorly designed power poles pose for birds, the
cables themselves constitute objects for potential collisions. Fast‐flying birds, due to their small wings
and birds lacking in agility are especially at risk: they tend to hit conductors and wires, frequently at
night and in poor weather conditions.
99
(5) Light pollution

The luminous glow of artificial light over cities and towns obscuring the stars at night, which
astronomers describe as ‘light pollution’, takes a large toll on bird populations as well as distracting and
confusing them during their migration. Birds are frequently deceived by bright lights on misty and
stormy nights, when their usual points of reference – the stars – become invisible. In these cases, bright
artificial lights caused by our ever‐expanding urban landscapes attract migratory birds, leading them to
disorientation, which in turn, can lead to changes in their usual flight path and migratory course.
Following the wrong cues, they can be sent off course and their precious energy stores, which are
needed to complete the onward journey, are squandered. Light pollution also prevents birds from
choosing the ideal stopover sites and some get involved in endless "lit‐beam circling" until they drop
from exhaustion or collide with surrounding objects.

(6) Smoking Chimneys

Smoking Chimneys are double edged swords which cut the throats of these flying objects by two ways.
Firstly they dissolve poison in to the atmosphere and secondly reduce density of oxygen on heights.
Recent deforestation and industrialization has given us several industries with smoking Chimneys
standing high on the migratory paths which are always above our heads. Birds which fly on low altitude
fall easy pray by becoming unconscious and lost due to density of smoke. Lost Migratory birds with
Crows

Chasing them are easily viewable scenes in India.

Risks for Migratory Birds due to Climate Change

• Migratory Birds mostly aim to halt at the same place where they were last year. Due to climate
change unusual rains result in flood or drought hence loose their habitat and spend energy in search
of new destination resulting starvation death and poaching.
• Survival of Migratory Birds strongly related to Climatic Conditions as warmer winter left them to
hibernate at their native place. They prefer not Migrate.
• Breeding success in birds is directly related to climatic temperature. They have their breeding
seasons according to particular Temperature and food availability. Many species of migratory birds
choosing not to breed during migration as they do not foresee food sources for their offspring.
• Deforestation and concretization of land which destroyed the nesting hubs of aerial communities
resulted either failure of breeding attempts or extinction.
• Due to increase in spring temperature, many plants and insects did not responded exactly according
to the changed climate hence it has caused a considerable reduction in Reproduction related
activities.

Majority of Migratory birds that come to India are Ducks, Cranes and Geese. Most common places for
these migratory birds are reservoir water and wetland. They find food in the form of Algae, Worms,
Fish, and Plankton etc. Their timely sojourn basically dependent on the climatic conditions and the place
where they hibernate are mainly governed by environment. Some of them are as follows:‐

100
• Wetlands
• Sea Shores
• Lakes
• Large Ponds and Pokhras
• Rivers and Canals
• Barrages

Climatic Factors affecting Migration

Birds use many environmental indicators for their migration. They consider specific climatic
conditions to know “When to migrate?” “Where to migrate?” “How to migrate?”
Photoperiod play important role in determining the right time to migrate. Some important
environmental factors are as follows:‐

• Length of the particular day

• Favorable tail‐wind
• Certain Routes with visible landmarks
• Certain Flyway Zones e.g. Indus Valley Flyway Zone for India
• Position of Stars, Moon, Sun and/or Star patterns
• Landmarks such as Rivers, Mountain Range and Coastline
• Earth’s Magnetic Field

Case study of Migratory Birds at an Example Indian Wetland

Although Bird Migration is still a mystery but there is nothing concrete has been done in India.
The detailed data collected from various source indicate severe decline in number of some
Migratory species at Birds Reserve in Assan Barrage, Dehradun.

Assan Barrage popularly known as Dhalipur Lake was created in 1967 as a result of barrage on
river Yamuna and Assan for power house. It is a small wetland area of 4 kilometers area situated
at 40KM west of Dehradun on Dun‐Paonta Road.

Census at the end of 31‐12‐2008

Birds Name Census Year 2006‐ Census Year 2007‐ Census Year
07 approx. 08 approx. 2008‐09 approx.
Ruddy Shelduck 795 545 325
Tufted Pochard 465 330 250
Common Pochard 855 695 425
Great Crested Pochard 945 675 450
Northern Pintail 450 385 230
Mallard 850 1250 495
Gadwall 1100 750 495
Eurasian Wigeon 750 625 515
Gray Legs Goose 25 36 5
Great Cormorant 95 55 20
Great Crested Grebe 12 7 2
Northern Shoveler 230 205 110

101
Decline in the number of some species can be easily seen from the table shown above. This
barrage attracts about 53 species of water birds out of which 19 are Migratory birds from
Eurasia. Ruddy Shelduck, Pintail, Red Crested Pochard, Gadwall, Common Pochard, Mallard,
Coot, Wigeon, Common Teal, Tufted ducks and Shoveler are among regular winter visitor at this
barrage.

Rising temperature and unchecked climate could force up to 72% of birds species in some areas
into extinction. The world still has chance to mitigate this loss. From Migratory insect eaters to
water birds, birds are highly sensitive to changing weather conditions and some of them are
adversely affected by Global Warming. An imbalance in availability of food and breeding seasons
is resulting in uncertain arrival of migratory birds.
Due to Global Warming unusual maturation of Gonad becoming the main factor for birds
extinction as the weather conditions have main effect on birds ovulation. The lack of food
results in the form of malnourishment in the birds which in turn affect their reproductive ability.
It has been noted that birds which were earlier laying three‐four eggs now laying only one‐two
eggs due to this their population is declining.

Food chain in earth’s ecosystem severely disturbed worldwide. Some birds are now choosing
not to migrate as they do not find food which they hope by this tedious journey.

Example of Case Study on Migration Behaviour

It has been observed that migratory birds return to their last year halt regularly if nothing to
worry there for its survival. There are a few examples that are proof of their regular migratory
behaviour.

On January 22, 2009 at a Fish pond in Saharanpur one Red Kite (Milvus migrans) was pictured
(By Sarfaraz Hasan) live with a ring in its leg. This rare bird was a native of Malaysia. It was the
concrete evidence of migration of Red Kite from Malaysia to India. The bird was alone and
finding hard to mix up with the local species. If someone would capture the bird and read the
code on ring, it could give a very informative data on bird’s behaviour.

Recently on December 6, 2008 Forest Department of Kangda District in Pond Dam Reservoir
captured a Great Cormorant bird with Metal ring in its left leg. The ring carried a number
G005111VI, MOSKWA‐VEHTP‐KONBUB ‐144480.This Code was later explained by authorities
with the help of Russian Scientist that the bird was ringed in Russia. The Bird was showing
abnormal behaviour using its wings to beat water.

Recommendations

• If strong measures are not taken by the government to save migratory sites, some species
will extinct in next few years as their number is rapidly decreasing.
• Unattended ponds, lakes and old canals in each city can be developed as Migratory birds
sites to generate awareness among new generations.
• Larger lakes and other water bodies can be developed as tourist places where people will go
to watch migratory birds from different parts of the world. All developed countries have
such spots which are great source of earning money to the government.

102
• Migratory birds club should be established to teach children about this ancient
phenomenon of these flying creatures.
• Study shows that 75% of people do not know about this remarkable activity of the birds.
There should be a compulsory Lesson in the text of schools from primary classes.
• Importance of Migratory Birds to agriculture, economy and mankind should be spread in
folks.

Conclusion

Migratory behaviour of birds is directly linked to the global warming and climate change which is
being studied by Bombay Natural History Society since 1980. Marks of identification proved that
migratory birds return to the same place each year with pinpoint accuracy. Unfortunately this
year at Deepor Beel wetland in Assam poachers caught migratory birds and sold for Rs.150‐250
each. People for Animal a NGO acted upon complaint and recovered Pintail ducks and Takahe
from the market. Many Natural and manmade wetlands in India attracts lots of migratory birds
but it seems as grave concern that migratory birds in India are being killed. Bird Flu first broke
out in India in 2006 and millions of Chickens and Ducks were culled to contain the virus.
Although Central Government through Department of Animal Husbandry collected the
droppings of these birds and sent to government approved laboratories. The good news is that
there is no report of any positive sample yet. Last year the states of West Bengal, Assam,
Manipur and Tripura reported cases of Bird Flu.

“Flying is no escape…. A Case Study on Migratory Birds”

In relation to Global Warming and Climate Change

103
Forest Fires and Climate Change
A Case study from Kumaun Uttarakhand Himalaya
Vishal Singh

Thematic Category: Community perceptions through various

lenses ‐ tourism, media, etc

Abstract

Normal fire season in India is from the month of February to mid‐ June. Human induced fires
are common in early summer months in the forests of Uttarakhand. The local people
deliberately set fires in chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) forests to promote growth of understorey
herbaceous species comprehensively used for fodder by local people. Chir pine a fire adapted
tree species generally forms mono‐specific stands between altitudes 1000 m and 1800 m and
covering approximately 4000 km2 of the forest area of Uttarakhand. Owing to the impact of
climate change the normal fire season is experiencing considerable amount of precipitation
which might be the major reason behind the reduction of forest fires since 1999 onwards,
when most warming has occurred. Based on the past fire evidences and people’s perceptions,
the case study deals with the ecological consequence of climate change on forest fires.

Introduction

Fire is an event controlled by fuels, weather, and topography. Fire occurs nearly anywhere fuel
in a flammable condition is present in sufficient quantities, and when an ignition source is
available. Over hundreds of years fires have been considered as an environmental terror. Fire
has been linked with reduced soil fertility, destruction of biodiversity global warming and
damage to forests, land resources and of course human assets. Forest fires have received
increased human attention during last few years due to their significant long and short threats
to forest ecosystems and to public safety and property. The ecological role of fire is to influence
numerous factors such as plant community development, soil nutrient cycling. About six million
km2 of forest have been lost around the world in less than 200 years mainly due to forest fires1.
Fire is a common feature in the Indian Himalayan forests every year, causing incalculable
damage to the forest wealth and ecosystem. High proportions of these fires are attributed to
man‐made reasons either deliberately or accidentally. Forests are the essential life support
system for this region. Although 50‐60% of the forest area is affected by forest fires, there is a
tendency for gross under reporting. According to an official estimate, direct fire losses alone
amounted to 139.3 million rupees in 1995 for Uttarakhand region. Preponderance of conifers,
steep slopes, inaccessibility, dearth of water, lack of modern equipment‐techniques and
budgetary constraints complicate the task of forest fire control. Vast tracts of forest lands in the
1,000‐1,800 m range are covered by fire prone chir pine (Pinus roxburghii) forests. The National
Remote Sensing Agency, report that the greatest forest fires occurred in 1999 affecting around
22.64% of the forest area (5085.6 sq. km.) however 1225 sq. km. got severely burnt. Prior to
above, in another big episode in the year 1995, forest fires affected 19.32% of the total forests
cover of the state2. Forest fires in Uttarakhand are man‐ made. 63% of it is intentional and 37%

104
accidental. Gnerally the frequency of forest fires is 2‐5 years, while 11% of forests of the region
experience fires every year3.

Rowell and Moore describe fire as an irony in the document “Global Reviews of Forest Fires” – it
can kill plants and animals and cause extensive ecological damage, but it is also enormously
beneficial, the source of forest restoration and nutrient cycling. Fire, experts say, its nature’s
way of recycling the essential nutrients, especially nitrogen. For many forests, fire is the natural
part of the cycle of the forest, and some tree species notably Lodgepole pine, Jack pine are
“serotinous” – their cone only open and seeds germinate after they have been exposed to fire.
Certain flowers like the Australian mountain ash requires a site to be totally burnt and
completely exposed, to be able to regenerate again. Burning quickly decomposes organic matter
into mineral components that cause a shoot of plant growth, and can also reduce disease in
forests4 . In contrast fires can cause severe damage to some forest ecosystem, such as the
tropical ecosystems which are characterized by high levels of moisture and humidity. They do
not normally burn and particularly vulnerable to ruthless fire destruction. Just as too much fire
can cause tribulations so can too little.

In recent years there has been a great deal of concern about the impact of climate change on
forest fires, and the impact of forest fires on climate alteration. Only in past decade researchers
have realized the important contribution of biomass burning to the global budgets of many
radio‐actively and chemically active gases i.e. carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane etc.
Biomass burning is documented as a significant global source of emission contributing as much
as 40% of gross carbon dioxide and 30% of topospheric O3 5. Due to the impact of Climate
change naturally adapted forests no longer burn extensively in the fire season which is leading
to assemblage of fuel load and altered biodiversity, so in future a when a fire starts in a drier
summer instead of being small it will turn catastrophic because of the accumulated biomass.
Green house gas emissions from such a fire can be higher than small and regular fires. In
Central Himalayas human interference has altered the natural fire regimes by changing the
regularity and strength of fires so much so that it has now become a natural component of these
ecosystems. However, climate change is altering the time, regularity and intensity of forest fires
in the region.

Methodology:
Apart from collecting secondary literature from different sources village ( Toli) frequent fire
incidences was extensively surveyed using MLA (Multidisiplinary Landscape Assessment)
exercise developed by CIFOR, the groups were divided into 4 classes (0‐20, 20‐40,40‐60 and 60
and above) of 10 members each. Data on past forest fire events were taken from the office of
Chief Conservator of Forests, Environment, Haldwani

Assessment and analysis

Figure1 suggests that the area burnt due to forest fires have decreased since 2001 onwards
when most warming has occurred. Theoretically the incidences of forest fires should have
increased in this period but a reversal has been observed. One potential reason behind the
downfall in the fire incidences have been warmer winter and wetter dry period when most
forest fires take place. According to a 72 year old villager Govind Singh “Incidences of forest fires
in winter season have increased since last 10 years, fires in winters were a rare phenomenon

105
when he was young”. “Erratic weather has become a common phenomenon since last 20 years”
adds Ram Singh Dhaila, a responsive villager of similar age (Plate 1).

The winter fires are succeeded by pre monsoon rains, due to late onset of western disturbances,
locally known as (Choti Barish), in drier seasons suppressing fires when wind velocity and fuel
temperature are high.

Fuel moisture % was measured on similar points, at the beginning of the fire season (February)
and late fire season (May). It was observed that the fuel moisture present in the late fire season
was higher than the beginning of the fire season (Fig. 2). The drier winter effect is clearly
observable in the February analysis, however the effect of rains are visible in the May analysis.
Ideally, the fuel moisture should have decreased in the month of May but there is a slight
increase, which can be associated with the occasional rains (Choti barish) in the months March
and April. High fuel moisture means less opportunity for ignition. Higher moisture content in the
fuel load (summers) can be a possible reason behind the decrease in forest fire events in last 8‐
10 years. Without doubt the warming in summer is more as compared to summers a decade
ago, but the events of periodic rains have also increased, enhancing the fuel and soil moisture in
the fire season.

Such suppression of forest fires through climate change will increase the fuel load present in the
ground. The fuel loading due pine needles were generally consumed by forest fires within a
period of 2‐4 years. The problem is that this allows pine needles, dead plant matter (dead trees,
fallen branches, leaves, small shrubs, brush) to collect on the forest floor, which creates larger
and larger “fuel loads”. So instead of small fires that occur frequently (without climate change),
we end up with large fires that create incredible damage (in a dry summer year). A school of
thought also suggests that fire if suppressed for a longer period of time may be reinvaded by
some late successional species like oak (Quercus leucotricophora) due to changed microclimatic
conditions. Fire suppression in Yellowstone Park in the United States was responsible for the
severity of a fire there that wiped out a huge section of the park, because fuel loads were
allowed to build to many times the normal level. In Banff National Park in Alberta, the fuel load
is considered to be at 10 times normal levels. If a fire were to start during the hot and dry
summer months, there would be little chance of bringing it under control.

However, the data collected on people’s perception on forest fires and the changing climate
suggests that more people above the age of 40 believe that forest fires have increased in last
decade (Fig. 3), however in the younger generation the percentage of people were lesser, and
similar was the case when asked about the increase of fires in winter season, 100% people
above the age of 60 responded that forest fires have increased in the winter months (Fig. 4). The
reason higher number of people suggesting about changes in fire season could be because they
have observed the changes through the course of there lives. However in the younger class the
% of respondents decreases with the decrease in age. “We see them every year, even in
winters; it has always been like this” says Chandan a 15 year old schoolboy.

106
Policy implications/ Recommendation
It is one of the most complex of research between people, fires and the forests and requires
practical painstaking work and numerous studies. Data on forest fires and past climatic records
are poor, the existing data on meteorological stations are too costly to attain from the local
meteorological departments. The effects of such a climate change will not be visible instantly or
a period or 2‐4 years. Long term studies based on sound scientific knowledge would be required.
At present no scientific data on forest fires is present. We have had to rely on our experiences
and hypothesis. However, facts which are based on sound information, is lacking. It is to a
certain extent apparent that suppression of fires (through climate change or otherwise) will lead
to a catastrophic event in future.

Possible management of fuel type, load and arrangement could be used to help protect local
areas of high value (Pyne et al. 1996). At the larger scale, however, fuel management would not
be feasible. A fine balancing act is required by forest department to protect values, people and
resources keeping in view the impact of climate change on forest fires and visa versa. Under the
ambit of climate change reduction of fuel by control burning is not advisable, considerable
amount of green house gases are released in the ambient air through this method. Alternate
strategies i.e. utilization of pine needles (pirul) as an alternate source of energy or for economic
purpose (for packing cases) will reduce the constantly accumulating fuel load, reduce the
dependence of rural population on other more ecologically valuable forests like (Q.
leucotrichophora) and gain economic upliftment. Local community involvement is inevitable as
the forest department has shortage of staff and economic assistance to the community will
enhance a sense of ownership towards the forests. However, immediate proactive steps are
needed by local NGO’s, scientific organizations and forest department in this direction.

Conclusions
Changes in forest fire regimes may become increasingly important in terms of determining the
role of the Indian Himalayan forests in combating climate change. There is potential for winter
fires to increase, the results may be catastrophic. Suppressing fires without fuel treatment have
had a detrimental effect on different forest areas of the world. Scientific fuel management and
people’s participation can play a balancing act between forest protection and economic
stability. Continued research is required to further investigate the relationships among
climate, fire, people’s association as well as the interaction between change in forest fire regime
and its impacts on vegetation.

References

1. Dimopoulou, M. and Giannikos, I., 2002. Towards and integrated framework for forest fire
control, European Journal of Operational Research. (152) pp. 476‐486
2. Bahuguna, V.K. 2002. Fire situation in India, International Forest Fire News. (26) pp 23‐27
3. Semwal, R., Chatterjee, S., Punetha, J, C., Pradhan, S., Dutta, P., Soni, S., Sharma, S, Singh,
V.P., and Malayia, A. 2003. Forest fires in India, Lessons and Case Studies. WWF, India
4. Gorte, R. W., 1995 Forest Fires and Forest Health, Committee for the National Institute for
the Environment, Congressional Research Service, Report for Congress

107
5. Andreae, M.O., 1992. Tropical wildland fires and other biomass burning. Environmental
impacts and implications for land use and fire management. The World Bank Washington,
79‐116.
6. Pyne S.J., Andrews P.L., Laven R.D., Introduction to wildland fire. 2 New York, NY: John Wiley
and Sons, 1996:769.

Further Reading

1. Joshi, S.C., 2003 Impact of forest fires on the regional climate, Current Science 85, no. 1, 10
2. Semwal, R, and Mehta, J.P. 1996. Ecology of forest fires in Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii, Sarg)
forest of Garhwal Himalaya. Current science 70, no 6
3. Whitlock, C., Shafer, S L., Marlon, J. 2003. The role of climate and vegetation change in
shaping past and future fire regimes in the northwestern US and the implications for
ecosystem management. Forest Ecology and Management (178) 5–21
4. Crowley, T.J., 2000. Causes of climate change over the last 1000 years. Science 289, 270–
277.
5. Flannigan, M.D., Stocks, B.J., Wotton, B.M., 2000. Climate change and forest fires. Sci. Total
Environ. 262, 221–229.

Plates

1. Forest fire observed on the New Years Eve 08 (few miles away from GBPHIED, Almora)
2. Appeal from the Forest Department

108
Potential Threats to Uttarakhand Due to Climate Change Related
Natural Disasters
Rohit Devlal

Summary

Being a hill state Uttarakhand is more sensitive to and probably more affected by climate
change. It is also highly vulnerable to natural disasters, especially the hydro‐meteorological ones
apart from earthquakes. Along with the increase in the global temperatures and climate change
worldwide, changes in the climate at local level in Uttarakhand could also be observed, as in the
case of this study in could be observed in Dehradun, the state capital of Uttarakhand. The survey
of local community perceptions about the climate change issue shows low awareness level and
whatever awareness is available within the community, it is mostly confined to the elite class.
The studies done globally shows that there is high probability of increase in the frequency and
intensity of climate related natural hazards due to climate change and hence increase in
potential threat to climate change related natural disasters. In the absence of community level
awareness, which could make them more vulnerable to these changed scenarios of natural
disasters and also lack of regional or local level studies, which could be used to take up better
policy level decisions for mitigation, adaptation and risk reduction, the present study gives a
direction to promote climate change issue as a local issue with global concerns.

Introduction

The climate change science achieved an important milestone in 2007, when the
Intergovernmental

Panel on Climate Change reached a consensus that human‐induced global warming is already
causing physical and biological impacts worldwide. The most recent scientific work
demonstrates that changes in the climate system worldwide are not only occurring in the
patterns that scientists had predicted, but the observed changes are happening earlier and
faster than expected. World is experiencing more frequent and more intensified natural
disasters, specifically hydro‐meteorological extremes all over the world, but as climate impacts
occur locally and on account of various factors, major being topography and vulnerability of the
local community, it can take different forms in different places.

Temperature increases are widespread across the globe, with some areas––including the
world’s highlands––showing remarkably higher trends than others (IPCC, 2007)§§§§§§§§. Studies
show that in the mountains, climatic conditions vary more sharply with elevation and over
shorter distances than they do with latitude. Mean temperatures, for example, decline about
1ºC per 160m of elevation, compared with about 1ºC per 150 km by latitude (Hartman
1994)*********. Hence, the effects of climate change are expected to intensify in mountain areas,
and they are considered to be unique areas for detection of climate change and related impacts
(Beniston 2003)†††††††††. In a study on the Tibetan Plateau and in its surrounding areas it was

§§§§§§§§
IPCC (2007) ‘Climate Change 2007: The Physical Sciences Basis’. In Summary for Policy Makers IPCC: 21. Geneva: IPCC
*********
Hartmann, D.L. (1994) Global Physical Climatology. San Diego: Academic Press
†††††††††
Beniston, M. (2003) ‘Climatic Change in Mountain Regions: A Review of Possible Impacts’. In Climatic Change, 59: 5‐31

109
found that there is a tendency for the warming trend to increase with elevation (Liu and Chen
2000)‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. It is probable that, being a hill state Uttarakhand is also more sensitive to and
more affected by climate change.

Uttarakhand with its young, fragile and dynamic mountain ecosystems supports a richness of
biodiversity, provides vital ecosystem services not just only to its hill communities, but also to a
large population of the fertile Gangetic plain. The increase in the atmospheric Green House
Gases (GHG’s) leading to anthropogenic climate change may also adversely impact this fragile
mountain ecosystem through increase in annual/seasonal temperatures, altered precipitation
patterns/volume and wind speed/direction changes. All these changes pose a threat of increase
in the frequency and intensity of natural disasters like drought, flood, heat wave and
windstorms and also associated hazards like avalanches, rock falls, landslides, epidemics and
forest fires in this area and thus to the humans, animals, property and environment.

Although, studies have been done worldwide on various aspects of climate change, but even
now data availability on regional/local impacts of climate change is negligible or in most of the
cases is completely lacking. This case study makes an effort to probe the various potential
threats posed to hill communities due to climate change related natural disasters. Through
empirical data, the present study is also trying to find if the climate is really changing for
Uttarakhand. The case study is very important due the fact that the state’s hilly topography and
location makes it more susceptible to climate change impacts and hence to increase in intensity
and frequency of natural disasters. As the state has a long history of natural disasters and is
highly vulnerable, so there is a grave need to understand these potential increased threats in
order to work with the community to get prepared to mitigate or adapt to these changes.

Methodology

For the study Dehradun has been taken as the study area, as it represents Uttarakhand state
well with more or less similar geo‐morphological features, climate along with its general
variability and also vulnerabilities to most of the natural hazards like drought, flash floods,
epidemics, hail storms, heat waves and landslides. Moreover, being the state capital, it expected
to have highest exposure to global climate change issues and also being the hub of state
government machinery, the state level observations made by government officials could also be
taken.

The primary data for the study has been collected through semi‐structured interviews with
different groups of people residing or working in Dehradun, the state capital of Uttarakhand.
The groups of people interviewed are school students (n§§§§§§§§§=24), college students (n=28),
farmers (n=18), orchard owners (n=12), government officials (n=14) and doctors (n=15). The
basic idea of interviewing these groups was to understand the level of awareness present within
the community about climate change as a hazard.

Meteorological data from the 1981 to 2008 has been collected from Forest Research Institute
(FRI), Dehradun. The recorded data is for Dehradun from the New Forest, FRI, Dehradun based

‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡
Liu,X. Chen, B. 2000 Climate warming in the Tibetan Plateau during recent decades. International Journal of Climatology 20:
1729‐1742
§§§§§§§§§
Number of respondents

110
meteorological station. The data has been analysed to understand the changes in surface air
temperature and precipitation since 1981. In the present study for analyzing the seasonal data,
the year has been broadly divided into three seasons: winter (Oct, Nov, Dec, Jan, Feb and Mar),
summer (Apr, May and Jun) and monsoon (Jul, Aug and Sept).

Literature review was also done to understand the impacts of climate change and its relation to
natural disasters. Most of the literature review has been done using internet.

Vulnerability of Uttarakhand to climate related disasters

Uttarakhand has a long history of natural disasters. This state comprises mostly of hilly terrain
by virtue of its origin, is highly prone to natural disasters. Natural disasters in the region occur
primarily due to geological instability or hydro‐metrological variability. Apart from earthquakes,
the state is also vulnerable to flashfloods, avalanches, cloudbursts, droughts and forest fires.
Other than this, Landslide is another major threatening hazard. There are many cases of big
landslide cases involving huge loss to property and life e.g. Uttarkashi district experienced a
devastating landslide, popularly known as the Varunavat landslide, in 2003. Forest fire accidents
occur throughout the year, especially during the onset of summer season.

Every year the state faces massive losses, particularly during the monsoon session due to heavy
rains, landslides and flash floods. These cause disruption of the transport infrastructure, water
supply, communication and some other private infrastructure. Small and marginal farmers of
the hills loose considerable portion of their Agriculture produce and lands permanently due to
these. Poverty, remoteness and lack of awareness also increases the vulnerability of the local
community to these natural hazards.

Is the Climate of Uttarakhand Changing? : Dehradun as an example

Dehradun, a place which was famous for its soothing climate and natural beauty is now
changing rapidly. The meteorological data of Dehradun is giving clear indications of change in its
climate. Analysis shows that the annual daily mean temperature of the period 2001‐2008 has
increased by 0.4 0C as compared to 1991‐2000 and it is 0.5 0C as compared to 1981‐1990. The
data shows that there is a continuous increase in the annual temperature with maximum
increase in the present decade (Fig 1).
If we go through the monthly changes
in the daily mean temperature (Table
1), we find that the maximum increase
is in the months of March and February
for the period 2001‐2008 as compared
to 1981‐1990, which are 1.2 0C and 1.0
0
C respectively. The major contribution
to this increase has been done during
the period of 1991‐2000. Interestingly,
the month of July shows a decrease of
0.1 0C during 2001‐2008 as compared
1981‐1990 and as compared to 1991‐
2000 it is 0.2 0C. If we observe the
season wise change in the mean daily

111
temperature of the period 2001‐2008 as compared to 1981‐1990, we will find that average
change is maximum in winters with an increase of 0.7 0C preceded by summers with an increase
of 0.6 0C and finally monsoons with 0.4 0C increase.

Table 1: Monthly Mean Daily

Temperature of Dehradun During
Different Decades (Temp. in 0C)

198 199 200 Cha Cha

1‐ 1‐ 1‐ nge nge
199 200 200 in in
0 0 8 200 200
1‐ 1‐
200 200
8 8
com com
pare pare
d to d to
198 199
1‐ 1‐
199 200
0 0
(0C) (0C)

Jan 11.4 11.1 11.4 0.0 0.3

Feb 13.4 13.3 14.4 1.0 1.1

Mar 17.6 17.7 18.8 1.2 1.1

Apr 22.4 22.4 23.3 0.9 0.9

May 24.8 25.7 25.7 0.9 0.0

Jun 26.7 26.8 26.6 ‐0.1 ‐0.2

Jul 26 26.0 26.5 0.5 0.5

Aug 25.5 25.3 26.0 0.5 0.7

Sep 24.5 24.4 24.6 0.1 0.3

Oct 20.5 20.6 21.0 0.5 0.4

Nov 15.6 16.2 16.4 0.8 0.3

Dec 12.3 12.5 13.0 0.7 0.6

112
The rainfall data is also
showing alteration. The
average annual rainfall of
Dehradun has decreased by
149.8 mm during 2001‐2008
as compared to 1981‐1990.
Though the decrease in
rainfall is continuous from
1981‐1990 to 2001‐2008, but
the fall is higher during the
present decade as compared
to 1991‐2000, which is about
135.2 mm.

If we look at the monthly average rainfall of Dehradun for last three decades (Table 2), we find
that volume wise there is maximum decrease of rainfall during the month of August. This
decrease is more during 2001‐2008 as compared to 1991‐2000 (101.7 mm), but if we look at the
percent changes in the monthly rainfall then we can observe that the maximum negative
changes are during winter months with (‐)78.8 % in December, (‐) 74.4% in November and (‐
)37.9 % in October. Though the months of winter and monsoon are showing negative changes,
but there are positive changes towards the months of summer, which shows a shift in rains.

Table 2: Monthly Average Rainfall of Dehradun During Different Decades (Rainfall in mm)
1981‐1991‐2001‐ Change in Change in Change in
1990 2000 2008 1991‐ 2001‐ 2001‐
2000 2008 2008
comparedcomparedcompared
to 1981‐ to 1991‐ to 1981‐
1991 2001 1991
(%) (%) (%)

Jan 48.5 45.5 40.1 ‐6.2 ‐11.9 ‐17.3

Feb 55.6 59.3 54.8 6.7 ‐7.6 ‐1.4

Mar 58.2 51.3 58.9 ‐11.9 14.8 1.2

Apr 38.7 31.9 28.5 ‐17.6 ‐10.7 ‐26.4

May 57.4 48.1 64 ‐16.2 33.1 11.5

Jun 199. 205. 210. 3.4 2.1 5.6

1 9 3

Jul 542. 554 550. 2.1 ‐0.6 1.4

7 5

Aug 594. 618. 516. 4 ‐16.4 ‐13.1

9 4 7

Sep 238. 248. 219. 4.4 ‐11.9 ‐8

2 7 1

113
Oct 46.4 38.1 28.8 ‐17.9 ‐24.4 ‐37.9

Nov 12.1 4.4 3.1 ‐63.6 ‐29.5 ‐74.4

Dec 41.6 13.2 8.8 ‐68.3 ‐33.1 ‐78.8

Is The Local Community Aware About This Change?

The level ignorance within a community about a potential hazard, that it is exposed to, adds up
to its vulnerability to any future eventuality in the form of disasters.

Basic Awareness about Climate Change Issue: The primary survey shows (Fig 3 & 4) that there is
some level of awareness in the community about global climate change and global warming, but
most of this awareness is restricted to the formally educated class. The awareness was found to
be least in farmers and orchard owners, who are more vulnerable to climate related natural
hazards as their livelihoods are highly susceptible to climate changes. These are also the group
of people who are expected more to observe the impacts of these changes.

The higher percentage of awareness in school and college students gives a good sign of a more
aware new generation. This change is on account of inclusion of subject matter on climate
change in their course curriculum, but it even now there is a large percentage of students who
are either not aware about the issue or don’t know much about it. The reason given behind this
by most of the students is the lack of interest in an extra subject added to their already over‐
spilling curriculum.

Though there is a gradual increase in the central and state government’s efforts of making its
officials more aware about the climate change issues, but the low level of present awareness
during the survey shows that there is a whole lot of work needs to be done. The general idea
given by the interviewed officials against the low level of this awareness is the lack of priority

114
given to this issue by most of the departments and also to the fact that it is a general
presumption that climate change is a global level problem and so only higher level officials are
promoted to participate during the workshops and seminars related to this issue.

Is it Global Warming or Climate Change? : The term Global Warming is more talked about than
Climate Change (Fig 4). During the survey most of the respondents were confused with the use
of these two terms and for them meaning of both is same, which is increasing global

temperature.

When they were told about the difference and how both the terms are linked with each other
than almost all of them shared their views that it is much easier to understand that with
increase in pollution the earth is warming up and hence global warming, but the issue of climate
change seems to be a bit complicate, so we leave it for scientists.

Is it Global or even a local Issue? : About 78 % of the respondents think that the issue of climate
change is ‘global’ as it is the developed countries, which are responsible for it or if we talk about
India then it is the problem of all those states, which are more industrialized or have big
pollution emitting metro cities. Across the respondents groups climate change means melting
of polar ice, receding of glaciers and even ‘ozone hole’. About 16 % of the total respondents also
linked climate change with increase in cases of cyclones around the world, floods in Bangladesh
and droughts in Africa, but for Uttarakhand, except receding of glaciers, which also is taken as
an issue to be probed and solved by scientists, there isn’t any major concern within the
community for climate change as a ‘local’ issue.

The difference between ‘Global’ and ‘Local’ generally taken by the community is that the earlier
term means something which needs interventions at the international level by the Government
heads or the subject experts, whereas the later means something which needs interventions at
the local community level.
One thing which came out clearly is that the community presently doesn’t take climate change
as an issue of local concern and hence leaves it for the international think tanks or the national
heads to deal with it.

115
Are we also experiencing some changes? : Even though the respondents generally don’t
consider climate change as a local issue, but gradual changes are perceived by all the groups in
some way or the other. The perceptions of the respondents about the local level indications of
climate change impact were very few. Almost all felt change in the temperature of Dehradun
with hotter summers and milder winters. Change in rainfall volume and pattern has also been
observed across the groups. Some respondents also specifically made the note about decrease
in snowfall in Musoorie, the adjoining hill station of Dehradun. According to them now there is
negligible or no snowfall during December‐ January and earlier they used to celebrate New Year
eves in Musoorie with thick cover of snow. Farmers pointed towards changes in rainfall,
especially during winters and increase in droughts. Few respondents, especially from the group
of farmers, orchard owners and few government officials also shared their observation about
early flowering of few plants such as Rhododendron (Burans) and Renwardtia indica
(Piyunladee). Rhododendron which used to flower in February‐March is now starts flowering in
December‐January and Renwardtia flowers which are used in a local festival called Phooldeyi,
celebrated during 14th or 15th of March every year in Uttarakhand, are also showing early
flowering by a month.

In spite of perceived changes in the climate and its impacts, the local community is not showing
that much concern about the issue of climate change. The reasons for this might be that the
changes in the local climate easily felt by the community are the changes in temperature and
rainfall, but as the changes are mostly spread over a long period of time and also as the extreme
events are rare, so the community which is used to the fact that the weather of these
mountainous areas vary considerably from year to year, season to season, day to day, at
different altitudes, and even on slopes with different exposures, generally couldn’t make out the
difference between changes in weather and that in climate.

The other reason might be the general mentality of community of handling the disasters i.e.
reacting only after a disaster strikes in the community. The sense of preparedness for disasters
is still missing within the community at large. The other issues like food security, employment
and health are the priority issues for the community and the awareness about possibilities of
negative effects on these issues due to climate change is presently lacking.

Could There Be Increase In Intensity And Frequency Of Natural Disasters Due To

Climate Change?

Respondents mostly agreed that there could be increase in the intensity or frequency of the
climate change related natural disasters (Fig: 5) as most of the natural disasters are climate
related and any major change in it can trigger more disasters. Some respondents linked the
present situation of increase in drought cases in Uttarakhand with climate change and also of
spread of vector borne diseases like malaria and dengue to newer areas with no or negligible
history of such cases. Respondents from group of doctors also shared that there might be
movement of these diseases to higher elevations, but as there is no blood testing facilities at
these places, so most of the cases go un‐registered. There is also an integrated facility to
monitor these types of diseases, but awareness about their reports is negligible.

116
Respondents
were not sure
about the
increase in
the events of
flash floods,
landslides
and
avalanches
etc. as these
are highly
distributed
spatially
throughout
the state and
also there is a
long history of these types of disasters in the state, so people generally don’t notice them
minutely and also consider these events as part of mountain life. There is also an absence of
proper recording of disaster events in a centralised way, which could give comparative figures
during a period of time. An effort has been initiated by Disaster Mitigation and Management
Centre**********, Dehradun, but a whole lot of work needs to be done.

Potential Threats Due to Climate Change Related Natural Disasters: Experts

opinions

Climate change involves, perhaps most seriously, changes in the frequency and magnitude of
extreme weather events. It is rather easier to find impacts of climate change in averages than in
extreme events. Looking at the complexity and diversity of Himalayan hydro‐climetological
conditions and also the lack of studies and basic data makes it difficult to predict the patterns of
climate change impact at the local or regional level and being a Himalayan state it is also true for
Uttarakhand. The physical sign of climate change in the mountains include locally or possibly
regionally, extreme increases in temperature and in the frequency and duration of extreme
events (Jianchu et al. 2007)††††††††††. According to the IPCC (2001), extreme conditions are the
key challenge climate change presents for vulnerability and adaptation, rather than changes in
average conditions.

Taking into account the location and topography of Uttarakhand state, the following could be
potential threats to it due to climate change related natural disasters:

Drought: The state’s more than 80% agricultural area depends upon rains for irrigation. Increase
in mean temperatures and decrease in annual rainfalls might increase in the area and
magnitude of droughts in the state. The increase in soil evaporation and also changes in
precipitation pattern will worsen the situation. Studies have shown that increase in temperature
with reduction in total precipitation means more droughts can be expected (Klein Tank et al.,

**********
An autonomous institute under the aegis of Department of Disaster Management Government of Uttarakhand.
††††††††††
Jianchu, X. Shrestha, A, Vaidya, R. Eriksson, M. Hewitt, K. 2007. The melting Himlayas, ICIMOD Technical paper, ICIMOD,
Nepal

117
2002)‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡. With fast pace of melting of glaciers and temporal changes in the river flows will
add to water stress of the state.

Flash floods: There is a high probability of more flash floods resulting from increased numbers
and magnitude of extreme precipitation events, and there may be greater direct runoff and less
delayed runoff as less precipitation falls as snow.

Landslides: Landslides are not directly climate related hazards, but could be the secondary
effect of heavy precipitation or flooding, so their probability increases with increase in heavy
precipitation or flooding. In higher Himalayas, fluctuations in glaciers, especially retreat and
thinning, destabilize surrounding slopes and may give rise to catastrophic landslides (Ballantyne
and Benn 1994§§§§§§§§§§; Dadson and Church 2005***********) which can dam streams, and
sometimes lead to outbreak floods.

Heat Waves: Due to increase in the maximum daily temperatures in summers, there might be
more incidences of heat strokes in the lower elevation areas of the state.

Forest Fires: Similar to landslides, forest fires are not directly climate related hazards, but
increase in the mean temperature will increase the rate of evaporation from soil and hence drier
forest floors, which will be more susceptible to catch fire. Continuous decrease in winter
precipitation will add up to the gravity of the problem.

Disease outbreak or spread: The changes in climate will also show its impact on human as well
as plant health. The increase in temperature along with change in precipitation pattern will give
favorable conditions for the outbreak of vector borne diseases, such as malaria, kala‐azar and
Japanese encephalitis, with increased period of vector activity and also spread to higher
elevations of the state. With decrease in quantity and quality of water, probability of increase in
water borne diseases like diarrhea is also very high.
Not just the humans but the threat will also be there for plants, as most of the plants have
natural protection most of the diseases and insect infestation due to timing of their flowering
and fruiting season, which doesn’t match with the activity period of the potential pathogen or
insects, but due to phonological changes in some species because of climate change, they will
become more susceptible to diseases and insect attacks.

Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs): In the Higher Himalayas one of the greatest potential
threats is of GLOFs. Due to climate change and increase in temperature, most of the glaciers are
retreating fast. Glacial lakes are formed behind moraine or ice ‘dams’ of these retreating
glaciers. Due to the inherent instability of such structures and the potential of sudden outbursts,
a breach could result in sudden outflow of very high volume of water and debris in a short span
of time, causing devastating flood downstream. Since the second half of the 20th century, the
frequency of such events is increasing in the Hind‐Kush Himalayan region (UNEP, 2003) due to

‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡
Klein Tank, A.M.G. and 35 others, 2002: Daily dataset of 20th‐century surface air temperature and precipitation series for
the European Climate Assessment. International J Climatology, 22, 1441‐1453.
§§§§§§§§§§
Ballantyne, C.K.; Benn, D.I. (1994) ‘Paraglacial Slope Adjustment and Resedimentation Following Recent Glacier Retreat,
Fabergstolsdalen, Norway.’ In Arctic and Alpine Research, 26(3): 255‐269
***********
Dadson, S.J.; Church, M. (2005) ‘Postglacial Topographic Evolution of Glaciated Valleys: A Stochastic Landscape Evolution
Model’. In Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, 30(11): 1387‐1403

118
the combined effects of climate change and deforestation. ICIMOD studies have identified about
127 glacial lakes in Uttarakhand, which could be a potential hazard.
Conclusion

The various studies done in Himalayas and also the analysis of meteorological data of Dehradun
for last three decades shows that there is a change in the climate of Uttarakhand. Though the
change in the local climate is perceived by the local community, directly or indirectly, but overall
awareness about the issue of climate change and global warming is low. The level of awareness
assess through this small study in the State Capital is expected to be higher than the rest of the
state on account of its accessibility to global information through various media and also being a
centre of all the state governmental activities. It is
therefore shows that the level of awareness on
climate change will be much lower in the remoter Climate change is not an issue to be
districts of the state. confined only to the elite class, but
is also very much an issue for the
Initiatives have been taken up by the government local vulnerable community as a
agencies to promote the awareness on the issue whole, as they are the ones who will
be at the receiving end of the
of climate change, but the efforts so far are climate change related adverse
confined to the higher officials or so called elite impacts and also it’s them who
class. Few non‐governmental organisations also could be the soldiers in the
have taken initiatives of spreading community forefront of this Global War
level awareness on the issue, but in the absence against climate change.
of resources and also proper communication
planning, the results are not visible at large.
These type of efforts needs more support and at the same time state level coordination, so that
the information could be reached at every corner of the state.

Uttarakhand may not be labelled as the major emitter of the green house gases, but it also true
that it going to bear the adverse impacts of global warming and its fallout in the form of climate
change. The state, which has a long history of hydro‐metrological or climate related disasters,
faces greater potential of threats in terms of climate related or associated hazards like drought,
flash floods, heat waves, avalanches, landslides and forest fire due to fast changing scenario of
climate change. There are also new threats for Uttarakhand in terms of natural hazards due to
climate change like GLOFs and spread of diseases to new areas in the higher reaches.

The vulnerability of the local community increases to these increasing conventional hazards and
also the new ones, in the absence of proper awareness regarding the threats and also due to
lack of preparedness for them.

On the issue of climate change, not just locally, but even globally, the more emphasis is given on
high level scientific research and mooting on the issue at political and different international
technocratic platforms, but the ground level communities, which are and have to face the
impacts of this change at large are not made aware. This lack of awareness and keeping the
issue ‘global’ is also keeping the issue away from the ‘local’ concern. We shouldn’t forget that it
is these local communities whose actions could help us to mitigate or adapt these changes and
this could only be done, if they are made aware and prepared to fight this ‘Global War’.

119
Recommendations

¾ Community awareness: As very well came out from the case study that the community
level awareness about climate change issue is very low and hence more emphasis is
needed in this direction. As the matter is very serious and could result in heavy loss in
future to life, property and environment, so it is recommended that the awareness
campaigns should be taken up in the similar lines of polio eradication or AIDS awareness
campaigns.

¾ Awareness of Ground level officials: Awareness of higher level officials is important, but
more important is the awareness of the ground level officials, who are in constant
contact with the local community and could help in spreading the awareness and also
giving the proper feedbacks.

¾ Use of media: During the study survey it was observed that whatever awareness in the
community about global warming and climate change was found, the major
contribution was of media through television, newspapers and internet. It is therefore
suggested to give more emphasis on using these mediums more for general community
awareness promotion, but at the same time it’s highly suggested to include the local
impacts and threats of climate change, so that community could also relate themselves
with this issue.

¾ Data collection at local levels: Looking at the paucity of data, especially related to
meteorology and disasters history, it is suggested to promote at least one school
present in gram panchayats to take the responsibility of these data collection. If the
resources restrict to implement it in every gram panchayat then at least it should be
done for one school at watershed level. The eco‐clubs, an initiative taken up by the
ministry of environment and forests could also be used to do this job.

¾ Regional and local level research: During its reviews the present study found a huge
lacking of regional or local level of studies done in Uttarakhand on climate change issue.
As the impacts of climate change are region or localtion specific and looking at the high
variability of the Uttarakhand’s climatological and geo‐morphological features, it is
highly recommended to promote researchers to take up studies at regional and local
levels throughout the state to get a more clear picture, based which better policy level
decisions could be taken for mitigation, adaptation or risk reduction.

¾ Information resource centre on climate change: A facility is proposed to be established

to monitor the climate change in the western Himalayas through participatory research
and collation of information and data from other research institutes and agencies. The
facility will ideally act as a link between the various research institutes and agencies
working in the field of climate change monitoring and the general public. The collated
data will be strengthen by the facility by adding the findings of the community based
action research and will be disseminated to the general public in a more understandable
and respond‐able form.

120
 ¾ Community action groups: Whatever plans we make at the national or international
levels, but it needs to be implemented on ground by the local communities only and
therefore it is highly needed that community level action groups are constituted,
promoted and capacity built to get the actions through. It is recommended to
institutionalise these groups in rural areas at Gram Panchayat levels and in Urban areas
at ward levels as “Community Climate Change Planning and Implementation Groups”.
The group will be responsible for planning and implementation of the climate change
mitigation or adaptation related projects in their respective areas. A gram panchayat or
ward level “Community Climate Change Fund” is also proposed to provide capital for
taking up these activities and also its maintenance.

¾ Policy support: None of the activities at the community level could be successful and
sustainable unless there is effective and strong policy backup. It is suggestive that the
state government should also prepare its own strategy document to deal with the issue
of climate change in the similar lines of National Climate Change Action Plan, but also
considering the locale specific needs. All the recommendations stated above needs the
governments political will and support.

Challenges & way forward

Biggest challenge faced during the study was the unavailability of data pertaining to disaster
history of Uttarakhand. As there is no system of keeping centralised database of disaster events,
so it makes difficult to analyse any changes in the trend of occurrence of different type of
disasters in the state. Though an initiative has been taken up by the state sponsored Disaster
Mitigation and Management Centre, Dehradun, but still whole lot of work needs to be done.
Looking at the remoteness and inaccessibility of most the disaster prone areas, the data
collection also becomes very difficult.
Other challenge faced during the study was the indifferent behaviour of the public to discuss
about the issue of Climate Change, as for them it is not a priority issue and it is just waste of
time.

Though there were challenges, but this short study could able to throw light on the present
situation about to the climate change related potential threats for the state and some locale
specific concerns. It has also given a direction, which could be refined and replicated in other
locations within the state of Uttarakhand and also other hill states to understand the local
impacts of climate change and the potential threats of natural disasters related to it.

121
Climate Change and Birds in Uttarakhand
Yashpal Negi

tyok;q ifjorZu ds lEcU/k esa esjk izFke Hkze.k twu izFke lIrkg nsofj;krky ¼2438 eh-½ dk jgk- lkjh ls
nsofj;krky dh nwjh 2-5 fdeh- gS] jkLrs esa ikuh ds rhu lzksr Fks] tks fd lw[k x;s] bl ikuh lzksr ds utnhd
Thrush Magpie, Jay ?kksalyk cukrs Fks] vc ;kfu 2009 esa ,d Hkh /kksalyk ugha feyk- ikuh ds dkj.k tehu
ueh jgrh gS dhM+s edksM+s miyC/k gks tkrs gSa] tehu bruh xeZ gks pqdh gS fd dhM+s fodflr gh ugha gq,-
blfy, ?kksalyk de cus] nsofj;krky esa Rhododendran Arboriun dkQh Qwy f[kys gq, Fks- tcfd bu
isMk+ s esa Qwy tuouh&Qjojh esa yxrs gSa- taxyh Qy] cSjht] fglwy] fdjeksM]+ dkQy de yxs ftl dkj.k
fpfM+;ksa dks [kkuk miyC/k ugha gqvk] blfy, fpfM+;ksa us ?kksalys de cuk;s-

xehZ vR;f/kd gksus ds dkj.k nsofj;krky dk ty Lrj /khjs&2 de gksrk tk jgk gS- nsofj;krky rky o"kZ 2008
esa dkQh Nesting gqbZ Fkh tSls Red Billed Blue Magpie, Eurasian Jay, Black Headed Jay, Ashy
Duango, Gree tuiledsunbried, Himalayan woodpecker, Grey Headed Wood pecker, Ultramarine
Flycatcher, Chestnut Bellied Nuthatch, Fire Breasted Flower pecker bR;kfn dkQh fpfM+;ksa ds ?kksalys
Fks- tyok;q ifjorZu ds dkj.k nsofj;krky dk ty Lrj /khjs&2 de gksrk tk jgk gS-

twu esa rqaxukFk ¼12144*½ dk Hkze.k gqvk] eksuky tks fd pksirk ls 1 fdeh- pyus ds ckn fn[k tkrk Fkk] vc
ugha fn[kk] dkj.k tehu esa [kkus dks dqN miyC/k ugha gS- nwljk ikuh ds lzksr lw[k x;s gSa- ikuh jgus ls tehu
ueh jgrh gSa ftlls ueh okyh txg esas dhM+s mxSjk miyC/k gks tkrs gSa vkSj fpfM+;ks dks ikuh ihus dks fey
tkrk gS] eSaus ns[kk Long Billed, Thrush spotted Laughing Thrush. Scaly, Breasted Wood
Packer tks fd T;knk le; tehu dks [kksndj dhM+s fudkyrs Fks- mUgsa [kkuk ugha fey jgk Fkk dkj.k xehZ
ds dkj.k dhM+s fodflr gh ugha gq,- Sunbried Flower Packer Warbles ds cPps twu esa Qwyksa ds
bnZ&fxnZ utj vk;s Fks bl lky ¼2009½ de gh utj vk;s] Golden Bush Robin dk ?kksalyk yxHkx
10]000 ls 12000 QhV esa curk gS fiNys lky eq>s yxHkx 5 ?kksalys feys] bl lky dsoy ,d-

rqxukFk ds utnhd Himalayan Wood Packer, Scaly Breasted Wood Packer ?kksalyk isM+ks ds
[kksdys okys Hkkx esa cukrs gSa- eSaus dVQksM+k dks ns[kk fd mlus ,d txg esa yxHkx 5 feuV rd [kksnrk jgk]
ijUrq mls lQyrk ugha feyh- mlds ckn og iqjkus xkscj ij x;k ml ij mls ,d dhM+k miyC/k gqvk ftldks
fd og 1 fdeh- nwj ys x;k- tyok;q ifjorZu dk izHkko ^i{kh txr* ij lcls T;knk gqvk-

Golden Bush Robin dk tks ?kksalyk eq>s feyk og yxHkx 10]000 dh ÅWpkbZ ij feyk vkSj ?kksalyk xks'kkyk
ds utnhd dkj.k xkscj ls dhV (Insect) mM+sxs vkSj mDr fpfM+;k dks [kkus o cPpksa dks f[kykus ds fy, gks
tk;sxk- Monal Pheasant dk ?kksalyk dkQh <Ww<us ds ckn Hkh ugha feyk- ;fn blh izdkj dk ekSle jgsxk rks vkus
okys le; esa bl fpfM+;k ds n'kZu nqyZHk gks tk;saxs- eSa e.My ds vuwlw;k ekrk efUnj x;k tgkWa fd izR;sd
lky eq>s Speckled Wood Pigeon yHkifÙk;ka (Litraea larugiora ) ds isM+ks ij cSBs feyrs Fks] bl lky
ugha feys- jkLrs esa dkQh iztkfr;ksa ds n'kZu gks tkrs Fks ugha gq,] dkj.k [kkuk mDr taxy esa miyC/k ugha Fkk- 5
fdeh- pyus ds ckn efUnj ds utnhd dkQh fpfM+;k,sa miyC/k Fkh] D;ksafd xkWo ds utnhd [kkuk miyC/k gS-
[ksrksa esa dqN dhM+s edksM+s fey gh tkrs gSa] vkSj ikuh tgkW&2 cgrk gS mleas Hkh dkQh fpfM+;ksa dks Hkkstu fey
gh tkrk gS-

122
esjs dSEi ds utnhd Paradise Flycatcher ds 4 ?kksalys cus cPps dsoy ,d ?kksalys ls fudys D;ksafd
vR;f/kd xehZ ds dkj.k fpfM+;k ?kksalys esa ugha cSB ik jgh Fkh- tc v.Mksa ls cPps fudys rks de dhV ¼Insect½
gksus ds dkj.k f[kykus esa Hkh ijs'kkuh gks jgh Fkh- fnu eas cPpksa dks xehZ lguk Hkh dfBu gks jgk Fkk ftl dkj.k
muds eqWg [kqys gh Fks- ;gh gky Blue Whistling Thrush ds gSa mldk ?kksalyk pV~Vku ij cuk j[kk gS]
v.Mksa dks lsd jgk gS vkSj xehZ ds dkj.k eqWg gj le; [kqyk gh gS- Blue Whistling Thrush ,d lhtu esa
nks ;k rhu ckj Nesting djrk gS bldks [kkus esa fnDdr ¼ijs'kkuh½ de gh gksrh gS- ;g euq"; dh VV~Vh ¼ey½
ls dhM+s mBkrk jgrk gS vkSj Ik;kZoj.k dks LoPN j[krk gS- vc o"kkZ gksus ds dkj.k Hkh dkQh fpfM+;k,sa ?kksalyk
cuk;sxh Wedge tailed Green Pigeon vkt ¼29@06@09½ dks ydM+h ds ckjhd Vgfu;ka ys tkdj ?kksalyk
cuk jgha gSa tcfd buds ?kksalys vizSy ;k ebZ izFke lIrkg esa cu tkrs Fks-

tyok;q ifjorZu ls ihiy ¼Fieus religiesa) ds isM+ ij lHkh txg cht ugha vk;s D;ksafd tgkW ueh esa
ihiy dk isM+ Fkk ml ij cht vk;s tks isM+ ueh ls nwj jgs mu ij cht yxs gh ugha-

^^tyok;q ifjorZu dk izHkko**

1‐ dhV (Insect) mRiUu ugha gq,] D;ksafd vR;f/kd xehZ ds dkj.k dhV fodflr ugha gq,
2‐ xehZ ds dkj.k%& [ksrksas esa gy yxkus ls dhM+k fudyrk Fkk] ftldks eSxikbZ (Magpie) eSuk (Myna)
bR;kfn fpfM+;ka [kkrh Fkh- o"kZ 2009 esa dhM+k fodflr gh ugha gqvk] ftl dkj.k mDr fpfM+;k [ksrksa esa Hkh
utj ugha vkbZ-
3‐ vR;f/kd xehZ ds dkj.k fpfM+;ksa us ?kksalys cuk,s] ijUrq db;ksa us v.Ms fn;s db;ksa us v.Ms gh ugha fn;s
dkj.k v.Mksa dks lsduk] ?kksalyksa esa jguk fpfM+;ksa dks cM+h dfBukb;ka gks jgh Fkh- tSls Black Bulbul,
Paradise Flycatcher, Blue Whisting Thrush.
4‐ taxyh Qy f[kUuk (Sapium insigne), csM+w (Ficuspalmata) foeyk (Ficus roxburghii) bR;kfn
o"kkZ u gksus ds dkj.k bu isM+ksa ij Qy de yxs ftl dkj.k fpfM+;ksa us Nesting ugha dh-
5‐ taxyh Qwy o"kkZ u gksus ds dkj.k xehZ ls [kRe gks x;s ;k eqj>k x;s- bl dkj.k Sunbirds Flower
peckers Warbler us de ?kksalys cuk;s] D;ksafd bu Qwyksa ls bUgsa Hkkstu feyrk Fkk-
6‐ ;fn blh izdkj xehZ jgsxh rks isM+ ikS/ks ij vlj iM+sxk gh cfYd blls fpfM+;ksa ds vkokl ij [krjk
mRiUu gks tk;sxk-

^ihiy (Ficus religiesa) ij vkus okyh fpfM+;kvksa dk fooj.k**

1. Rufaus Woodpecker (Celeus Brachyurus)

2. Lesser Yellownape (Picus Chiouolophus)
3. Grey Headed Woodpecker (Picus Canus)
4. Great Barbet (Maglaima Virens)
5. Blue throated Barbet (Megalaima asiatica)
6. Slaty Headed Parakeet (Psittacula eyanocephala)
7. Plum Headed Parakeet (Streptopelia Orientalis)
8. Oriental Turtle Dove (Streptopelia Orientalis)
9. Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis)

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10. Wedge. tailed Green Pigeon (Treron sphenura)
11. Red Billed Blue Magpie ( Urocissa erythrorhyncha)
12. Grey Preepie (Dendrocitta formosae)
13. Large Billed Crow (corvus macrorhynhos)
14. Maroon Oriole (Oriolus Traillii )
15. Scarlet Miniuet ( Pericrocolus fdammens )
16. White ‐ Throated Faintail ( Rhipidura albicollis )
17. Asian Paradise Fllycatcaher (Terpsiphona)
18. Verditer Flycatcher (Eumyias thalassina)
19. Blue‐Throated Flycatcher (eyormis rubeculides)
20. Oriental Magpie Robin (Copsyehus saularis)
21. Spot‐Winged Starling (Saroglossa spiloptera)
22. chestratlaied Starling (Sturnus malabaricus)
23. Common Myna (Acridotheres triotis)
24. Chestunut ‐bellied Nuthatch (Sitta Castanea)
25. Great Tit (Prarus Major)
26. Black Lored Tit (Parus xanthogenys)
27. Himalayan Bubul (Pycnonotus leucogeny)
28. Red Vented Bulbul (Pycnonotus cafer)
29. Black Bulbul (Hypsipetes leucocephalus)
30. Oriental White Eye (Zosteropspalpebrosus)

Wedge tailed Green Pigeon (Treron sphenura) 33 Cm.

;g dcwrj ekpZ esa igkM+h {ks= esa vk tkrk gS- ?kksalyk gjs isM+ks dh Vguh esa cukrk gS] lqcg 5 AM ls 7 PM rd
yxkrkj ihiy ds cht [kkrk gS vkSj cPpksa dks Hkh f[kykrk gS- dSEi ds cxy esa ihiy ds isM+ ds cht (Seed) 2
ekg ls yxkrkj [kkrs jgrs gSa budh la[;k 12 ls 15 rd gS- ?kksalys esa ydM+h NksVh&2 feykdj cukrs gSa cPps
T;ksa&2 cM+s gksrs gSa] 'kk[kk esa pyrs gq, dHkh uhps fxj tkrs gSa ;k dkSok Hkh dkQh cPps [kk tkrk gS

tyok;q ifjorZu ls izHkko%

?kksalys de cus D;ksa fd vizSy] ebZ esa taxyksa esa vkx yxus ls bl fpfM+;k us Mj ls ?kksalyk ugha cuk;k dqN
?kksalys cus ogkW tgkW vkx dk izdksi ugha Fkk- taxyksa esa o"kkZ u gksus ds dkj.k isM+ks esa Qy] cht de yxs] bl
dkj.k ?kksalyk de cus- bl izHkko dks de djus ds fy, fuEu isM+ks dk o`{kkjksi.k djuk pkfg,-

ihiy (Ficus religiesa)%& ;g isM+ fgUnw /keZ ds vk/kkj ij iwT;uh; gS- ;g jkr fnu vkDlhtu nsrk gS-
fpfM+;ksa dk LoxZ gS rks ihiy o`{k D;ksafd bl ij yxHkx 25 ls 30 iztkfr fuHkZj jgrh gSa vkSj ml le; ftl
le; fpfM+;ksa dks [kkus dh vko';drk nqxuh jgrh gS ;g fpfM+;ka 'kq} 'kkdkgkjh gS- mDr fpfM+;k tkSykbZ izFke
lIrkg esa ?kksalyk cuk jgh gS- eSaus mDr fpfM+;ka dks ydM+h dh ckjhd Vgfu;ka ys tkrs gq, ns[kk- vizSy ebZ esa
vR;f/kd xehZ ds dkj.k bl dcwrj us de gh ?kksalyk cuk;s-

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Asian Paradise Flycatcher (Terpsiphone Parodisi) 20+30 Cm

e/;izns'k dk jkT;h; i{kh gS- ekpZ e/; esa fgeky; esa iztuu gsrq vkrk gS] nks lky ls blds iztuu ij cM+k
vlj iM+ jgk gS- D;ksafd o"kkZ u gksus ds dkj.k xehZ cM+h gS] ftl dkj.k Insect ¼iraxs½ dh deh ls iztuu ij
vlj iM+k gS- o"kZ 2009 esa 4 ?kksalyksa esa ls dsoy ,d gh ?kkaslyk dke;kc gks ik;k- ftlesa fd rhu cPpksa dks uj
o eknk nksuksa [kkuk f[kyk jgs gSa- e/;izns'k esa bl fpfM+;ka dks ^^nw/kjkt** ¼LoxZ ohoh½ ds uke ls tkurs gSa-

tyok;q ifjorZu ds izHkko%& Paradisa Flycateher ds yxHkx 4 ?kksalys feys ftuesa ls dsoy ,d gh ?kksalys ls
cPps fudys bldk eq[; Hkkstu Insect gS- xehZ bruh cM+ x;h fd Insect cuuk eqf'dy gks x;k- tyok;q
ifjorZu dk lcls cM+k vlj bl iztkfr ds dqy ij iM+k- ;fn blh izdkj dk ekSle jgk rks vkus okyk lky]
blls Hkh cM+k eqf'dy dk jgsxk- ?kksalys cukuk gh fpfM+;k NksM+ nsxh-

Ashy Drongo (Dicrurus leucophaeus) 29 Cm

bldks dksroky] Hkqtaxk] Mªksxks ds uke ls tkuk tkrk gS- dksroky ds uke ls izfl} blfy, fd ;g QkbZVj
Vkbi dh fpfM+;k gS] blds lgkjs ds vk/kkj ij vU; fpfM+;k,sa Hkh blds ?kksalys ds utnhd viuk ?kksalyk cukrs
gSsa fd ;s gekjh Hkh j{kk djsxk-

tyok;q ifjorZu ls izHkko%& bldk Hkh eq[; Hkkstu Insect gS- taxyks esa vkx ls] tehu xeZ gksus ls Insect
de cus ftl dkj.k bldks Hkkstu dh cgqr ijs'kkuh gqbZ- 'kke dks ia[kckth phfV;ka tc mM+rh gSa rks Mªksxks dk
vkgkj Ik;kZIr ek=k esa miyC/k gks tkrk gS-

Plumbeous Water Redstarat (Rhyacormis fuliginous) 12 Cm

fgeky; {ks= ds unh] ukys ds utnhd jguk ilUn djrk gS- unh ds fdukjs 'kSokWt dk ,d NksVk dVksjk uqek
?kksalyk cukrk gS- ?kksalys ds vUnj ckyksa dks mi;ksx djrk gS- ;g ?kksalyk tks QksVks esa fn[kkbZ ns jgk gS- bl
?kksalys esa rhu v.Ms Fks ,d VwV x;k dkj.k%&
1. jksM fdukjs xkM+h ds Vk;j ls Hkh iFrj mNy ldrk gS
2. xkfM+;ksa ds vR;f/kd VªSfQd ls Hkh ?kksalyk NksM+ ldrk gS-
3. Magpie ;k Treepie, Blue Whistling Thrush ds ckj&2 vkus ds dkj.k Hkh ?kksalyk NksM+ ldrk gS-
4. tyok;q ifjorZu ds dkj.k vR;f/kd xehZ gksus ds dkj.k fpfM+;k ds ?kksalys esa cSBuk gh eqf'dy gks x;k
gksxk] ftl dkj.k ,d v.Mk VwV x;k] vkSj mDr fpfM+;k us ?kksalyk NksM+ fn;k-
5. Plumbequs Water Redstart us unh fdukjs 2 ?kksalyk cuk;k 1 ?kksalyk eankfduh unh fdukjs 2 ?kksalyk
vkdk'kunh ds fdukjs nksuksa ?kksalyksa ls rhu o nks cPps fudys-
6. bl fpfM+;k dks Hkkstu] ey ij yxs Insect unh esa iFrjksa ij yxs Insect NksVs&2 dhM+s tks fd ikuh ds
vUnj yxs iRFkjksa dk jax ihyk fn[kkbZ nsrk gS ml ij dkys NksVs&2 dhM+s uqek yxs jgrs gSa- ftudks fpfM+;k
Hkh [kkrh gS vkSj cPpksa dks Hkh f[kykrk gS-
7. lkai tc ikuh ihus ds fy, unhs esa tkrk gS rks og Hkh bl fpfM+;k ds cPpksa dks <wW<rk jgrk gS- vkSj [kk
tkrk gS ;g mnkgj.k 2008 ebZ izFke lIrkg dk gS-

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8. tyok;q ifjorZu ls bl fpfM+;k ij cqjk vlj ;g iM+sxk fd bldks ?kksalys ess v.Ms lsduk eqf'dy gks
tk;sxk- ;fn cPps fudy Hkh x;s rks cPpksa f[kykuk eqf'dy gks tk;sxk] xehZ blh izdkj jgsxh rks ?kksalys esa
cPps ej Hkh ldrs gSa-

Great Barbet (Megulaima virens) 33 Cm

fgeky; {ks= esa ik;k tkrk gS- gjs ifÙk;ksa okys isM+ks esa jguk] cSBuk] ilUn djrk gS- isM+ks ij Nsn djds ;k Wood
pecker okys ?kksalys esa Hkh viuk ?kksalyk cukrk gS- ?kksalyk cukus dk le; ekpZ ls twu gS- ihiy] cV] foeyk
csM+w] fdjeksM+] fglwy o dkQy ds Qy ¼cht½ [kkrk gS vkSj cPpksa dks Hkh f[kykrk gS- cht izdh.kZu esa ckjcsV dks
fo'ks"k ;ksxnku jgrk gS- ckjcsV clUr _rq ds vkxeu dh lwpuk dqÅ&2 djds nsrk gS-

tyok;q ifjorZu ds izHkko%&

ckjcsV isM+ esa Nsn djds viuk ?kksalyk cukrk gS- vR;f/kd xehZ ds dkj.k taxyh Qy fdjeksM+] fglwy] ihiy ds
cht] f[kUuk ds cht ij fo'ks"kr;k fuHkZj jgrk gS- Rhododendron Barbet Qwy Hkh ckjcsV dkQh [kkrk gS]
xehZ ls ijs'kku ckjcsV ?kksalys esa T;knk nsj rd cSB ugha ldrk gS- ftl dkj.k bl lhtu esa ckjcsV us de gh
usf"aVx dh-

Blue Throated Barbet :‐ (Megalaima Asiatic) 23 Cm

iwjs Hkkjr o"kZ esa ik;k tkrk gS] bldk iztuu le; ekpZ ls twu gS- esjs dSEi ds utnhd ihiy dk isM+ gS
ftlesa yxs cht (Seed) ij viuk iwjk vf/kdkj yxk j[kk gS tks Hkh fpfM+;k ihiy ij vkrh gS mls Hkxkrk
jgrk gS] utnhd gh mldk ?kksalyk gS-

tyok;q ifjorZu ds izHkko%&

lqcg 10-0 cts rd] 'kke 7-0 cts rd cPpksa dks ihiy dk cht (Seed) f[kykrk jgrk gS- ;fn vkus okys le;
esas tyok;q ifjorZu blh izdkj jgsxk rks fpfM+;k ds n'kZu nqyZHk rks gksaxs gh bUlku ij Hkh cqjk izHkko iM+sxk gesa
lcls T;knk o`{kkjksi.k f[kUuk] ihiy dk djuk pkfg,- ekuo ds ;s fdlh dke ds ugha gS-

Blue Throated Barbet (Megalaima Asiatic) 23 Cm

iwjs Hkkjr o"kZ esa ik;k tkrk gS bldks fgUnh essa ^[kksnqj* igkM+h Hkk"kk esa ^^esyh** ds uke ls tkuk tkrk gS- clUr
_rq vkrs gh [kqjZ&2 dh dkQh vkoktsa vkrh gSa bldk eq[; Hkkstu isMk+ sa ij yxs cht%& ihiy (Ficus
religiesa) f[kUuk (Sapium inoigne) freyk (Ficus religiesa) dks [kkuk gS] rFkk cPpksa dks f[kykuk gS-
chtksa dks ,d LFkku ls nwljs LFkku esa ys tkuk ¼o`{kkjksi.k½ ;kfu o`{kkjksi.k esa bldh eq[; Hkwfedk gS-

126
tyok;q ifjorZu ds izHkko%&

tyok;q ifjorZu dk izHkko bl ij dkQh jgk D;ksafd isM+ks ij cht de vk;s] tehu bruh xeZ gks xbZ fd isM+ks
ij Qy ¼cht½ de yxs ftlls ?kksalys ¼iztuu½ ij dkQh izHkko iM+k f[kUuk taxyksa esa de f[kys] ihiy ij
dgha cht yxs rks dgha ugha] vHkh bldk ,d /kksalyk isM+ ds [kksg esa tks fd esjh utjksa esa Fkk] dke;kch ij gS-

White Capped Water Redstart (Chaimarrornis leucocephalus) 19 Cm

fgeky; {ks= esa jgrk gS xzh"e _rq esa 9000 fQV ls Åij iztuu djrk gS 'kjn _rq esa 2000 fQV rd vk
tkrk gS] unh] ukys esa jguk ilUn djrk gS- unh fdukjs NksVh eNyh] dhM+s] bldk eq[; Hkkstu gS- ?kkslys esa
'kSckt dk iz;ksx djrk gS- vUnj dh vksj ckjhd fruds yxkrk gS-

tyok;q ifjorZu ds izHkko%&

9000 fQV ;s Åij iztuu ugha o ukys ds fdukjs cukrk gS- blds iztuu ij cM+k izHkko iM+k gS- xehZ ds dkj.k
ukys dk ikuh lw[k x;k gS ftl dkj.k dhM+s ugha cus] ftlls blds iztuu ij cqjk izHkko iM+k-
lEiw.kZ mÙkjk[k.M esa vkx yxus dk dkj.k Hkh"k.k xehZ jgk- taxy lw[k dj ifÙk;ka fxj jgh Fkh tks fd iwjs
taxy dk /kd.
-&?kddj tyuk gh xehZ ds y{k.k gSa-
QksfVvksa esa tks taxy ty jgk gS og 15@05@2009 3 PM dk le; Fkk] eSus ns[kk fd taxy esa fdlh us vkx
yxk nh gS- eSa vius dSEi ls Hkkxdj ml LFkku ij x;k vkSj vkx cq>kus yxk- rHkh taxy ds cjkcj ¼utnhd½
3 ifjokj jgrs gSa] muesa ls ,d efgyk nksM+dj vkbZ] vkSj yHkifÙk;ka dh Vgfu;ka rksM+dj vkx cq>kus yx xbZ
yxHkx 30 feuV rd dkQh dksf'k'k ds QyLo:Ik vkx cq> ikbZ-
;g taxy xzke iapk;r cjEckM+h rglhy Å[kheB dk gS-

Rododendron Arboreum ^^cqjka'k**

cqjka'k ds f[kyus dk le; tuojh] Qjojh dk ekg gS- ijUrq le; ij o"kkZ u gksus ds dkj.k cqjka'k ds dksiys
eqj>k x;s 2 fnu esa o"kkZ gksus ls cqjka'k fQj ls f[kyus yxk- cqjka'k 'kk;n esa iwjs mÙkjk[k.M esa ;gh gky jgk
gksxk- mDr cqjka'k dh QksVks ¼30@05@2009½ LFkku dkdM+kxkM+ dk gS- ftu isM+ks esa ;s Qwy yxs gSa mu isM+ks dkss
esjs }kjk fpfUgr fd;s x;s gSSa-

127
Environmental Development in operational areas of
Oil India Limited (Oil) through “Neem”
Anjan Jyoti Phukan

Introduction
Assam is one of the richest biodiversity zones in the world and consists of tropical rainforests,
deciduous forests, riverine grasslands, bamboo orchards and numerous wetland ecosystems.
The rainforests of the North Eastern state of Assam are facing fast depletion due to ignorance
and negligence of the state authorities and the community people residing within the forest
areas. This rainforest is an important source of rare plants whose destruction may upset the
ecological balance of the region. Today the North Eastern states of India have become the only
region where rainforest wealth of India survives, but for how long, that's a big question.

Most people assume that global warming is caused by burning oil and gas. But in fact between
25 and 30 percent of the greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere each year – 1.6 billion
tonnes – is caused by deforestation. Trees are 50 percent carbon. When they are felled or
burned, the C02 they store escapes back into the air.

According to Michael Kleine of International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO)

“Forest clearance and wood burning have emerged as a major cause of global warming over the
last few decades.”

Reasons for selection of the project:

Reforestation is one of the many instrument through which we can fight global warming at the
grassroots level. Selection of trees for reforestations is a major criterion so that the problem is
not compounded by making wrong choices.

Nature has blessed man with many wonders. Of them all, plants have proved to be its best
boon. Among them, Neem, distinguished by its astonishing versatility‐ is such as fascinating tree
that no other tree probably has provided the kind of wide range of benefits to mankind. Neem
(Azadirachta indica), is not only known for its herbal medicines and environmental friendly
organic pesticides but also for its capabilities to balance ecological problems like deforestation,
erosion and global warming.

Project Target:
Greening the environment: To introduce “Project Neem” in OIL operational areas. The target of
the project is to plant a minimum of one hundred thousand “Neem tree sapling” especially in
restoring drilling sites, in educational institutions and in all the villages surrounding OIL
operational areas in Dibrugarh and Tinsukia district in Assam.

Neem tree (Azadirachta Indica), has a history of growing up to 50 ft. high and has been used for
many different purposes for more than 4500 years

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Why Neem?

The Neem tree (Azadirachta Indica) is also termed as “village hospital” has been used for many
different purposes from the ancient times. Some of which are listed below:

1. Soil Amendment

Neem cake in soil produces larger and healthier plants that have few or no
insect/disease problem. It promotes large populations of earth worms and help keep
nitrogen in the soil available for the plants

2. Neem For Eco‐ Friendly Pest Management

a. Neem is the only plant from which bio‐pesticides are commercially manufactured, are
found effective, eco‐friendly and acceptable to the farmers.
b. Neem oil is non‐toxic to animals and people. Only insects (more than 200 species) that
are harmful for plant growth are affected by Neem oil, leaving honey bees and other
beneficial insects unharmed.

3. Environmental Service rendered by Neem

a. During hot summer months in northern parts of the Indian subcontinent, the
temperature under the Neem tree is ~10° C less than the surrounding temperature; 10
air conditioners operated together may not do the job as efficiently and economically as
a full grown neem.
b. Restoration of the health of degraded soils and ultimate use of such reclaimed
wastelands lands through Neem is another example of its value as an environmental
panacea.
c. Neem is extremely useful in urban forestry because it has remarkable ability to
withstand air and water pollution as well as heat

Project methods/ activities

To identify villages, schools, social & cultural centers surrounding the OIL temporary
(e.g. drilling sites) as well as permanent installations like Oil collecting stations (OCS),
pipe line installation, gas compressor stations (GCS) and conducting awareness
programs on benefits of “Neem” plantation and the ill effects of de‐forestation.

The methodology of the awareness program consisted of:‐

• Meeting/discussion with the village head, school headmaster, head of religious

place/cultural centre/other identified important areas and fixation of venue
and date for the plantation drive.
• Collaborating with local NGO’s for getting necessary HR support and easier
approach to the local people and our destination.

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 • Explaining the benefits of planting Neem tree and its use to reverse
desertification and to reduce erosion and deforestation, making it an
important weapon in the fight against global warming.
• Distributing leaflets on tree plantations.
• Planting and distributing Neem saplings in the above mentioned selected areas
and handing over the responsibilities to concerned personals, like Village head
(Sarpanch), in‐charge of OIL installations and school teachers in schools etc, for
necessary care of the saplings.
• Enrolling OIL (our parent organization) for continuation of the project and also
for future financial support.
• Visiting the planted areas once or twice in a month for inspection of the
saplings.

Project goal achieved so far

Our main achievements till date is getting the approval from OIL (Oil India Limited)
management for planting a minimum of 1000‐1200 (One thousand to twelve hundred)
Neem saplings in the local surroundings of OIL’s drilling site every year

Selected areas

Dikom Oil field surrounding area under Dibrugarh district (About 50 km away from
our workplace in Duliajan)

- Planted 200 (two hundred only) of Neem saplings with bamboo caging in
association with Dikom Nagarik Mancha, a local NGO under Dikom police
station, Central Bank of India, Dikom branch, religious places and Dikom youth
cultural centres.
- Planted 100 Neem saplings in Dikom M.E and High Schools
- Educating about 300 (Three hundred) school children on benefits of tree
plantation especially usefulness of the Neem tree.

Bhogpara area in Lahoal Development Block under Dibrugarh district (About 45 km

away from our workplace in Duliajan)

- Planted and distributed 500 (five hundred only) of Neem saplings with bamboo
caging in surrounding villages and OIL’s drilling and production installations
with the employees of our parent organization Oil India Limited.
- Educating about 50‐60 (fifty to sixty) villagers on benefits of tree plantation
and especially usefulness of Neem tree

• Policy implications/ Recommendation

Discussion letter, approval and support from TOP MANAGEMENT for integrating the project
with company’s operations in all future oil fields.

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Support with resources as well as cooperation from employees in the endeavor Presently the
policy of Neem plantation has been adopted in one rig. Needs to be implemented throughout
the company as one of the social obligatory program.

Key Outcome

People were very happy for being included in the initiative and got aligned to the purpose of
initiating efforts to mitigate the problems of global warming and climate change. They have
given their commitment to further the project of tree plantation, in their respective areas.

Students responded to the programme in a very interactive manner. They mentioned that the
raising temperature was also part of the change in the weather which may be a result of climate
change. Topics like green house effect and global warming were discussed in the programme
and students spoke out how human beings are responsible for climate change.

Employees were very much enthralled with their new experience. They expressed that this type
of programme must continue to have a better opportunity to reach the common people.

Conclusion

Sensitizing the people on problems of global warming and climate change along with the
positive effects of tree plantation and at the same time stopping deforestation to fight against it
at grass root level, is an unforgettable experience to us. The response from the villagers till date
was found to be very encouraging and we have observed that people are already aware of the
recent climatic changes that has been taking place in the region. People are so enthusiastic that,
to our surprise, they promised to take the initiative for tree plantation in their respective areas.
We now have a feeling that half the battle has already been won and our endeavor to win the
war against global warming and climate change will continue.

131
Climatic Parameters and Climate Change: Tale of Longkhum
Village, Mokokchung, Nagaland
C Furkumzuk

Abstract

Nagaland is situated almost at tri‐junction of the three major river basins of the region Viz.
Brahmaputra river basin on the west and north, Meghna river basin on the south west and
Chindwin river basin on the east. This has important climatic ramifications, but scarcity of
scientific data plagues its attention. The present study is an attempt to bring the insights of the
experiences of the local communities on Climate and its changes over time. Climatic parameters
of Mokokchung, viz. rainfall, temperature and humidity are presented for the last sixteen years.
Documentation on the anecdotal evidence of climate change with reference to the responses
from the local communities of Longkhum village Mokokchung, Nagaland is highlighted.
Geography and bio‐resources of Longkhum village is also presented with intention to draw a
perception of the environment that revolves this small corner of the mighty Himalayas.

1.0. Introduction

As a part of the Great Himalayan Mountain System, Nagaland is located in a geographically

strategic position. It is situated almost at tri‐junction of the three major river basins of the
region Viz. Brahmaputra river basin on the west and north, Meghna river basin on the south
west and Chindwin river basin on the east. This has important climatic ramifications, but scarcity
of scientific data plagues its attention.

The present case study is an attempt to analyze selected anecdotal data against available
scientific Climate data and link it to climate change. The anecdotal data is collected from
Longkhum village situated at Mokokchung district, while the meteorological data of the last 16
years has been got from the State Agricultural Research Station (SARS) at Yisemyong,
Mokokchung, Nagaland.

2.0. Objectives

1. To study an insight of the environmental status of Longkhum village in Mokokchung.

2. To document the experiences of the local community on climate change.

3.0. Methodology

The present study embodies the first hand information and findings of the study carried out in
the field. Survey of India topographical maps with scale 1:50,000 are being used as the basis of
all mapping and analysis thereof. Daily data on meteorology (maxi‐ mini temperature, rainfall
and humidity) are being collected from the Meteorological Observatory stationed at the State
Agricultural Research Station (SARS) Yisemyong, Mokokchung, Nagaland, and this data are
referred to as Mokokchung data in this study. Documentation on events and tales on Climate
Change were collected through interviews and close interactions with the Longkhum villagers.
Field trips were also conducted to collect first hand information on Agriculture, forest and water
resources status of Longkhum village (table: 2, 3 & 4). Arc GIS software (Department of

132
Geography and Resource Management, Nagaland University) is used for preparing the base map
of the study area.

4.0. Study Area

Clean Air, clean water sources and a hill top with advantage for defense from enemies were the
components of nature the Nagas as Mountain people considered for settlement and
establishing villages. Longkhum village is such a village which satisfies all the components of
nature. It is a village with mysteries and myths. There are no Rhododendron tree in ‘Metsuben
kong’ (Rhododendron garden); the number of ‘Ritu Long’ (living stones) are never the same
when counted; there are tales that when all Ao’s die, their spirits must pass through Longkhum;
there are holes in the cliffs where the death are said to enter; there are imprints of ancient
people set into the rocks; there are caves around the village that has its own tale. Thus, the
village is respected by the rest as a ‘village encircled within the protective embrace of God’.

Longkhum (Latitude: 26°16'34'' N & 26°23'20'' N and Longitude: 94°20'20'' E & 94°28'41''N)
situated at an altitude of 1601 m above msl is located 17 km to the south‐west of Mokokchung
Town‐ the District Headquarters. It has an area of 80 sq. km., situated in the extreme south of
Mokokchung district bordering Zunheboto District on the East and South, and Wokha District on
the West (Figure‐1).

5.0. Limitations of the study

With very limited resources and

manpower, data collection could
not be undertaken as desired. The
hunters, the jhum cultivators, the
forest dwellers themselves have a
lot of climate related stories. Many
might have passed away without
even realizing and acknowledging
their wisdom. The anecdotal data in
the present study are but few that
have been collected from those
who still remember, recollect and
analyze the different phases of
climate regime that they are
coming across.

However, with the little

information content in this study
on anecdotal evidences of climate
change, it is expected that it will
indeed draw light in widening the
scope of the study into a new
broadened horizon in the realm of Fig 1: Location Map of Study area.
climate change in the region. CCL
initiative is one such move that has

133
a powerful tool to dig data out of this region.

Fig 2: Graph representing variation of Rainfall, Temperature and Average Humidity within the
year 1992‐2008.

6.0. Key Outcomes

As per the available climate data of the study area, within a span of 16 years (1992‐
2008)†††††††††††, the rainfall follows an irregular pattern. The highest rainfall was recorded in the
year 1998 (4878.33 mm) and lowest in the year 2005 (1230.5 mm). The average temperature
somehow shows a normal trend averaging a minimum of 14.45°C and a maximum of 23.60°C.
Within the last one and half decade, the year 1999 has been recorded as the coldest year
(18.17°C) and year 1994 and 2003 as the hottest year (21.54°C and 21.01°C respectively). The
average humidity ranges between 74 and 86 percent.

Frost formations are not seen in Longkhum these days, it was a common sight till the late
1980’s. It even accumulated up to few millimeters in thickness that lasted for days. Today, even
Dew formation has reduced. Those temperatures and all that volume of dew and frost isn't
happening now the way it was. Thunder storms and Hail storms has reduced over the last one
decade. There were events of hail storm around Longkhum in the year 1938, its accumulation in
the low lying areas lasted for weeks without melting away.

Blooming season of various species of plants seems to be changing. Juglans regia Linn, locally
called as Aku, a large aromatic deciduous tree, usually blooms during the first week of March. Its
blooming indicates the best season for traditionally shaving hairs (not practiced now), especially
for ladies for healthy hair growth. Its blooming also shows the right season for sowing all
varieties of seeds. Today the population of this tree species has been reduced tremendously
within the community forest of Longkhum. Its flowering also predicts the seasons depending
upon the health of the buds and flower. It has limited flowering and are not healthy as it used to
be.

†††††††††††
State Agricultural Research Station (SARS) Yisemyong, Mokokchung, Government of Nagaland.

134
Rhododendron arboretum, a medium sized or small evergreen tree, flower red, usually deep
scarlet, found abundantly once upon a time, at the highest elevation of the village. It normally
blooms in the month of March/ April. In recent years it blooms as early as February.
Rhododendron trees are found to be declining in terms of flowering every year in Longkhum.
Mezang tong (Prunus punctata) normally ripens its fruit in the month of August/ September.
Fruiting was abundant till the late 90’s. During the recent years its fruiting has completely
ceased. Metiong Tong (Myrica esculenta Buch) a medicinal medium sized tree also used as
firewood and more importantly attracts many species of birds during its fruiting season. It is
reported from the villagers that its fruiting has ceased for the past 5‐ 6 years. Species like
Docynia indica (Koreshi), Juglans regia (Ako), Michelia champaca (Ari sung) were abundant in
the community forest of Longkhum few decades back. But this species are not abundant today.
Michelia champaca is rarely found today. Their disappearance may be due to the anthropogenic
activities, Logging and felling, but it may also be due to the change in climate over the years.
Fruiting of Ali Lashi, a species of the Rosaceae family belonging to the genus Prunus, indicates
harvest to be bountiful or not. Normally its fruiting season starts in the month of October, but it
takes place as early as July.

As per the villagers experiences “50 years back the sunshine and the seasons followed a regular
routine‐ they were just perfect for any life and crops”, Since 1984, this normal environment and
nature has been changed in terms of Rainfall and sunshine. Untimely rainfall and abnormal
sunshine has affected crop and health of the people. In the past the farmers use to enjoy
sunshine while they work on the field, these days exposure to sunlight causes general weakness
and cannot bear the heat and light. Sunshine used to vitalize crop but now it kills. Working in the
jhumlands on rain was enjoyed till recent past, but a little splash of rainfall causes sickness these
days.

Roaring flow of Tonglong river‐ the largest river within Longkhum village, which drains into
Doyang River, could be heard from the village settlements, throughout summer. The volume of
river water discharge has been reduced to a great extend and the roaring sound of its flow
cannot be heard from the village as it used to be. Six to Nine days of continuous rain were
common in the past. There were incidents of mushroom bloom in dao‐box (dao is a tool for
cutting trees, used to tie around the wrist of male farmers), which indicates the evidence of
continuous work in field on rain for days together. In the recent years duration of rainfall has
restricted to few minutes to few hours and rarely days together.

Recommendations

1. Meteorological stations are not sufficient. Geo‐ hydro‐meteorological stations are

completely absent. There is a need for establishment of Benchmark network of monitoring
stations in different river basins and for collection of long‐term data and to have accurate
database on climatic parameters. Moreover, the stations should be manned by trained
personals.
2. Traditional farming system, traditional ecological knowledge and indigenous technical
knowledge of the local communities, their experiences and anecdotal data need to be
documented urgently. Findings of the present study are just a tip of the ice berg.

135
3. Awareness on environment and climate change is still very low in this part of the region.
Therefore, awareness on the subject and its consequences should be carried forward at
utmost urgency. Meanwhile, research and documentation on anecdotal data with scientific
explanations should be carried out, which can have interesting conclusions on climate
change studies.
4. Education and awareness at the grass root level on environment and climate change
through various youth organizations will be most effective. Youth movements and
organizations are powerful tools for such interventions. This also includes the religious
platforms. In a state like Nagaland, where the Christian populations are dominant, and
where its teachings are closely linked with environmental conservation and protection, and
every individual to play the role of a conservationist, churches can play a vital role in climate
change interventions.
5. CCL program and similar initiatives should be continued. There is a dearth of institutional
set‐up in the field of Climate Change studies in the region. The decision making machineries
are not strong enough as far as such issues like that of climate change are concerned.
Therefore, CCL program like initiatives with its findings, results, information and
recommendations could be instrumental in the decision making processes.
6. In a state like Nagaland, where land belongs to the people itself and where local customary
laws govern the land, the government has little say on the land holding systems. Community
participation therefore, becomes most effective in the implementation and legislation of
various plans. Each village as a unit has a strong democratic setup under a Village Council
and governance. Participation through various community level organizations towards
capacity building and human resource development can go a long way towards intervention
on climate change.

Conclusion

Each and every household and each individual have atleast something to say about the changing
situation on climate. Without even releasing the fact that they are in the climate change
domain, they have been adopting adaptation measures to climate change in many ways.
Discovering more on this would be very challenging.

There is a need for prioritizing and tapping first hand data through such pilot studies that
involves venturing into the unknown and virgin territories of the environmental domain which
will act as a resource base and open new windows into more detailed studies and further
scientific research. The communities should be capacitated to undertake such documentations.
There is also need for participatory action research for knowledge and experience sharing across
sectors and both formal and non formal knowledge systems.

Lack of research and awareness has created a huge gap and this could be a missing link where
such studies can be a possible bridge. Dearth of resources, physical constraints and above all
lack of expertise in this field has limited the present study to revolve only within a limited area
of interest. However, it is expected that similar study elsewhere may emerge with interesting
comparative studies on climate change in the region and perhaps the Himalayan region can no
longer be referred ‘white spot’ in the very near future.

136
Table 1: Geographical Information, Longkhum Village
State Nagaland
District Mokokchung
Block Ongpangkong (South)
Tribe Ao
Location Latitude: 26°16'34'' N & 26°23'20'' N
Longitude: 94°20'20'' E & 94°28'41''N
Altitude amsl 1601 meters*
North Mangmetong, Ungma.
East Ungma, Settsu & Zunheboto
District ( Shizimi, Zaphumi,
Boundary Lumami).
West Wokha District (Old Are, New
Are, Sungro, Okotso, Pangti).
South Zunheboto District (Izheto,
Sastami).
Area 80 Sq.km. (8000 hac)
Population 4477
Average Temperature Minimum 10° C and Maximum of 28° C
* Source: Survey of India (1973‐ 74).

Table 2: Some Edible fruits of Longkhum Village

Name of species Local name Family
Baccaurea ramiflora Lour Tangshi Euphorbiaceae
Castanopsis Indica A.Dc Kozu Fagaceae
Choerospondias axillaries(Roxb) Burtt Ait, metsu sura Anacardiaceae
Diospyros kaki Thnub Kobi Ebenaceae
Docynia indica Dcne Koreshi Rosaceae
Elaeocarpus floribundus Bl Tsupenajang Elaeocarpaceae
Emblica officinalis Gaerth Fruct Lozu Euphorbiaceae
Holboellia latifolia Wall Fungo mongo Lardizabalaceae
Hovenia acerba Lindl Settsu Rhamnaceae
Juglans regia Linn Aku Juglandaceae
Lithocarpus fenestrata (Roxb)Rehder Sarang Fagaceae
Myrica esculenta Buch‐Ham ex D.Don Metiong Myricaceae
Prunus nepaulensis(Ser)Steud Mesu Rosaceae
Rhus semialata Murray Tangmo Anacardiaceae
Saurauja panduana Wall Mentitela Saurauiaceae
Spondias pinnata(Linn.f)Kurz Pako jang, Anacardiaceae
Terminalia chebula Gaertn Nangka jang Combretaceae

Table 3: Some Vegetables items of Longkhum Village

Name of species Local name Family
Centella asiatica (L.)Urban. Lumchokorok Apiaceae
Clerodendrum colebrookianum Walp Emrem Verbenaceae
Crataeva roxburghii R.B Sungoko Capparidaceae
Diplazium esculentum (Retz.)sw. Kasang Athyriaceae
Houttuynia cordata Thunb. Nokna Saururaceae
Zanthoxylum armatum Dc. Prodr. Mongmong Rutaceae
Plantago major (non L.) Hook. Sanglem Plantaginaceae

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Table 4: Some Medicinal plants found in the community forest of Longkhum village
Name of Species Family Local name Parts used Used against

Achyranthes aspera L Amaranthaceae Kumonatsu Root plant juice Toothache, bile

Ageratum conyzoides L Asteraceae Madicola leaves Cuts & sores
Arisaema petiolulatum Hk Araceae Moi Stem Snake bite
Artemisia nilagirica (Cl) Panp Asteraceae Entsukna Leaves Insect repellant
Stem, Branchlets Toothache, Gastric
Callicarpa arborea Roxb Verbenaceae Patchet & young shoots
Dysentery, diarrhea,
Centella asiatica (L)urban Apiaceae Lumchokorok Leaves liver, gastric.
Clerodendrum colebrookianum Walp Verbenaceae Emrem Leaves Stomach disorders
Leaves Headache & stomach
Costus speciosus (Koenig) Smith Zingiberaceae Asur kumpa disorders
Crataeva roxburghii R.Br Capparidaceae Sungoko Leaves High pressure
Croton caudatus Geisel Euphorbiaceae Leaf Malaria & cholera
Cucurligo capitulate (Lour) O.Ktze Hypoxidaceae Korr Rootstock Conjunctivitis
Fruit Appetizer, astringent,
Emblica officinalis Gaerth Fruct Euphorbiaceae Lozu blood purifier.
Garcinia pedunculata Roxb Cluciaceae Musong Fruit Dysentery and cough
Gmelina arborea Roxb Verbenaceae Zekong Bark Rheumatic pain &
fever
Terminalia chebula (Gaertn) Retz Combretaceae Nangka Fruit Coughs.
Houttuynia cordata Thunb Saururaceae Nokna Whole plant Stomach problem
Juglans regia Linn Juglandaceae Aku Bark Rashes
Litsea citrata Bl Lauraceae Anget Fruit Insect repellant
Myrica esculenta Buch‐Ham ex D.Don Myricaceae Metiong Fruit & bark Itching, skin eruptions
Zanthoxylum armatum Dc Prodr Rutaceae Mongmong Seeds & leaves Cold cough & fever
Solanum myriacanthum Dunal Solanaceae Pentsu likok Fruit Tooth decay, tooth
decay
Perilla frutescens (L)Britt Lamiaceae Napa Stem leaves & Diaphoretic and
seeds cephalic
Persea fructifera Kost Lauraceae Rin Bark Boils
Trema orientalis (Linn)BI Ulmaceae ,tusu Roots Diarrhea
Plantago major (nonL)Hook Plantaginaceae Sanglem Whole plant Sore eyes & sore
throat
Rhus semialata Murray Anacardiaceae Tangmo Fruit Food poisoning
Alnus nepalensis D.Don Betulaceae Ontsu Root Diarrhea.
Betula alnoides Buch‐Ham ex D Don Betulaceae Ontong Bark Body ache & fever.
Acacia pennata (Linn)Willd Mimosaceae Mokok Bark Scorpion and snake
bite.
Cissampelos pareire Linn Menispermaceae Fracture, burns,
Tsula moli Whole plant stomach troubles.
Eurya acuminata Dc Theaceae Meset Tender leaves Dysentery, diarrhea
Mussaenda macrophylla Wall Rubiaceae Lenpirnaro Leaves Cuts, mouth ulcer
Mussaenda roxburghii Hk Rubiaceae Hiccups, heart & lung
Lenpir naro Young twigs ailments
Rhododendron arboreum Sm Ericaceae Metsuben naro Root bark Stomach trouble
Schima wallichii (Dc) Korth Theaceae Mesang Bark Skin diseases in
animals
Smilax perfoliata Roxb Smilacaceae Urinary complain &
Concan Root dysentery

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Table 5: Salient findings on the changing Climatic Condition: Responses of the local
Community of Longkhum village.
Phenomena Anecdotes
attributable to
weather/ Climate
Juglans regia Blooming Juglans regia Linn, locally called as
season Aku, a large aromatic deciduous
tree, usually blooms during the first
week of March. Its blooming
indicates the best season for
traditionally shaving hairs (not
practiced now), especially for ladies
for healthy hair growth. Its
blooming also shows the right
season for sowing all varieties of
seeds.
Frost formation was a common
Frost formation sight till the late 1980’s. It even
accumulated up to few millimeters
in thickness that lasted for days.
Rainbow formations were frequent
Rainbow formation and multiple formations were
observed in the past in and around
the village. It added colours to
Moatsü Festival‐ the most important
festival of the Ao’s.
Roaring sound of Roaring flow of Tonglong river‐ the
Tonglong River largest river within Longkhum
village, which drains into Doyang
River, could be heard from the
village settlements, throughout
summer.
As per the experiences of the
Sunshine abnormal villagers “50 years back the
sunshine and the seasons followed
a regular routine‐ they were just
perfect for any life and crops”
Mepong Ki and February is the month for the first
Tzungmok Ki (power powerful wind to start blowing and
house of Wind and it is around January that the first
Thunder) indication of thunderstorm usually
happens during the month of
Analysis
Today the population of this tree
species has been reduced
tremendously within the community
forest of Longkhum. Here the
anthropogenic factor cannot be ruled
out but its normal flowering season
cannot be ascertained by the villagers
today. Its flowering also predicts the
seasons depending upon the health of
the buds and flower.
Today, even Dew formation has
reduced.
Those temperatures and all that
volume of dew and frost isn't
happening now the way it was.
Rainbow formations are rarely seen
today within the village.
Drizzling along with sunshine is a rare
phenomenon during the recent years.
The volume of river water discharge
has been reduced to a great extend and
the roaring sound of its flow cannot be
heard from the village these days.
Since 1984, this normal environment
and nature has been changed in terms
of Rainfall and sunshine. Untimely
rainfall and abnormal sunshine has
affected crop and health of the people.
In the past The farmers used to enjoy
sunshine while they work on the field,
but now exposure to sunlight causes
general weakness and cannot bear the
heat and light. Sunshine used to vitalize
crop but now it kills. Working on rain in
the field was much enjoyed in the past,
but a little splash of rainfall causes
sickness today.
Today it is difficult to predict such
phenomenon. The first thunderstorm
arrives sometimes very early and
sometimes delayed. An untimely wind
and thunderstorms leads to various
139
 January.
Crabs and Frogs The first few days in the month of
May are the days the crabs come
out of their holes after lying
dormant for long winter.
Of the species found In Longkhum,
Frog breeding season in lakes begins
early by the month of May. River
frogs breeds in the month of
January however it is not so in the
recent years. One reason for sure is
that, they know that till March and
April there will not be sufficient
rain.
During October, November and
December month’s clouds remains
covered along the foothills of
Longkhum. Evaporation during
morning around the foot hills covers
subsequently the top of Longkhum
Clouds village, and this was considered as
an indication for rainfall, as
anticipated by the neighboring
villages. Longkhum villagers has
had difficult times making hay and
drying of grains in the sunshine as
there were frequent cloud cover
during this months.
The villagers used to anticipate rain
Hail and Rain with Hail at least 3‐4 times a year.
The forest of Longkhum village
controlled the pattern of rainfall as
the villager’s claims. With much
exploitation and reduction over the
Forest & Rain face of the forest there is scanty
rainfall in the area. The wind
direction and moisture content of
the atmosphere no longer stay still
over Longkhum skies rather it is
now directed towards Hellipong
forest of Tuensang district.
Tzuchong forest near Longsa village
not far from Longkhum received
maximum rainfall within the area,
but it has reduced tremendously
now.
sicknesses and crop failure.
Now at the earliest the crabs come out
of their holes only during the third
week of May, making quite sure to
have sufficient running water.
Tadpoles that use to be found during
the month of February in the rivulets
and mud nest are found but very late.
A particular species of frog locally
known as Tsungtsung Lo (species not
identified) starts breeding by 3rd of May
every year. In the recent years this
takes place only in the month of June.
This needs detail scientific study.
These days they can make sunshine use
maximum for hay and rice.
Its about six years now since they don’t
see much cloud cover in the low lying
areas.
There is also a Dam constructed at
Doyang River, 30 Kms. away from the
village.
The pattern of hail storm has
completely changed and is now
unpredictable.
Very less rainfall, Unpredictable, not
farmer friendly.
Six to Nine days of continuous rain
were common in the past. There were
even incidents of mushroom bloom in
dao‐box of male farmers, which is a
clear evidence of continuous work on
field in rain for days together. But In
the recent years duration of rainfall has
restricted to few minutes of rainfall to
few hours and rarely days together.
The region did received heavy rainfall
even during January.
The villagers assume that it is about
forty years now since rainfall has
140

Docynia indica; Juglans Species like Docynia indica
regia; Michelia (Koreshi), Juglans regia (Ako),
champaca Michelia champaca (Ari sung) were
abundant in the community forest
of Longkhum few decades back. But
this species are not abundant today.
Michelia champaca is rarely found
today.
Rhododendron A medium sized or small evergreen
arboreum tree, flower red, usually deep
scarlet, Found abundantly once
upon a time, at the highest
elevation of the village.
Rice March/ April months were the best
season for sowing for best harvest.
Vegetable Crop like Earlier it used to drive well in the
chilly, Tomato, etc. sowing season of May and June. But
now it is now being infected if
cultivated during these months.
Mezang tong (Prunus Normally its fruit ripens in the
punctata) month of August/ September.
Fruiting was abundant till the late
90’s.
Metiong Tong (Myrica A medicinal medium sized tree also
esculenta Buch) used as firewood and more
importantly attracts many species of
birds during its fruiting season.
Hoya linearis Wall of
Asclepediaceae family‐ a unique
and interesting plant.
reduced.
Their disappearance may be due to the
anthropogenic activities, Logging and
felling, but it may also be due to the
change in climate over the years.
Docynia indica is found only in cold
areas.
It is found to be declining in terms of
flowering every year in Longkhum.
Normally blooms in the month of
march/ April. In recent years it blooms
as early as February.
The villagers are of the opinion that
sowing as early as February gives more
harvest.
The farmers have the opinion that
those who sow seeds a month earlier
gives more harvest without infections.
i.e. around March/ April or even as
early as February.
During the recent years its fruiting has
completely ceased.
No fruiting for about five years.
Formatted: Font: Calibri
141
 Community Forest of Longkhum‐
the wealth of the villagers. Formatted: Font: Calibri

Box‐1. The forest of Longkhum

Longkhum forest shows a mixed vegetation of temperate, tropical and sub tropical elements. Although not abundant,
temperate elements like Rhododendron arboream(Metsuben naro), Betula alnoides(Ontong), Prunus nepalensis(Mesu),
Alnus nepalensis(Alder) and Engelhartdia spicata (Meerh sung) are found in this zone. Some of the common trees found
in this forest are Castanopsis indica (Sungsa), C. tribuloides (Sungsa), Juglans regia (Ako), Engelhartdia spicata, Acer
lavigatum (Umbongna), Lithocarpus dealbata (Sungsa), L. elegans(Sungsa), Magaranga indica(Kabo), Schima wallichii
(Mesang),Some quotes
Spondias from the community:
axillaries(Asen jang/metsu sura), etc. The smaller trees comprises elements like Litsea
“Blooming season of various species of plants seems to be changing”
citrate(Anget), Macropanax dispermus (Amen dong), Neolitsea cassia, Photinia cuspidata, Leucosceptrum canum
“Where are the roaring sounds of the river flow gone?”
(Mejem“Changes
dong), Saurauja pandauna(Mentitila),
in rainfall arrival patternSchefflera hypoleuca
and direction (Sungdongpang),
in recent years” Ostodes paniculata(Aonukjang),
Brassiopsis glomerulata, Callicarpa arborea, etc. The common shrubby species found in this zone are Sarcococca
saligna (Kinempongla), Sarcandra glabra (Ongchi naro), Neillia thyrsiflora, Ixora subsessilis, senecio densiflorus,
Lasianthus hookeri etc. The herbaceous vegetation consists of Desmodium sps, Impatiens, Strobilanthes, Arisaema(Moi)
and various species of Zingiberaceae and Commelinaceae. Sellaginellas and Lycopodium are commonly found in the
forest floor. Climbers like Smilax(Concan), Dioscoreae and Species belonging to Menispermaceae and Cucurbitaceae are
common. Epiphytic plants like the orchids, Agapetes, Hoya, Aeschynanthes, Rhapidophora and Pothos are also
common. Fern species like Diplazium esculentum, Pteris biaurita, Lepisorus excavats., are also commonly found.

142
Action plans for cleaning and greening of
Municipalities in Nagaland
Imrongkumla

1.1.0 Abstract/ Summary

Town planning and municipalities are inevitably and fundamentally linked to climate change
and its’ adaptation and mitigation. It has been made abundantly clear in the last few decades
through various studies and observations that abnormal climate changes such as seasonal
fluctuations, irregular rainfall, rise in sea level, drought, and increase in temperature have had
significant effect on the lives of towns, villages and cities, in as much as the living conditions
and habits of these communities impact the climate. We live in a crucial moment when it is of
utmost necessity and urgency to confront our practices, and to have action plans for the
cleaning and the greening of our communities. Each plan must adapt to the specific needs and
concerns of these climatic changes that affect us in different ways.

For instance, in recent years with changes in climatic conditions in Nagaland,

• there are more mudslides in many districts causing destruction and casualties,
• an invasion of new diseases,
• an increase in communicable diseases,
• moreover farmers have had to deal with the outbreak of grasshoppers, rodents and
droughts.

The success of a municipality’s implementation of an action plan hugely depends on community

awareness, response and civic sense. The concept of adaptability still needs to develop in a way
that municipalities can cope with the varying ominous effects of climate change.

2. 1. 0 Overview/ Introduction

Municipalities in Nagaland were formed in 20051 in major districts vested, with the essential
functions enacted by the Constitution of India.

The action plans for cleaning and greening of municipalities varies from one district to another
depending on the location, community receptiveness and the enterprise of the councils. In
Nagaland, civil societies, churches and youth organizations play an important role on the various
action plan implementations. Awareness creation among citizens is the key for a cleaner and
greener future.

Nagaland with its population of 1, 988, 63612, has seen a shift of the rural population into urban
areas in huge numbers for various reasons. This movement has led to

• change of land use,

• increase in need of automobiles,
• increase in need for commodities,

143
 • water management issues and
• inadequacy of proper sanitation.

Kohima town is a hilly district with pleasant to moderate climate, located 1444 m2 above sea
level, with an average annual rainfall of 2000 mm 2. However, the supply of water has been
severely affected by the changing climate, and it has been necessary for the community along
with its civil societies to come forward and play a vital role in its drying, diminishing supply of
water. The Kohima Municipal Council is the guardian of 19 wards with appointed ward councils.

Dimapur is one of the largest districts located in the plains bordering Assam with an elevation of
260m above sea level2 and average rainfall of 1504.7 mm2. The Climate is hot and humid in the
plains, and during summer the temperature is at maximum 40ºC, while the winter months are
cool and pleasant. Dimapur being the hub town of Nagaland, the urban population has
increased rampantly with the flow of population from other districts, states of India, Tibet and
Bangladesh. According to 2001‐ Government of Nagaland census, the urban population was 123,
892

Mokokchung is a hilly town with an altitude of 1,325 m3 covering a geographical area of 1615
sq.km3. In sharp contrast to other districts of Nagaland, it has been observed in the last decade
that the urban population has shifted to the suburban areas, therefore, bringing down the
population of the town, which consist of 15 wards4. For decades Mokokchung has been facing
irregular supply of electricity, like the rest of the state. Leaving aside the shortcomings of the
energy infrastructures and its failed planning the community and the municipality came up with
a strategy to tackle proper usage of energy and saving energy became the action of the town.

3. 1. 0 Objectives

This case study aims at specific and practical objectives for the municipalities and communities:

• Improved habitat in a climate changing regime

• Building resilience and adaptation to the climate change by changing lifestyles and
increase participatory management of water, energy and habitat.
• Approaching climatic challenges with an adaptable plan unique to its particular
condition and problems.

4. 1. 0 Methodologies

The key study of the case covered the following:

• One to one interview with town councils, ward councils, household of the
wards, churches, civil societies and concerned departments
• Documentation of municipalities’ action in local print media like Nagaland Post,
The Morung Express and Eastern Mirror
• Interaction with consultants
• Initiating forums in social networking sites‐ Facebook and Kuknalim.com

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4. 2. 0 Case study Areas

4. 2. 1 Kohima

The main impacts of climate change have led to water scarcity in Kohima. The total number of
households in Kohima is approximately 160445. From the month of October to April, 1 out of 4
households purchase water from villages near Kohima like, Jotsoma, Merema and Dzudza, at an
average cost of Rs. 700/ 2000 per ltr. The amount of water usage depends on the size of the
family and household/ outdoor chores. If a family purchases 1 load per month, in seven months
the expenditure is 4, 900/‐. Whereas the family which collects rain water and stores in reservoir
during the rainy season i.e. May/ June‐ October/ November could collect at the minimum of
2000 ltrs/ day depending on the capacity of water storage.
The practice of rainwater harvest is not widespread, practiced only by few households on a large
scale, while others practice it on a smaller scale; most of the wards though, are yet to start this
practice. Reasons are many, and to mention a few

• less availability of space,

• the installation expenditure beyond family budget,
• lack of public awareness that rainwater harvest can play a vital part in solving the
water crisis.

Rainfall and Temperature at Kohima Centre‐ 2006 6

Sl. No Month Rainfall in m.m No. of days Temperature in centigrade

Max. Temp Min. Temp.

1 2 3 4 5 6
1 January Nil Nil 19.5 5.5
2 February 39.2 2 24.5 7.5
3 March 8.6 5 26.5 10.0
4 April 80.7 15 28.2 10.0
5 May 170.0 18 28.5 20.0
6 June 278.7 25 28.0 16.6
7 July 206.4 21 30.0 17.5
8 August 139.5 18 31.1 17.0
9 September 283.5 20 27.5 16.5
10 October 83.7 11 25.6 12.0
11 November 26.2 8 23.8 5.0
12 December 1.0 1 20.0 5.5

At present the water supply management is not an independent function under Kohima
Municipal Council (KMC). Though the Public Health Engineering department, of the government
of Nagaland, will be tying up with KMC to communitize the water supply and rain harvest
programmes in Kohima town, a programme aimed to enhance the payment of water tax and
increase the revenue of the state, is also underway.

In 2008, a tree plantation drive was implemented in all the wards,,in association with the Forest
Department. (Govt. of Nagaland). The stakeholders and the community have come together on
a long term association to tackle the menace of fast diminishing forest and lack of programmes

145
that effectively encourage urban forestry. Forests play the most significant role in feeding the
rivers and keeping them flowing all the year round. Forests have a direct effect on the amount
of rainfall received, and also prevents run off of excess rain, prevents flooding of the roads and
residential areas.

Programmed tree plantation is done in the proposed disposal site at Lerie Colony, Kohima. The
trees could serve as a tool to absorb the stench cause by the wastes. Trees are also helpful in
moderating daily temperatures. 2009 has been observed the hottest year for the people of
Kohima with the temperature soaring to 35ْ C.

In one of the surveys, a mass social work was organized for maintenance of sanitation in
Kohima, in the month of June 2009. The location of the social work stretched from Mohonkhola
to High School junction. Various churches were assigned specific locations. The social work was
jointly organized by the Kohima Municipal Council, Kohima Chamber of Commerce & Industry,
Kohima Baptist Youth Fellowship and Kohima Town Baptist Union.

4. 2. 2 Future Action Plan of KMC

Waste management and segregation‐ KMC aims to collect minimum 53 MT 7 of waste per day
from the wards and convert the waste into 5% renewable energy. The KMC which presently
collects 30% of the garbage, could increase its collection capacity provided enough provision for
garbage disposal is available, as the community faces a shortage of disposal sites (3‐4/ ward). An
area has been demarcated for disposal of town waste, where tree plantation is being done. At
present the council deploys 6‐ 7 pick up trucks per day which collects garbage from wards’
disposal sites around the town. The segregation of garbage is nil as there is no existing system or
facility to segregate home/ hospital/ commercial wastes.

North East Region Urban Development project funded by Asian Development

Bank

The Government of India is proposing to implement an investment program to improve urban

conditions in the North Eastern Region’s capital cities, namely, Agartala, Aizawl, Gangtok,
Kohima and Shillong. The expected impact of the investment program is improved environment
and well‐being of urban residents in the five capital cities. The expected outcomes of the
investment program will be, an increased access to better urban services for the 1.5 million
people expected to be living in these cities by the 2014.To this end, the project will (i) improve
urban infrastructure and services, (ii) strengthen urban institutions for better service delivery,
build project management and implementation capacity.

The project will specifically support rehabilitation and expansion of the water distributions
system ‐ namely storage, transmission and secondary distribution systems – and comprehensive
non‐revenue water (NRW) program, which will include installation or replacement of bulk water
meters as well as a leak detection program for rehabilitation and strengthening of the existing
distribution network. In addition, the program will also support the government in (i) improving
sanitation facilities, including sewerage and sewage treatment in most congested areas.

146
The project will comprise two parts: Part A will cover urban infrastructure and service
Improvement‐ including the rehabilitation, improvement and expansion of (i) water supply, (ii)
sewerage and sanitation, and (iii) solid waste management. Part B will cover investment
Program management and implementation support and a comprehensive capacity building
assistance to support the accomplishment of the urban institutional and financial reform
agenda, and enhance planning, operation and maintenance (O&M), revenue mobilization, and
financial management capabilities of service providers.

Energy

The council is aiming for two components i.e. conservation of energy and renewable energy.
KMC is trying to tie up with Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (Govt of India2) for
implementation of solar energy to form solar city cell. Commercial buildings will be the main
target for the implementation of this programme.

4. 2. 3 Dimapur

Dimapur being the commercial hub of Nagaland, the municipality faces the challenging task to
formulate procedures and carry them out for keeping the town green and clean everyday. The
town at present has approximately 150 rag pickers 9who collect garbage everyday and they
cover mostly the commercial area. With 23 wards to take care of, the sanitation branch of
Dimapur Municipal Council faces a number of hurdles to tackle the poor sanitation system of
the town.

Observation shows that improper drainage systems are causing havoc in the community during
the rainy season. The ward council is working on a new regulation to curb land encroachment by
building sanitary tank, blockage of the drainage system due to the improper disposing of poly
bags, mineral water bottle etc., crippling the drainage system. The need of the hour is to carry
forward the awareness drive for proper sanitation and disposal of garbage in the designated
sites of the ward.

DMC collects Rs. 10/‐ from each household every month for garbage related services. The
response though is poor from the community for reasons like the DMC service not reaching
their locality/ vicinity. In few wards the residents are themselves mobilizing to collect garbage in
turns. Self Help Groups (SHG) too have come up to assist in their efforts. The SHGs levy a
nominal charge of Rs. 50/‐ per month per household and dispose the garbage collected at the
designated sites. There is a lack of pick‐up trucks as at present only 12 tractors 10 are deployed
which makes 2‐ 3 trips to a wards everyday but manage to cover only half the number of wards.
This compels the residents, shop keepers, hoteliers and various establishments to make their
own arrangements for garbage disposal.

One of the hotels in the town has initiated with an action called “De Oriental Dream Society on
Environment” 11. Through this initiative the administration lead by the manager to the plumber
cleans the premises and the city road that passes the hotel every week once. They deploy a
hired tractor to dumb the garbage at the council’s designated disposal site. In an initiative to
decrease air pollution the hotel has purchased around 20 bicycles to complete the daily errands
wherever it is accessible. The management in an initiative to make customer and workers aware

147
about climate change, have subscribed to magazines like Down to Earth and Terra Green since
2007. The issues are kept at the lounge.

The DMC Pollution and Control Wing has linked up with forest department and Nagaland
Pollution Control Board (NPCB), to actively initiate urban forestry schemes. Through this
programme, the council aims to encourage the residents for greening their surroundings by
distributing 10, 000 tree saplings per ward, ensuring that the trees so distributed are suitable
for the respective areas. The council aims to have at the minimum of 11500 trees per year, in
case only half of the issued saplings survive. The council also plans to give an award to the best
performing ward every year. It also plans to provide incentive facilities to each ward to start and
maintain nurseries for the tree saplings.

4. 2. 4 Mokokchung

Mokokchung has 15654 numbers of households and 1021 commercial consuming electricity
according to 2001‐ GON‐ Economics and Statistics census. The Mokokchung District
Administration‐ Mokokchung Municipal Council and the power department jointly came up with
an endeavour to replace conventional bulbs with CFL (compact fluorescent lamp) lighting (one
each shop), since November 2008.This move led to the formation of Urban Electricity
Management Board in all the 15 wards who were responsible for collecting the monthly
electricity bill from households, shops and other commercial establishments, to check whether
the order was adhered to, especially by the shops. This move improved the revenue collected by
the electricity department within months of implementation. The joint venture also took steps
to recognise the best ward in the community by awarding the best ward based on the whole
year’s performance and receptiveness. The winning ward is rewarded with two CFL bulbs for
each household. In 2008 UEMB best ward was awarded to Alempang ward with approximately
500 households.

5. 1. 0 Outcomes

• Discussion with councils, administrators and community representatives led to the

analysis of potential impacts of climate change, and the need for specific adaptation
measures which would require research institutes to undertake studies and form
working group and community network.
• Information and knowledge services should be provided on the climate change issues at
both the practical and strategic levels as there is a lack of concrete examples on the
impact of climate change on water, habitat and sanitation. This contribution will help in
political decisions for supplementing existing water, sanitation and energy
infrastructures.
• Cross sectoral linkages identified, but the concept of adaptability still needs to develop
• Sharing of successful stories and action plans from one municipal to another
• Incorporation of rainwater harvest and sanitation is the key for adaptation and in the
process reducing vulnerability

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5. 1. 0 Recommendations

• The knowledge of water resources management, energy conservation, sanitation and

safe and proper disposal of waste should be promoted at all the levels through
education, regulation, incentives and disincentives.

• Participatory approach should be made mandatory for water resources management/

sanitation/ waste management by involving not only the various governmental
agencies but also the users and other stakeholders, at various stages of planning, in an
effective and decisive manner.

• Local bodies such as municipalities and gram panchayats should particularly be involved
in the operation, maintenance and management of water infrastructures / facilities at
appropriate levels progressively, with a view to eventually transfer the management of
such facilities to the user groups / local bodies.

• Private sector, research institutes should collaborate with local bodies‐ a network to
establish dedicated climate change related academic units in universities and
institutions. The research and findings from the identified centres could be
incorporated with traditional community knowledge and adaptat accordingly‐,
disseminate the new knowledge to all level of the society. (National Mission on
Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change)CCL could work as a platform for knowledge
sharing on climate and bringing forth youngsters for a greater role as a climate change
leader/ LEADer.

5. 1. 0 Conclusion

The challenges that the municipal and the community face are corelated and do not vary much
from one town to another. In all the towns the biggest challenge is implementation of reforms
and creating civic sense. Proper land use, the identification of disposal sites, public amenities
and urban forestry is facing a big challenge primarily with respect to negotiations with land
owners. Planning is critical for any actions related to cleaning and greening of a place. The need
for incorporation of today’s action plan in the old scheme of things will require huge funds and
mass participation.

Looking at all the challenges that the municipalities face the councils and community need to
first take up the task for the cleaning and greening of homes, schools, neighborhoods, wards
and towns. Massive awareness campaigns by existing eco‐clubs of schools and colleges and
Climate Change LEADers through radio, print media and local television channels can be a way
to go forward.

149
 Activity initiated by CCL‐ Nagaland

CCL‐ Nagaland started working to make every district of Nagaland to observe Earth Hour‐ 2009 from the
beginning of the year. This task made us closer to our challenges that lie ahead to reach out people and
know their perceptions towards climate change. Earth Hour event as an entry point, team prepared power
point presentations on climate change and its effects felt in Nagaland in the recent years and made
presentation to His Excellency Governor of Nagaland and Hr. Chief Minister of Nagaland.

This was followed by visitation to Schools, Colleges, Churches Offices and shops with posters and write
ups. In the process CCL could visit 40 schools and colleges in Kohima alone. In schools often we were given
5 minutes to speak during morning assemblies. Climate Change and the importance of saving energy in
our daily lives were the key issues shared with the community, students and stake holders. The Formatted: Font: Calibri
Government of Nagaland declared whole state to observe Earth Hour religiously in the assembly.
Therefore Nagaland joined rest of the world in observing Earth Hour‐ 2009 on 28th March, by switching off
power from 8:30 PM to 9:30 PM. An approximate total of 41.03 mega‐watts net power was saved. During
the peak‐load hour time, the state marked a net consumption of just 14.02 MW against the restricted load
of 55.05 MW average use during Earth Hour. According to calculations by the Power Dept. (GON) the total
net saving implied a total saving of 41030 (units) KWh that amounts to a total saving of Rs.1.03 lakhs
(average cost Rs.2.50p per unit calculation). Earth Hour was made more eventful in Dimapur and Kohima
as DMC and KMC organized an hour acoustic concert.

Endnotes

1. Nagaland Municipal record and newspaper archives

2. Government of Nagaland, Handbook of Economics and Statistics
3. GON (Government of Nagaland) record and google site
4. Ward residents and Council record
5. LEAD associates (Leadership in Engineering and Planning Solution) survey‐ 2009
6. Directorate of Economics & Statistics, GON‐2007
7. KMC‐ Kohima Municipal Council
8. Nagaland.nic.in/tender/as‐dev‐bank/TOR and www.adb.org/Documents/ADBBO
9. DMC‐ Dimapur municipal Council Sanitation Branch survey
10. DMC source
11. De Oriental Dream Management record and interview

150
People adapting to inundation of islands‐A case study in West
Bengal
Indrila Guha

Abstract

The latest IPCC report released in February 2007 notes that sea levels are rising faster than
previous forecasts. Sea levels, which rose on average 1.8mm a year between 1961 and 2003,
doubled between 1993 and 2003 ‐ rising by 3.1mm per year. A one metre rise would inundate
coastal areas throughout the world: In India, 600,000 hectares would be submerged, driving 7
million people from their homes. (Link:IPCC Special Report on The Regional Impacts of Climate
Change)

The Sundarbans, a World Heritage Site, is located along the Bay of Bengal on the largest active
delta of the world covers approximately 10,000 sq. km. of forest and water and constitutes the
largest contiguous area of mangrove forest in the world. Small islands have characteristics such
as limited size, proneness to natural hazards, and external shocks which make them especially
vulnerable to the effects of climate change, sea‐level rise, and extreme events thus threatening
vital infrastructure, settlements and facilities that support the socio‐economic well‐being and
livelihood of island communities. One of the islands in the Indian Sundarbans, Lohachara, used
to exist where the River Ganges empty into the Bay of Bengal. The island was permanently
inundated and its definite disappearance was reported by Indian researchers in December 2006.
Two‐thirds of the neighbouring Ghoramara Island has also been inundated with rising waters.
Evacuees from both the islets have been rehabilitated as refugees on Sagar Island.

This study looks at past/current examples of risks of inundation of islands as result of natural
hazards, and external shocks mentioned earlier, and responses of the inhabitants to adapt to
such situation and alternative livelihood adopted. The chosen methodology‐ focus group
discussion, household survey by questionnaires will help in understanding the effectiveness of
policy measures adopted along with the institutional barriers for implementation, if any. This
paper would also recommend any necessary amendment to the rehabilitation strategy to be
adopted by the authorities.

Key Words: Sundarbans; World Heritage Site; small islands; sea‐level rise; inundation;
alternative livelihood; rehabilitation, adaptation.

Background

Climate Change induced sea level rise predictions of IPCC 2007 are getting revised with refined
research methodologies worldwide everyday. Sea levels, which rose on the average 1.8
mm/year between 1961 and 2003, doubled between 1993 and 2003 – rising by 3.1 mm/ year. A
one meter rise would inundate many coastal areas throughout the world: The US National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) reported in August 2000 that the World’s
oceans were warming much faster than anticipated, contributing to sea level rise and global
climate change. Over the past several decades the world ocean has warmed by ,
representing a huge increase in the heat content of the ocean. Ocean warming, including coral

151
bleaching and rising seas are already impacting on coastal population and ecosystems. In India,
climate change could represent additional pressure on ecological and socio‐economic systems
that are already under stress.With its huge and growing population, a 7500‐km long densely
populated and low‐lying coastline, and an economy that is closely tied to its natural resource
base, India is considerably vulnerable to the impact of sea level rise.

Sundarbans is the largest delta in the world consists of 10,200 km 2 of Mangrove Forest, spread
over India (about 4200 km 2 of Reserve Forest) and Bangladesh (6000 km 2 approx of Reserve
Forest) and is also the largest Mangrove Forest in the world. Currently it is highly affected by
coastal flooding and erosion, ‐ over one decade, mangrove area in Sundarbans has declined
from 420 hectares (1987) to 212 hectares (1997). Indian Sundarbans had 102 islands but now
100 islands. Out of 100 islands, 48 are entirely forested and 52 are variably inhabited (WWF
India, 2009). Two islands namely Lohachhara and Suparibhanga have already submerged and
people migrated to other islands. Other adjoining islands (like Ghoramara & Sagar Island) have
also lost land. The Indian Sundarbans is located between 21030’ – 22015’ north and between
88010’ ‐ 89010’ east, within north and south 24 parganas districts of the state of West Bengal.
Total area of Sundarbans region in India is 9630 km 2 (both forest and non‐forest area) which
forms the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve which was constituted as National Biosphere Reserve
by UNESCO during November 2001. The Indian Sundarbans lying south of Dampire – Hodges
Line, comprises thirteen blocks in 24 parganas south district and 6 blocks in 24 parganas north
district and has a total population of 4.1 million as per 2001 census (UNDP, 2003). People from
inundated Islands come and rehabilitated in Sagar Block creating population pressure on land, ‐
population density is 366 per square km in 2001 (census report‐ 2001). Under such
circumstances our study is an attempt to assess island inundation induced problems and past
adaptation strategies.

Rationale of the Study

This region is home to many endangered wildlife species and a large human population. It is an
endangered ecological system that is highly populated as well as fragile and economically
valuable. Sundarbans has been losing its natural capital ‐land area, mangroves, and human and
wildlife species due to coastal flooding. Sagar Island is also a place in India where pilgrims come
every year and local people earn their livelihood from this source directly or indirectly. For
Sundarbans there cannot any unique adaptation strategy. We need different strategies for
different islands given the biophysical characteristics. Coastal flooding in this region leads to the
following:

(i) High pressure on land due to migration

(ii) Loss of livelihood
(iii) Loss of Islands
(iv) Loss of agricultural production and leading to food crisis
(v) Loss of assets leading to poverty

Past Studies

The trend of geomorphic changes and related changes in land use pattern of the estuarine
island in response to the natural and anthropogenic activities has been documented in many
studies. Sea level rise, neotectonic effects and human interference have a strong impact on the

152
land use and geographic changes within Sagar Island at the confluence of River Hoogly with the
Bay of Bengal (Hazra. Ghosh, Bhandari, 2001). This paper shows that geographical area in Sagar
Island has shown a sharp decline over past 35 years: 236 sq. km in 2001 as against 273.53 sq. km
in
1968. The annual rate of erosional changes in shoreline has been estimated to be 4.54 m per
annum in pre 1995 scenario, which increased to 18.75 m per annum in 1999. The temporal
analyses of the variations help to formulate the strategic planning for the sustenance of the
island. Satellite data shows that tidal height does not follow certain fixed trend, it started
increasing for four years starting from 1996, rose up to 1999 but shows a sharp fall in 2000
again: 2.35 meter in 1996, 5.10 meter in 1998, 5.27 meter in 1999 and 2.15 meter in 2000. It
recognized coastal erosion has been one of the major problems of this island using multi‐
temporal satellite data incorporating tidal information. This paper aimed at formulating an
integrated coastal zone management plan for Sagar Island, Bay of Bengal, East coast of India
using satellite data and GIS. Preventive measure has been suggested taking into account the
local geomorphology, current, wave and tidal conditions. The notification of the ministry of
Environment of Forest; Govt. of India has been consulted for delineating the coastal regulation
zone around the Island (Mitra, Mishra, Phuong, Sudarshana 2002).Another paper found that
erosion in this island is taking place due to natural process and to a little extent by
anthropogenic activities over a long period. The northeastern, southwestern and southeastern
faces of the Island are severely affected by erosion. Deposition is experienced mainly on the
western and southern part of the Island. The Island is built primarily by silt and clay, which can
more easily be eroded by the waves, tides and cyclonic activities than a sandy coast. Historic sea
level rises accompanied by land subsidence lead to differing rates of erosion at several pockets,
thus periodically establishing erosion planes (Gopinath, Seralathan 2005).Howeve, the available
literature does not offer an empirical study of adaptation in case of inundation of Islands in
sagar block of Indian Sundarbans.

Objectives and Methodology

Sundarbans due to its international status of unique ecosystem and vulnerability is sometimes
appears to be highly visited, researched site but systematic holistic study has not been carried
out so far (Roy 2007). Limited evidence is not being able to show with high level of confidence in
study area the level of vulnerability. Biophysical aspects are fairly well documented. But an
integrated study has not been carried out to determine what can be alternative development
pathway for this unique ecosystem, what adaptation strategy over short through long run can
yield welfare enhancing results. No assessment of adaptation cost is available. The present study
aims to fill up this gap with an integrated framework for evolving better policy interactions for
enhanced management of the case study site. The specific objectives are as follows:

(i) To assess vulnerability through physical damage analysis of coastal erosion and coastal
flooding. This has been done using topo sheets and satellite imagery.
(ii) To make an economic assessment of this environmental damage based on first hand
exploratory survey.
(iii) To have an overview of prevailing adaptation strategies already taken based on
questionnaire based survey.
(iv) Assessment of externality cost of such adaptation strategy. Simple response based
quantification will be used here using LIFE approach (Gosh and Roy 2006).

153
Physical Vulnerability Assessment

To assess vulnerability through physical damage analysis of coastal erosion and coastal flooding
we use data from literature, topo sheets and satellite imagery.

Damage to Natural capital

Lohachara Island was submerged in 1982, Ghoramara Island is already losing 2/3 portion land
area and recent past (16‐ July 2008), Sagar island is also losing a large part of land area (Shibpur‐
Boatkhali zone) and people are migrating to other places. The map below shows the state of
Sagar island by GIS where some important observations can be made. . Sagar Island is an
inhabited island and its major part is agricultural land. Mainly South‐Eastern part and some part
of south and south‐western are mangrove forest. A large area part of Eastern side and small part
of Western side is deforested. Northern part and North‐ Eastern part of this island is highly
affected by coastal flooding and erosion. Western part, Southern part and South‐Eastern part
are high tide area. All southern part and some part of south‐eastern and south‐western part are
sand beach. Some places of western part are open/ vacant.

154
Economic Assessment of the Damage: Exploratory Survey

Inundation by coastal flooding in two islands ‐ Lohachara and Ghoramara in Sagar Block and
affected communities have been traced, Impacts / responses can be studied through livelihood,
institutions, food security, and empowerment (LIFE) approach (Ghosh and Roy 2006) so as to
assess welfare impact. There is information on families who have been rehabilitated and some
who have not been so.It will be interesting to understand pro‐active and reactive adaptation
strategy, cost and associated socio economic implications.

Study Site

Sagar Block has three islands namely Sagar, Ghoramara and Lohachara but now it has two
islands because Lohachara Island has finally submerged in 1982. Presently Ghoramara Island has
lost two‐third (2/3) portion of land area. Sagar Island is extending 21031’ North Latitude and
88003’ east Longitude. This block has total land area of 504 km 2 in 2001 (Govt. of West Bengal,
2001). Sagar Island is losing land area by coastal erosion, tidal waves and cyclone. Recent past,
on 16th July 2008 Sagar Island was affected by a cyclone and about 1300 families became
homeless in Shibpur‐Boatkhali area. Those people are presently living on D.M road, losing
everything.

According to Sundarbans Affairs department, Govt. of West Bengal 2001, total population is
185644 in which 95547 are male and 90097 are female in Sagar Island. In Sagar Island,
population growth rate is 2.04% and population density is 368 per sq km. Literacy rate in Sagar
Island is 77.9 % and male – female ratio is 1000:942. Total number of villages is 44, ferry services
– 8, bus route – 1, and length of river embankment – 150 km in Sagar island. Total length of the
roads is 617 km in which 157 km is surfaced roads and 460 km is unsurfaced roads. Out of 44
villages, total electrified villages were 17 in 1997 (38.64 %) and 35 in 2001 (79.55 %).

Primary data from exploratory study mainly depends on household survey. For primary data, we
first went through some previous literatures on Sagar Block, Sundarbans and prepared sample
questionnaires and applied to 31 households. People came from Lohachara, Ghoramara and
some part of Sagar and got settled in 6 colonies. Those are mainly Gangasagar colony,
Manshadeep colony, Kamalpur colony, South Haradhanpur colony, Bamkimnagar colony and
Shibpur‐Boatkhali colony. We collected this information from Focused Group Discussion with
local panchayat Pradhan, Ex‐MLA and past records.

Table 1 below shows the colony‐wise distribution of surveyed households.

Name of the colonies Number of surveyed households

Gangasagar colony 7
Manshadeep colony 4
Kamalpur colony 4
South Haradhanpur colony 4
Bamkimnagar colony 8
Shibpur‐Boatkhali colony 4
Total households 31

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 Colony wise distribution of surveyed households
Shibpur-Boatkhali
colony Gangasagar colony
13% 23%

Bamkimnagar
colony
25% Manshade e p
colony
13%
South
Haradhanpur Kamalpur colony
colony 13%
13%

Table‐1: Colony wise distribution of surveyed households

Out of 31 households, 12 households came from Ghoramara Island, 11 households came from
Lohachara Island and 8 households came from another part of Sagar Island. By face to face
interview we tried to get information on following aspects.

• Detailed information about respondent, ‐ e.g. age, gender, literacy, Livelihood and name
of the village.
• Adaptive Response to Coastal flooding/inundation.

S. N Main point Sub points

1. Natural Calamities (i) Type and (ii) Effect

2. Migration (i) Name of the islands (ii) Type (iii) No. of people accompanied (iv) Reason of
migration (v) Why have you chosen this Island (vi) Mode of transportation and
(vii) Cost of transportation
3. Endowment Status (i) Amount of assets loss and present assets (ii) Before & Current Cropping
Pattern (iii) Occupation‐ before, after & now. (iv) Reason for changed of
occupation (v) No. of people working out of Sagar Island

4. Empowerment and (i) Name (ii) Age (iii) Sex (iv) Occupation before migration
Livelihood questions (v) Occupation after occupation (vi) Education (Below Madhyamik,
Madhyamik, H.S, Under Graduate, Post graduate, Illiterate).

5. Aces to institutional (i) Health‐ Type, Related, Number, Duration & Treatment (ii) Education‐ before &
and infrastructural now (iii) Drinking water‐ Source, Salinity change & Treated (iv) Electricity –
facilities Source, Duration, Price & alternatives (v) Sanitation‐ Type & Source.
6. Common property (i) Embankment‐ Type, Year & Figure (ii) Soil‐ Salinity change & Effects

7. Social Impact (i) Social inclusion/exclusion (ii) Political Conflicts & (iii) Compare to previous
island.
8. Disaster (i) Govt.’s help (ii) NGO’s help and (iii) Relative’s help
management
institutions

156
 9. Quality of service (i) Satisfied or not? and (ii) Reasons

10. Suggestions for (i) House (ii)Agricultural land (iii) Brick road (iv) Embankment (v) School (vi)
improving the Bridge (vii) New job opportunity (viii) Tube well (ix) Electricity (x) Afforestation
condition (xi) Health center (xii) Direct hand (Govt. facilities) etc.

Findings

By LIFE approach (Ghosh and Roy 2006) we assess loss of livelihood, empowerment through
asset loss, food and institutional support. We also try to assess the human capital stock looking
into educational attainment and skill set available to the flood affected people. Table 2 below
shows asset loss due to coastal flooding and inundation.

Table‐2: Asset loss due to coastal flooding and inundation

Assets Livestock resources(in number) Huma Rice (kg) Stock of Boat Land loss Fishing TV &
n Life Paddy (Bigha Net Solar
‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡
Cattle Goat Poultry Sheep loss in
no. )

Total 244 176 213 298 3 2080 kg 4000 kg 5 744 5 1&1

amount

From the above data we see that migrants do not only lose land and house but also a huge
amount of livestock resources. They are not only financially very weak but also physically weak
due to malnutrition as the amount of rice and paddy loss shows a big volume and they now have
to sustain on food stuff bought from the market place which they cannot afford to buy all the
time and they are deprived of two square meals a day. The number of people died during
migration and immediately after has also been reported which is 10%.

This table3 shows that all the people had to change their original livelihood when they migrated
from inundated island to Sagar. 29.03% people change from cultivation to daily wage labour,
19.35% people change from fisherman to daily wage labour and 51.62% people change to other
opportunistic (job: whatever and whenever available for subsistence)livelihood.

Table‐3: Loss of original livelihood

Lost of original From cultivation to daily From fisherman to daily From original livelihood to
livelihood wage labour wage labour others(opportunistic
livelihood)
No. of households 9 6 16
Percentage (%) 29.03 19.35 51.62

‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡‡
One Bigha = 0.33 Acre

157
 .

Loss of original livelyhood From Loss of original livelyhood

N o o f r e s p o n d e n ts
cultivation to
From original daily wage 20
livelihood to 15
labour
others(opport 10 16
29.03% 5
unistic 9 6
From 0
livelihood)
fisherman to

c u ltiv a tio n

liv e lih o o d to
o th e r s ( o p p
51.62%

o r tu n is tic
to d a ily
la b o u r

o r ig in a l
F rom

w age
daily wage

F rom
labour
19.35%

Out of 31 households, two households are proactive migrants, ‐ those people who leave there living
place before inundation and 29 are reactive migrants, ‐ those people who leave their living place after
inundation. Since most of the migrants are reactive migrants cost of inundation in terms of migration
is very high. Lohachara is inundated completely in 1982 but major part of the people migrated in
1972‐1975 and living at Bamkimnagar colony, South Haradhanpur and Gangasagar colony in Sagar
Island. Govt. provides maximum 6.25 bighas in 1972 those people living in Bamkimnagar colony and
minimum 1 bigha in 1998 those living in Kamalpur and Gangasagar colony. Those people who came
from Shibpur‐Boatkhali to Sagar colony in 2002 are landless.

Table 4 shows the type of institutional support they received while migrating and after being
rehabilitated.

Table‐4: Institutional Support

Name of the institutes Type of facilities

Government House, land, dry food, Canvas, tube well, trawler fare and
road in locality where they are rehabilitated
Non Government Dry food and information on natural calamities

Govt. rehabilitations include giving away land to these migrants along with house, dry food, canvas,
local road and tube well in locality. Govt. provides maximum land of 6.25 bighas per family in 1972
and minimum land of one bigha per family in 1998. Those people who came from Shibpur‐Boatkhali to
Gangasagar colony in 2002 are landless. However, major parts of the people have no Patta
(ownership). Land which the govt. had provided is not fertile so they are going to another place in
search of job. Their standard of living is very low because major parts of the people are daily labourer
and possess low fertile land. Govt. builds mud embankment which brakes in every monsoon by flood, ‐
resulting increase in soil salinity. As a result there is loss of crop and decrease in fish production. In
Sagar block, all the embankments are mud embankment and average height is 7 feet and length is 25‐
30 feet. Those embankments which are built in line with the river and Bay‐of Bengal are most affected
ones. Recently at Boatkhali about five km embankment are totally broken by coastal flooding in 2008
because it is built in along the Bay‐of Bengal. Soil salinity increases in Boatkhali due to broken
Embankment and people of South Haradhanpur, Bamkimnagar, Mansadeep, Gangasagar Colony, &

158
Kamalpur experience low salinity due to construction of embankment. Source of drinking water is
tube well and for other purposes they use pond water.

To analyze the current status of migrated people the following table 5 is very informative‐

Table–5:‐ Actual land loss and re‐empowerment by government programme

Agri. Land loss (Bigha) Govt. provide Agri. land (Bigha44)

Total land 744 88

Average per household 24.8 3.67

From table‐5 we see that migrants lost total agricultural land of 744 bighas and they got only 88
bighas from the government, which is really negligible.

In the following table the present education level in Sagar Island is discussed ‐

Table‐6:‐ Level of Education

Qualification Total no. of people Percentage (%) in total

Literate Below Madhyamik 164 74.55
Madhyamik 12 5.45
H.S 3 1.36
Under Graduate 1 0.45
Illiterate 40 18.19

Level of education

180 164
160
No. of Students

140
120
100
80
60 40
40
12
20 3 1
0
Below Madhyamik H.S Under Graduate Illiterate
Madhyamik

In Sagar block, education of majority of people is below madhyamik (74.55 %). Percentage of Illiterate
people in Sagar Block is 18.19. Number of drop out in school increases because they can not maintain
the cost of education and send children for work to give financial support to the family, creating child
labour.

44
One bigha = 0.33 Acre

159
To calculate the value of asset loss, the volume of asset loss is being converted in monetary term
which is shown in table below‐

Table‐7:‐ Valuation of household assets

Name of the assets Physical damage Valuation of damage Percentage (%) in Rank
(in Rs.) total
Land 744 Bighas 59,520,000 97.98785 1
Cattle 244 488000 0.803395 2
Sheep 296 296000 0.487305 3
Goats 176 228800 0.376674 4
Boat 3 60000 0.098778 5
Cash 42750 42750 0.070379 6
Stock of paddy 4000 kg 32000 0.052682 7
Rice 2080 kg 31200 0.051365 8
Poultry 213 15975 0.0263 9
Solar 1 15000 0.024695 10
Fishing net 5 7500 0.012347 11
T.V 1 5000 0.008232 12
Life 3
Total 6,07,42,225

Valuation of household assets

60,000,000
50,000,000
40,000,000
30,000,000
20,000,000
10,000,000
0
Land Sheep Boat Stock Poultry Fishing
of net
paddy

From table 7‐ we see that maximum loss of asset is land (97.99%) and followed by livestock resources.
Other assets like loss of crop, boat, TV etc are much less as compared to that of land and livestock.
The total value of damage of those 31 households is Rs. “6, 07, 42,225” which is a very huge amount
and very alarming. Against such big losses the security and rehabilitation given by the institution are in
no comparison. It creates unrest among people and the strategy taken by govt. or NGOs’ are adhoc.
No research/study has been made to assess this loss. The next table shows how people suggest
towards improvement of their present condition

The suggestions from the rehabilitated people of Sagar Island on improvements of facilities needed for
day to day life is recorded by one to one discussion from migrants. The following table represents
their perception in this context

160
 Table‐8:‐ Suggestion for improving condition

Name of the facilities Total no. of Percentage (%) Rank

respondents respondents
House 15 48.39 1
Tube well in locality 11 35.48 2
Road 10 32.26 3
Concrete embankment 10 32.26 3
School in locality 6 19.35 4
Agricultural Land 5 16.13 5
BPL(below poverty line)card 4 12.90 6
Bridge (Bamkimnagar) 3 9.68 7
Electricity 3 9.68 7
Health center in locality 3 9.68 7
Direct hand (Govt. facilities) 2 6.45 8
Loan for pisciculture & Agriculture. 2 6.45 8
Afforestation to stop soil erosion. 2 6.45 8
New job opportunity 2 6.45 8
Hostel facility (Free) for SC student 1 3.25 9

Suggestion for improving condition

15
16
No. of respondents

14
11
12 10 10
10
8 6
5
6 4
3 3 3
4 2 2 2 2
1
2
0
poverty line)card

Electricity

Hostel facility
(Govt. facilities)
Road

School in

Afforestation to

(Free) for SC
House

locality

Direct hand
BPL(below

stop soil

According to migrants response demand for housing is in 1st position (48.39%) in their priority list,
demand for safe drinking water from tube well is in 2nd position (35.48%), both road and concrete
embankment comes in 3rd position (32.26%), School in 4th position (19.35%), Agricultural land in 5th
position (16.13%), BPL card where they would get necessaries(e.g., rice Rs.2/kg) at very cheap rate is
in 6th position (12.90%), Health center, Bridge (Bamkimnagar), Electricity in 7th position (9.68%), new
job opportunity, afforestation, loan for pisciculture & agriculture and Govt. facilities (direct hand) in
8th position (6.45%), and free hostel facility in last position (3.25%). From the above table it is clear
that their demands are very legitimate and basic to maintain a minimum standard of living.

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 Table‐ 9: Type of migrants

Type of migrants Total households Percentage (%) in total

Proactive migrants 2 6.45
Reactive migrants 29 93.55
Total households 31 100

Type of Migrants Type of Migrants

Proactive 29
migrants
6.45% 30
25
20
15
Reactive 10
2
migrants 5
93.55% 0
Proactive migrants Reactive migrants

In Sagar Island living both reactive and proactive migrants. Out of 31 families 29 are reactive migrants
and 2 families are proactive migrants. Cost of damage of the reactive migrants is higher than the
proactive migrants because proactive migrants are risk averter that’s why they shifted their assets
before two‐ six months of inundation. Proactive migrants lost only their agricultural land and house.
Even some proactive migrants transferred their house kits like asbestos, tin etc. Reactive migrants lost
all the assets even some families lost their family members. Since 93.55 % surveyed households are
reactive migrants and 6.45 % are proactive migrants so total cost of damage of the migrants is higher
in Sagar block.

Discussing with local people we known that why they are not moving before inundation of Island.
People gave some reasons ‐

i) It’s their birth place that’s why they do not want to leave it.

ii) They are very poor, so if they leave the place where they will go and who will provide the
land.

iii) In birth place they have a lot of agricultural land and cope of share cropping.

iv) Government has no proper planning for migration and settlement.

Here we see that Sagar Block is not only naturally vulnerable it is also economically vulnerable. To
reduce economic vulnerability need reduction of reactive migrants using true adaptation strategy.

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 Table‐10:‐ Quality of service

Satisfied with the Not satisfied with the Total no. of

meager meager respondents
Number of respondents 1 30 31
Percentage (%) in total 3.23 96.77 100

Table‐11: Diseases and treatment

Type of diseases Affected families Non affected No. of treatment families

families Hospital Quack
Diarrhea & Fever 24 7 5 19

Percentage (%) in total 77.42 22.58 20.83 79.17

Distribution of treatment families Distribution of the treatments

Hospital
19
20.83%
20
15
5
10
5
0
Quack Hospital Quack
79.17%

Table‐12:‐ Sex status and family size

Sex Total number of people Percentage (%) in total

Male 120 54.55
Female 100 45.45
Total 220 100
Average family size 7.1

On the basis of household survey, total population of 31 families in six colonies of Sagar Island is 220.
The average family size of the surveyed population is as high as 7 (approx) where national average is
six. In the colonies of Sagar Block almost all the families are poor but comparatively those families
economic condition is better they have small family size (Below seven). Family size is more than seven
comparatively very poor and Muslim families.

Percentage of female in the colonies of Sagar Island is 45.45 which are lower than India of 48.27 % and
West Bengal of 48.29 %. In Sagar Block total female population is 48.51 % but in the colonies of this
island is 45.45 %. I talk with local people and asked why colonies percentage of female population is
lower than Sagar Block (Overall). They are giving some reasons, ‐

1. Labour power of the male member is higher than female member.

163
 2. To send outside of this Island for job a male member has low risk than female member.

3. Main livelihood of the people of this Island is agriculture and fishing, and female could not go
to fishing boat.

For the above reasons almost all the families are very happy when they births a male baby. In the
migrants families are not only gender bare in child production but also education, food distribution
etc.
Table‐13:‐ Distribution of migrants house type

Type of house Before migration After migration

Total house Percentage in total Total house Percentage in total
Mud 31 100 22 70.97
Semi pucca 0 0 3 9.68
Pucca 0 0 0 0
Hut 0 0 5 16.12
No house 0 0 1 3.23
Total 31 100 31 100

Type of house be fore Migration Type of house after migration

Hut
Hut
16.12%
16%

Semi pucca
9.68% M ud
70.97%

Mud,
100%

Conclusion

This study does not probe into the reasons of inundation, the loss of property and consequent distress
due to land loss is obvious and our objective is to trace and analyze the responses of the affected
population. Past studies demonstrate that large number of people has migrated to Sagar Island.
Reactive and proactive actions are analysed to assess private costs and social costs. The assessment
and cost estimates are based on secondary information as well as field level information gathered
through Focused Group Discussions and Rapid Rural Appraisal. From physical data one can identify the
vulnerability of this island due to coastal flooding and natural calamities. We tried to assess the
volume of damage due to inundation and found that as compared to the rehabilitation facilities
whatever if being given to the people of this island is virtually inadequate and negligible for their
sustenance in the long run. They don’t possess land and cannot continue with same occupation as
before. This study identifies loss of livelihood. People are not educated enough to get job elsewhere,
there are severe drop outs in primary schools which tells us children don’t go to school, rather they
help in earning for the family instead doing unskilled jobs and creating large number of child labour
which is uncalled for. In this context this paper can be used as a baseline study for proper adaptation
strategy in future.

Acknowledgement:‐I acknowledge the contribution of Prof Joyashree Roy,Jadavpur University for being
my mentor in the CCL case study at every stage of my work. I am indebted to my co‐researcher

164
Mr.Rajarshi Banerji for his constant help and encouragement in the field and also conceptualize the
case study .I must acknowledge the contribution of research assistant Mr.Chandan Roy in helping me
in the data compilation and analysis part. I am indebted to Global Change Program, Jadavpur
University for providing me all infrastructural support. Smt. Kakoli Sen Sharma of Institute of
Environmental Studies & Wetland Management has contributed a lot in Mapping, Ground Truth
Collection and GIS Database Creation.

References

(1) Sugata Hazra, Tuhin Ghosh & Gupinath Bhandari (2001): “Assessment of Land use / Land cover
dynamics and Shoreline change of Sagar Island throw Remote Sensing”, paper presented at the
22nd Asian Conference on remote Sensing, 5‐9 November 2001, Singapore.

(2) D. Mitra, A . K . Mishra, T. Phuong & R. sudarshana (2002): “ Application of Remote sensing and
Geographic Information System for Coastal Zone Management in Sagar Island, Bay of Bengal ”,
IAPRA & SIS, vol. 34, part‐7,Resource and Environmental Monitoring, Hydrabad, India.
(3) Dwijendra Nath Dwivedi (2005): “Analysis of Sea Level Rise and Its Impact on Coastal Wetlands of
India”, Proceeding of the 14th Biennial Coastal Zone Conference, New Orleaus, Louisiana, 17 – 21
July, 2005.

(4) Anwar Ali (1999): “Climate change Impacts and Adaptation Assessment in Bangladesh” Climate
Research Clim Res , Vol. 12: 109 – 116, august 27, 1999.

(5) Soudamini Das (2007): “Mangrove – A Natural Defense against Cyclones: An investigation from
Orissa, India”, SANDEE working paper, www.sandeeonline.org

(6) Alessandra Sgobbi and Carlo Carraro (2008): “Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation strategies in
Itali: A Economic Assessment”, Fondazione Eni Enico Mattei (EFFM) Research paper and CMCC
Research paper No. 14, http://ssrn.com/abstract=1086627

(7) H. S. Singh (2000): “Potential Impact of Climate Change on Mangroves in India”,

http://www.fao.org

(8) Govt. of India, Ministry of Environment and Forests (2001): “Vulnerability and Adaptation”
http://envfor.nic.in/cc/adapt.htm

(9) Girish Gopinath and P. Seralathan (2005): “Rapid Erosion of the Coast of Sagar Island, West
Bengal, India”, Environmental Geology, Springer Berlin / Heidelberg, Volume 48, Number 8 /
October, 2005.

(10) Ghosh Anupa and Joyashree Roy (2006): “Coping with Extreme Climatic Events: Analysis of
Household and Community Responses from Selected Hotspots in India”, Science and
Culture, Special Issue on Flood Disaster, Risk Reduction in Asia, Vol 72. No.1‐2, January‐
February . pp 23‐31.

(11) Roy Joyashree (2007). , Global Warming and Indian Sundarbans: Need for a Systems
Approach, Hindu 2007 Survey on Environment.

165
Community perception: land use change and fast land and water
resource depletion"‐ Brickfields of West Bengal: The Environmental
Cost
Kallol Roy

Abstract

Along side the huge population growth in India, needs for shelter is growing. As a result, building
industry and particularly housing industry is growing rapidly. Bricks are the key component of this
industry and to satisfy this demand, legal and illegal Brickfields are operating all over the country and
a huge concentration of Brickfields could be noted around Greater Kolkata Metropolitan area in West
Bengal. These Brickfields use high density highly polluting fuels that harming our environment and the
unplanned use of soil and other resources harming the regional eco‐system. Also local farmers are
encouraged to sell their lands to the brickfields by the owner which is changing the character of the
region. Brickfield owners must be supported in all levels by the government and NGOs and trained to
utilise the available resources. A planned use of renewable and sustainable raw materials could help
the industry to operate in a eco‐friendly way and that will protect our environment and local
biodiversity as well.

Introduction

In contemporary world there are various factors, which are impacting negatively on the environment
and consequently thrusting us towards a climate change. These climate drivers could be categorized
thematically according to their sectors. Brickfields are one such sector that contributes heavily in the
climate change by using excessive natural and fossil fuel and subsequently emitting high level of CO2
in the atmosphere. Indian housing industry is growing rapidly that reflects the economic growth of the
country. Unplanned and sometime illegal extensions of metropolitan cities are changing the
characteristics of land use pattern of the surrounding rural and semi urban areas. Where once a
farmer grew rice and wheat to sustain his family, now some fashionable middleclass family grows a
little bit of grass on their handkerchief sized lawn. Huge population growth is creating high demand
for shelter for the people and a small brick built house with a roof is the dream of many. Also easy
availability of housing loans is encouraging the population and the industry. In this situation brickfields
are flourishing in various parts of India including West Bengal to accommodate soaring demand. The
aim of this case study is to situate our understanding of brickfields and its impact on environment
against the characteristics of brickfields in a semi urban set up in the vicinity of a metro city i.e.
Kolkata. To develop and motivate the national agenda on environment, the Government of India has
produced the ‘National Action Plan on Climate Change’ (NAPCC)45. This action plan recommended 8
key factors to forward this agenda. We have noted that almost all but one recommendation could be
adopted in developing and creating a sustainable brickfield industry. In our study we will attempt to
distinguish the pattern of fuel consumption (NAPCC No. 2), water consumption (NAPCC No. 4) and
change of land use pattern (NAPCC No. 6) in relation to the environmental and economic cost of
brickfields together with their socio political influences on the contemporary social system. We will

45
NAPCC. 2008. National Action Plan on Climate Change
http://www.indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/content/national‐action‐plan‐climate‐change [Accessed 14 July 2009]

166
also try to look into the ‘National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change’ (NAPCC No. 8)
and how this can impact positively on this industry.

Study area

In West Bengal, currently 4,50046 brickfields could be found. Although these brickfields are scattered
all over the state however a huge concentration of brickfields could be noted in the district of North
24 Parganas. There are 650 brickfields could be found in this district which constitutes nearly 15% of
the total number of brickfields in the state. The reason behind this concentration is primarily because
of the proximity of the Greater Kolkata metropolitan area that creates huge demand for bricks. As a
result, a considerable number of illegal brickfields could be noticed in this area as well. Almost 66% of
the 650 brickfields in this district are illegal47 i.e. 430 of these brickfields are operating illegally without
any kind of approval from the government. For this case study purpose we have selected a brickfield
that is situated in this district (North 24 Parganas of West Bengal) and covers 6 Acres of land. It should
be noted that most of the local brickfields operates within much smaller land holdings. Their sizes vary
from 1.5 Acre to 3.3 Acre. The land hold of the subject brickfield is classified as “Bagan” (garden)
rather than as “Brickfield land”. This is due to the complicated and lengthy legal mutation process that
discourages brickfield owners to change the category or the nature of the land holding.

“I won’t receive any reward if I change the status but it’s the government that is loosing
the tax money. If they try to reduce the red tape bureaucracy then a lot of people will be
interested to do so.” (Brickfield Owner)

This brickfield land was never farmed, as it was never designated as the agricultural land rather a
garden. The owner is still trying to maintain the tradition by keeping a small garden on the land.
Adjoin to the field are the residential ‘Para’ (local) houses as the land is in high demand in this part of
North 24 Parganas however agricultural lands could be noticed in the vicinity as well.

Methodology

Research methods that we incorporate in research design are used as tools. These tools provide the
right way to elicit information. Appropriate utilization of empirical tools to accumulate crucial
information is vital to achieve this48. In this particular project, we endeavor to locate and then
converge on certain issues that we have listed as the aims of the study. The focal point of the project
is to comprehend the phenomena of the brickfields in a socio economic cultural political and more
over ‘environmental’ structure that is very much necessary yet less ventured. The sampling method
we used was purposive49. It focused on ‘information‐rich cases’ rather than the representativeness of
the subject50. This is ideal to understand the wider aspects of the social process and for interview and

46
Gonouddyog, Biponno Poribesh, Habra, 24PGS(N)
47
Bengal Brick Owners Association
48
Janesick, V.J. 2000, The Choreography of Qualitative Research Design: Minutes, Improvisations, and Crystallisation In: N.K.
Denzin &, Y.S. Lincoln (Ed) Handbook of Qualitative Research, London, Sage
49
Mason, J. 1997, Qualitative Researching, London, sage
50
Rice, P.L. & Ezzy, D. 1999, Qualitative Research Methods: A Health Focus, Oxford, Oxford University Press

167
observational schedules51. To satisfy the aim of the study and to collect as much as possible qualitative
data, we have conducted semi‐structured one to one interviews with the owner of the Brickfield as
well as the local farmers who are farming the adjoining lands of the brickfield. We also undertook
observations of the production line to understand the impact of the kiln and other materials on the
environment.

The Brickfield (Facts and Factors)

1. The brickfield we have contacted for the study purpose covers 6 acres of land. This land was never
farmed or used for agricultural purposes rather classified as a ‘Bagan’ (Garden). Near to the field
we have noted agricultural land that are ‘2 (dui) fasali’ or could be harvested twice a year. The
brickfield was never farmed but the owner of his own choice maintains a small garden where large
trees could be noticed.

“I have always tried to maintain the bagan or garden characteristics of the land. You will see
lot more trees in my field than any other. If necessary I would be able to sell this land without
any problem.” (Brickfield Owner)

2. Usually the owners of the brickfields utilise the soil from their own land to produce bricks. They do
so by cutting the soil downwards and creating a pond or small lake. They also buy soil from outer
sources. The owner of the brickfield we interviewed notified that although he can utilise the soil of
his own land to make bricks, however he prefers to buy the necessary soil and other materials.
The sources are silt from the river Ganges, soil and silt from the Ichamoti river area, fly ash from
CESC Titagarh Power Plant and soil from other parts of the state. These raw materials cost
according to their source and importance. As a result this increases the price of an individual brick.

3. The ratio of utilizing various materials in a brick depends upon various factors. However they are
mostly dependant on the current market price of the soil, silt, fly ash and other necessary
ingredients. Silt from the river Ganges is most expensive which results in less in demand in this
brickfield. Mostly soil from adjacent agricultural land, Ichamoti river area and other parts of the
state are utilised. We have noted a certain amount of compromising is visible to accommodate
the cost cutting in the field.

4. In this brickfield the bricks are produced mixing 25% of fly ash in each brick with other materials.
Remaining 75% of the materials consist of other traditional materials such as soil and binding
chemicals including cement. The primary or only source of this fly ash is the CESC Titagarh Power
Plant. The brickfield owner buys truckloads of fly ash each day. Each of the trucks hold 200 cube
feet of fly ash and one truckload of fly ash costs Rs. 500/‐. Although each brickfield owner is
allowed to receive the fly ash free of cost however the reality is different. We will discuss about
this trend later in details.

5. Mixing fly ash in the brick requires specific scientific knowledge that can obtain mainly from the
governmental sources. West Bengal Pollution Control Board disseminates this information state
wide amongst the brickfields. Every brickfields including our subject brickfield have received

51
Blaxter, L.; Huges. C & Tight, M. 1997, How to Research, Buckingham, OUP

168
necessary technological ‘know how’ from the Government in the form of a manual. However we
also noted that this manual is completed with lots of technological term that is not necessarily
comprehendible. Also laborers who are in most of the cases illiterate conduct the actual brick
building process. They learned the trade by practice or the father hands down the knowhow to
the son. In this situation these people require hands on practical trainings sessions to know and
understand the complex process of using fly ash in bricks. These training sessions are never
organised and lack of knowledge also discourage the laborers to use them.

“If you give me a book I can’t read it. However if you show me how to do things, I can
understand and copy better. But nobody said come I will teach you how to build these
bricks. So I don’t feel like I have to make them. Also ‘malik’ (Brickfield owner) doesn’t want
to use them (fly ash) much so we are not really bothered.” (Brickfield Labour)

6. The overall production of all the brickfields are yearly 800 Crores however in the state of West
Bengal the demand is for 1200 crores of bricks. From our subject field each year around 15
lakh bricks are produced. However this production number is also dependant on the number
of skilled laborers, monsoon and weather, the quality of the ingredients and other materials
like soil, sand etc. To produce these bricks, around 180,000 cubic feet of soil is needed. The
owner informed that the demands for bricks are almost limitless and he is certain that any
amount of bricks they will produce will be sold in the building industry. This certainty indicates
the thriving nature of the industry and also the necessity to regulate this in a planned manner
so current and future generations are not affected negatively.

7. Traditionally brickfields in the region use to have laborers who would live in the field premises
and worked for the owner of the field all year around. However this tradition is not followed
anymore due to various factors. Currently most of the labours are skilled but there is an influx
of migratory labours mostly from the under developed region of the state and other states of
India, mainly Bihar. However these labours work primarily on the basis of verbal contracts
rather than a written contract. This flexibility can put both parties in dilemma. Sometimes the
‘Sardar’ (leader) of the laborers accept a certain amount of money to provide a number of
labours. However in many occasions they did not maintain their verbal agreement and did not
arrive to do their contracted hours or joined somebody else’s brickfield. In this situation the
owner looses not only the agreement money also the time and other materials due to the
zero production level. On the other hand the labourers may be subject to maltreatment from
the owner and as there is no written contract, they cannot demand what was agreed initially,
when the work started. Each brickfield has its own labour force and its own code of conduct
that they adhere to. In our subject brickfield around 80 people work and they keep coming
back to the same brickfield, each year because of the personal relationship they had struck
with the owner of the field.

8. The brickfield owners provide medical facilities and educational supports to the member of
staff and labourers of the fields. However we have noted a lack of concern amongst the
parents to send their children to school. This is an area that should be researched and
intervened accordingly.

9. In comparison to the annual income from a brickfield, the agricultural lands near to the case
study area yields much less income. These lands are ‘2 fasali’ (twice a year harvest) and
produces mainly rice and jute. Also some wheat and lentils also could be noticed. If a farmer

169
 earns Rs. 10,000/‐ to Rs. 15000/‐ from a 33 Decimal of land per year then a brickfield owner
earns almost 3 times more than that on the same land. This disparity of income is also
encouraging local farmers to sell their land to the brickfields.

10. In this field there are two “pug mills”. A pug mill is a mixing machine that blends the soil and
other raw materials to build each bricks with the aid of water and prepares these raw
materials to put on the dice to build a brick. Minimum 1 to 3 or 4 pug mills could be noticed in
the brickfields however more than two pug mills are very rare. These two pug mills in our
observed field use 5000 to 6000 liters of water per day. Usually the water is drawn from
underground sources which affects the local ground water level. However the owner, in our
case, uses two water pumps to draw the water from the field’s own pond and deliver this
water directly to the mills.

11. The price of the bricks is dependent on the materials used in the brickfield to produce a brick.
Price of a brick made from silt of river Ganges costs around Rs.8/‐ where as a brick made with
non‐ash traditional materials costs Rs.5.60/‐ to 6/‐. However a brick made with fly ash costs
Rs.4/‐ that is less in cost than the traditional bricks.

Discussion

1. From our observation and interviews we have noticed a huge disparity between the demand and
the production of bricks in the state and the region. This disparity fashioned a nexus, which is
unsettling to our environment, our legal system,agricultural and our economic sectors as well as
the social system ‐ including education. As a result we can notice a devastating practice in recent
days that has far reaching impact on the environment. In the brickfields the owners are using a
kind of mixture to fuel the kilns. This mixture is made of husks of paddy and diesel. This is to
counter the continuously increasing fuel expenses and to increase the production of bricks. In the
kilns this mixture fuel is used, to create high temperature. In addition, large generators are use to
operate oversized fans that stimulate giant furnaces. The overall effect of this production line is
quite destructive. Fuel mixtures formed from diesel emit high level of CO2 that is going through
the low height chimneys. The high CO and CO2 mixed smoke is released into the atmosphere ‐
polluting our physical environment. This is also affecting our emotional wellbeing by upsetting our
eco system and air quality.

2. “We work only six months of the year. Because of the monsoon and other problems like shortage
of materials and labours, a lot of the time I have no income. That’s why whenever I get a chance I
try to produce as much bricks as possible. I know it is terribly bad to use this kind of fuel but we
have no choice. But I will be honest. I do not use that much of the mixture. Of my total fuel
consumption, mixture fuel makes only 20% to 25%. Otherwise I use coal, wood, and petrol. I know
they are bad too but not as bad as the mixture. Whenever possible I try to avoid it though it is
cheaper than the conventional fuel and readily available. So many people tell me to use it more but
I don’t listen to them and try to keep the consumption low. Give me another option and I will use
that.” (Brickfield Owner)

3. Low height of the chimneys of the brickfield furnace or kiln is a major concern. The Government
recognized legal height for a chimney is minimum 77 feet. The average height that was noted in
the region was half or less of the stipulated height.. Most of the chimneys we noticed was, 35 feet.
As we have observed earlier the brickfields are using a highly polluting fuel. Coupled with the fact

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 that the chimneys of the kilns are also low in height this highly polluted smoke is mixing with the
Troposphere resulting in people of the area inhaling this polluted air. This incongruity is distressing
our environment immensely.

4. The brickfields also consume fossil fuels that include the use of large quantities of coal and wood.
Brickfields need a huge amount of coal as well as wood, which encouraging deforestation in the
area. This also encourages the mining of coal in the state that has an adverse effect on our
environment. Excessive and unplanned illegal mining cause massive landslides leading to deaths in
the Asansol, Ranigaunge colliery area

5. In the kilns or brickfield furnaces owners are using a highly polluting fuel mixtures to create high
temperature. This high temperature helps to dry more bricks in a short period of time. However
giant generators are used, to operate oversized fans, which stimulate these giant furnaces. The
overall effect of this is quite destructive. The noise from generators is a huge source of sound
pollution. When a kiln is fired, it is kept continuously on for 5 to 6 months. As a result these giant
fans and generators are also kept on for the period. This adversely affects the senses of the
laborers and owners alike of the field. The noises also affect the sleeping pattern of the residents
of the area. The people especially the children of the area have been noticed to suffer from sleep
deprivation related problems‐ such as anxiety and high tension. In the long term it hurts their
growth and orientation ability. It also has a negative effect on the health of elderly citizens of the
area.

6. Negative impact of brickfields could be observed on our environment in various levels and forms.
Most of the brickfields are on agricultural lands though the subject brickfield’s land was never
farmed or used for agricultural purpose. Most of these brickfields are using their own land to
source the soil for the bricks and they exploit the topsoil of the land that takes up to 2000 years to
grow and this practice is turning the land barren.

“I got 6 acres of land. If I wanted I can use soil from my own land. But what will I be left by
doing so? Nothing but a hole in the ground and some barren land that Iwill have no use for.
Neither can anybody can farm it nor build anything on this land. To build a house you have to
fill the hole and that will require soil from somewhere else and lots of money. So I decided to
use the soil from other sources. Wel,l know it sounds bit selfish but that’s my choice. At least if
I have to close this business then I will have a piece of land that will give me some returns.”
(Brickfield Owner)

7. The quarry of the fields disturbs the groundwater level immensely. The surrounding area is losing
its water level and that is affecting the larger society. In most of the brickfields in the region they
utilise underground water drawn from the earth via water pumps. Most of the time they draw
more water than necessary and a lot of the water is wasted through leaky pipes or not utilised
properly. This malpractice is having an immensely adverse effect on the local water levels. The
local farmers informed that this is not at all desirable and during the dry season, because of the
excessive pumping by the brickfields, the farmers are unable to tap the groundwater to irrigate
their fields.

“We have realized that these brickfields are using so much groundwater that not much is left
for us farmers. If we use a shallow pump it does not draw as much water as needed and we
have to run a pump longer. There is a shortage of electricity and diesel costs a lot to run these

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 pumps. Also during the summer time when we need water we are getting less which is hurting
our crops badly. What do you think will happen if we can’t grow food? What will these
brickfield owners eat? Their bricks? I don’t think so. They have to think of something else so
they do not use up all the water. But they don’t listen to anybody.” (Local Farmer)

Deteriorating ground water level is also concerning the local residents as local tube wells or hand
pumps are pumping less water and they are worried that soon taps in their homes will run dry.
When we talked to the local people they said that they feared that soon there won’t be any water
to drink.

“We used bricks to build our house but this is a big problem now. You can see for yourself that
the water level of the local pond is going down. Those ponds, which did not dry even in the
draught now drying in the early summer. Tubewells need more pumping and giving less
water. We are worried.” (Local Resident)

However the owner of our subject field uses two water pumps to draw the water from his own
pond and deliver this water directly to the mills. The ponds also help to hold rainwater during
monsoon for later use. These pond waters are drawn only when required and pumps are turned
off when the demand is met.

“I am not like most of the owners you will see in our ‘zila’ (district). I care for our land and the
people that’s why I do not use water from the earth rather the water from my own ponds. I
hold the rain water in these ponds during the monsoon and when time comes, use them for
the brick.” (Brickfield Owner)

8. Also the trucks and lorries used for carrying the raw materials and bricks are causing havoc in the
local eco‐socio‐politico‐environmental life as most of them are illegal and without any proper
license and many a times people have lost their lives under the wheels of these untraceable,
irresponsible trucks.

The overall impact of the brickfields in our life and environment is far reaching. Local increase in CO2
emission causes general increase in CO2 concentration in the atmosphere and that is resulting in
climate change and destruction of our eco‐system.

Policy Implications

The brickfields can change their act by adopting a better responsible approach to the climate change
concern. To extend and stimulate the Indian agenda on environment and climate change, the
Government of India has produced the ‘National Action Plan on Climate Change’ (NAPCC) on January
2008. This action plan is comprised of 8 key factors of which 4 are directly linked to the operation of
Brickfields in our region and what could be done to barricade the adverse effect of the climate change
caused by this industry. As we have noticed in the discussion section of this paper:

1. Fuel consumption (National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: NAPCC No. 2)
2. Water consumption (National Water Mission: NAPCC No. 4)
3. Change of Land Use Pattern and others (Green India Mission: NAPCC No. 6) in relation to the
environmental and economic cost of the brickfields and
4. The ‘National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change’ (NAPCC No. 8)

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These are the four factors which can impact positively on this industry and which has a direct socio
political impact on the contemporary social system.

1. Fuel consumption (National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency: NAPCC No. 2)

Use of fossil fuel should be slowly replaced, to an extent, by solar power. To do so initial investment
could be a huge deterrent; however, if the local and central governments help the brickfield owners
then, this could be achieved. India is a sub tropical country and enjoys clear sunny days throughout
the year. If the brickfield owners are convinced of its effectiveness and economy in the long run, then
this natural power could be harnessed to produce considerable amounts of energy. The houses and
every shelter in a field could be fitted with solar panels which has no adverse environmental effect.

Brickfields could also use wind turbines to generate energy. Each of the brickfields could raise small
wind turbines, which will operate 24 hours and will provide free energy to run lights, fans and other
household appliances.

Use of high‐density paddy husk and diesel mixed high carbon fuel must be totally stopped. Instead,
the use of natural gas and coal should be encouraged. The disuse of this environmentally harmful
blended fuel will also in effect stop the use of giant fans in the furnaces. This in turn will result in the
generators not being used‐ resulting in reduction in noise pollution levels too. In effect that will
reduce the sensory disturbances of the laborers and the local residents.

2. Water consumption (National Water Mission: NAPCC No. 4)

Brickfield owners must be informed regarding the importance of using rainwater and how to
harvesting the same for their requirements. They should be made to understand the importance of
this as that can have a positive impact on the ground water level of the region. Each brickfield usually
has one or two ponds. All the rainwater drains should channelized in such a way so they empty the
rainwater into these ponds. This water should be used only for the mixing purpose. Thus each
brickfield has their own storage of water that they can use all year round.

Also these ponds could be utilised for pisciculture that can become a good and affordable source of
staple diet for the poor labourers. Also if possible, only local fresh water fish variety should be farmed
so as to preserve some of the varieties that are facing extinction.

3. Change of Land Use Pattern and others (Green India Mission: NAPCC No. 6)

To start with, brickfields should discontinue the exploitation of our topsoil. This should be substituted
by fly ash as instructed by the West Bengal Pollution Control Board. However various reasons are
there that influencing this decision. The owner of our subject brickfield is not willing to mix 50% of ash
in the bricks produced in his field. There are few factors behind this choice. West Bengal State
Government policy states that the brickfields will be provided free fly ash by the local CESC Power
Plant. Brickfields can utilize the fly ash that comes out as waste from the electricity plant. In reality,
this is not distributed free of cost as designated by the Government rules. Rather it has become a
lucrative business and the local mafia gangs are controlling the disposal of this fly ash by forcing the
users to pay for it. Each truckload of fly ash costs Rs. 500/‐ that is monitored and dominated by these

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local gangs. Unfortunately, as there is a shortage of supply, a black market for the fly ash has come
into existance.

The raw materials should be gathered methodically from the ponds, canals, riverbeds, marsh and
swamps around the district and the state. Unplanned cutting of soil is causing small‐scale landslides
and forcing neighboring farmers to sell their agricultural land to the brickfields. If the soil is collected
in a planned/ systematic way, that will help sustain local eco system and also increase the water
carrying capacity of the local rivers and canals.
A common trend we have noticed is that the neighboring farmers selling their lands to the local
brickfield owners.

“I have 1 acre of land. From this piece of land I sustain my whole family (6 people). The yearly
income is around Rs. 25000/‐ to Rs. 30000/‐. In this situation, if I sell my land to the brickfield I will
earn around 5 Lakhs which I can keep in the bank and that will help my family. We don’t have to
worry about the harvest either. That’s a better deal, isn’t it?” (Local Farmer)

This view is common amongst the local farmers and a small holding brickfield grown
disproportionately in a small period of time could be noticed too. In this situation, the brickfields
should be banned from illegal trading and their upper limit for land holding should be fixed as well.
The local farmers should be encouraged to grow economically viable crops with high return and they
should be trained and supported by the government to fight back any negative trend.

The “Bill” or the swamp lands of the Barrackpore region must be protected. These swamp lands act as
the lungs of the district. However, a huge house‐building trend could be noted on these swamp lands
resulting filling of the swamps and local small and big ponds. To counterbalance the devastating effect
of the brickfields and huge population growth, these swamps acted as the protector. However new
roads through the swamps are encouraging more people to buy land ‘in’ them and filling them with
household rubbish and fly ash that thoroughly killing the local eco system.

A portion of the brickfield must be protected and planting should be done in that piece of land. This
land should have fruit trees along with trees that grow quickly. However these trees should not be
used as fuel rather as the lungs of the filed. Fruit bearing trees and plants will yield enough crops for
the staff of the brickfield and provide a portion of their daily needs. The labourers too should be
encouraged to create and maintain small‐scale kitchen gardens which will produce everyday herbs
and vegetable and help their children’s growth.

Use of HGV (Heavy Goods Vehicles) in the brickfield is common however restrictions should be applied
to their movement to protect the local residents from any harm caused by these trucks. Trucks should
be operated during the early morning, noontime and late evenings. Thus they will not affect the lives
of the locals.

4. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change’ (NAPCC No. 8)

In order to bind the fly ash with the soil, a high quantity of chemicals and other necessary
binding materials are needed. When the brick is made solely with the fly ash it requires a huge
amount of chemicals to hold them together. When this fly ash is mixed with soil or silt, binding
chemicals are still needed otherwise the brick won’t be strong enough and will break almost
immediately. Mixing of the chemicals and other binding materials can increase the cost of a

174
 brick. Also, new hi‐technology and expensive compressing machines will be required. This
unwanted costs deters owner of a field to use fly ash as raw materials. We also noted that the
demand for bricks made with fly ash is much lower than the bricks made without ashes.. This
is the case even when the cost of the bricks made from fly ash is significantly lower than those
made from mud. The building industry must be trained, supported and directed to use the
substitute bricks. An initiative must be taken from the governmental and supported at the
non‐governmental level to inform the contractors and other key constituents of the building
industry. They should be informed about the environmental cost of the traditional bricks as
well as what substitutes are available and why these are better if not more effective than the
traditional bricks. If we can motivate the buyers of the bricks to turn towards a substitute
brick then that will have a positive impact on the brickfields and their owner would be
encouraged to produce more such bricks.

Recommendations

The impact of brickfield industry is far reaching on our socio‐ economic‐ political and environmental
system. The carbon emission level of the furnace is very high, the use of soil in the bricks devastating
our eco system. Direct and indirect pollution from the brickfield affect the whole region. However,
bricks are an indispensable component of house building and a huge proportion of people depending
on this industry directly or indirectly. In this situation, we would like to recommend few key points,
which can reduce the negative impact on the world and can make the fields more efficient:

• Utilisation of solar panels to generate renewable energy

• If necessary Govt. should loan the brickfields these panels
• Small wind turbines could be fixed
• Utilization of natural gas, coal instead of high carbon mixture
• Ponds to hold rainwater and supply water to the pug mills
• Fish farming in the ponds
• Use of upto 50% of fly ash
• Free fly ash as recommended by the Govt.
• Planned cutting of local ponds, canals, rivers and swamps to source soil for the bricks and
regenerate them in return
• Encouragement of local farmer to hold their land and farming of economic crops
• Local swamps, ponds, rivers and canals must be protected
• Planting of various kind of plants and trees in the brickfield and creation of vegetable garden
• Restriction on Heavy Goods Vehicle movement in the area
• Providing technological knowhow and trainings to use sustainable materials and renewable
energy sources
• All the stakeholders must be consulted in the process and local social welfare organizations
could be employed to reach the common goal

Conclusion

As we have noted from our study the owner of a brickfield, the people who work in that field and the
local residents are all in the lookout for substitute energy sources and raw‐materials for this industry.
The impressions we received from all the stakeholders are that they are willing to adopt the new
approach given these substitutions are accessible, not too expensive and achievable. The brickfield

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owners are mostly dominated by the desire to earn as much as possible in a short period of time
notwithstanding the environmental cost for doing that. Therefore, Governmental Organisations (GO)
and NGOs have to work to reach the goal to provide available trainings and information regarding
sustainable resources and renewable energies. Also the actual builder of the bricks must be informed
and trained thoroughly regarding new technologies available and the use substitute materials. They
will also receive trainings regarding water conservation and forestation. G.O.s should also provide the
necessary knowhow and materials for solar panels at a subsidized rate. Furthermore, CCL could voice
the concerns of this industry and other people adversely affected by it‐ to the appropriate regional
and national authorities. Thus, the concerns associated with the brickfield industry could be shared
and the good practices could be disseminated amongst other brickfields by replicating them.

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Centralization or Decentralization: An Administrative Dilemma
Lalchuangliana

Abstract

The comparison of pictures of Aizawl city, taken over the years, selected from various sources, will
speak volumes on policy of the state hampering nature’s balance and taking its toll towards a change.
This change has caused social influence leading to congestion, an ultimate result of centralization and
premature urbanization.

Introduction
Since the advent of the English especially the Welsh, Aizawl the capital of Mizoram has undergone
changes which illustrate development in its own definition. This development although may seem
industrious; has caused premature urbanization which of course was due to a political move gone bad,
improper governance and centralization. This centralization has forced issues like education to be
more focused to the capital town. “The dilemma is one choice between a predominantly centralized
or a predominantly decentralized system of public education. This is by no means a new dilemma in
the history of governance of organizations” (Walker, 1972). Taking into consideration that social
influence (Deutsch and Gerard, 1955) either on an individual level or for a society through leaders
require education. If an institutions is not equipped with such an environment who is to be blamed?

The Mizo’s are ethnically Mongolians and the place is inhabited by the Kuki‐Chin linguistic group of the
Tibeto‐Burman sub‐family (Rev, 2002). Mizoram with its prime location covers an area of 21,087 Sq.
Km. Mizoram is predominantly a mountainous terrain bounded by the Cachar district of Assam and
State of Manipur in the North, by Chin Hills in Myanmar (Burma) in East and South and by the State of
Tripura and Bangladesh in the West. With an international boundary length of about 1000 kilometer
with Bangladesh and Burma, Mizoram has all along been of strategic significance. “It is highly likely
premature urbanization, poverty and an increase in transnational transportation routes will contribute
to increased infectious and chronic diseases in Mongolia in the next 10‐15 years, significantly
threatening United States (US) strategic interests in Mongolia's national and regional security,
democratization and economic sustainability. It is highly likely Mongolia’s mining and agriculturally
dependent economy will expose the country to communist Chinese economic dominance in the next
three to five years as pollution and pastoral erosion alter Mongolians' traditionally nomadic lifestyle,
causing increased urbanization, obesity, alcoholism and dependence on foreign goods” (Derrick,
2009).

Objectives

Picture illustrations are meant to provide an impression on how premature urbanization and
centralization has taken place in Aizawl city alone over the past 50 years and more. Each picture has
been highlighted with the year and arrowed where certain landmarks are deemed important.

177
Methodology

Pictures were collected from various institutions (these institutions are PHE, Mizoram State Pollution
Control Board, Urban Development and Poverty Elevation, Minor Irrigation Department and Transport
Department.), private collections and personally snapped using a Sony Cyber‐shot 7.2 Mega Pixel. The
present day pictures were taken with similar angles considering the pictures taken previously, with
years ranging from 1890’s to the late 1970’s, taken by anonymous/amateur photographers.

Analysis

1. Aizawl Bazar 1890 2. Aizawl Bazar 1968

3. Aizawl (Dawrpui) Bazar 2009 4. Assam Rifles Complex 2009

The first set of pictures (1‐4) highlighted captioned as Aizawl Bazar 1890 (1) is compared to pictures
captioned as Aizawl (Dawrpui) Bazar 1968 (2), Aizawl (Dawrpui) Bazar 2009 (3) and Assam Rifles
Complex 2009 (4) respectively. Kindly note the scenario surrounding the Assam Rifles to the point
where it has been eclipsed from the scene.

5. Gov’t H/S Aizawl 1974 6. Gov’t H/s Aizawl 2009

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 7 & 8. Areas surrounding the Gov’t H/S Aizawl

The second set of pictures (5‐8) highlighted captioned in both white and red are Aizawl 1974 as well as
Govt High School 1974; compared to picture captioned as Govt High School 2009. Kindly find the
difference in human habitation that encompasses the school.

9. Leitan 1954 10. Durtlang Leitan 1954

11. Leitan 2009 12. Durtlang Leitan2009

The third set of pictures highlighted captioned as Leitan 1954 (9) and Durtlang Leitan 1954 (10) is
compared to pictures captioned as Leitan 2009 (11) and Durtlang Leitan 2009 (12) respectively.
Necessity reasons the need to provide a foundation and then some.

179
 13. Zarkawt Point 1974 14. Zarkawt Point 2009

The fourth set of picture (13 & 14) highlighted is captioned as Zarkawt point in 1974 is compared to
picture captioned as Zarkawt, Aizawl 2009. The first vehicle driven to Mizoram (Aizawl) as recorded by
C. Rochhinga (Rochhinga, 1995) was in 1942, September 16th. The present statistics holds traffic of
62324 vehicles in Mizoram (Transport Department, 2009). Could this be an outcome of an
administrative premature urbanization/development?

15. Source of Water 1 16. Source of Water 2

The fifth set of pictures (15 & 16) highlighted is captioned as Source of water 1 and Source of water 2.
Year of Commission for water supply was implemented in the year 1988 with supply to 27985 house
hold connection and benefitted by 191700 in Aizawl city alone (Division, July 2009). The quantity of
supply was deemed as 54 litre per capita and was based on pumping system. Consumers have
increased exponentially due to centralization i.e. Aizawl city. Who is to blame, human nature or
power driven leadership? To emphasize this dilemma of consumers for Aizawl city alone; population
data are as the following:
The Population since 1951 are:‐
1951 Census ………………… 6,950
1961 Census ………………… 14,257
1971 Census ………………… 31,740
1981 Census ………………… 74,493
1991 Census ………………… 1, 55,240
(Directorate of Economics & Statistics, 2008)

17. Waste Disposal 1 18. Waste Disposal 2 19. Dumping Ground

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The Sixth set of pictures (17‐19) highlighted is captioned as Waste Disposal 1 (17), Waste disposal 2
(18) and Dumping Ground 2009 (19). Solid waste collection was based on a criteria circumventing a
total of 1317 Cum per day and 13170 Cum within 10 days (Urban Development and Poverty Elevation,
2009). Observers travelling the developing countries may not find this surprising but this is a result of
premature urbanization.

20. Aizawl Shopping Mall 2009 Formatted: Font: Calibri, 10 pt

This picture is the Millennium Centre ‐ captioned Aizawl, Shopping Mall 2009. Economic stability is
often measured with scales using GDP of the state. Does this justify the core problem?

These pictures are the soul of an amended constitution under the Government of India. If Social
influence can play a role in dismantling a situation that can worsen change in climate, what becomes
of leadership? Can this be an administrative dilemma? Is good governance yet a reality when
endogenous development as hypnotized by Huynh Cao Tri et al pg 180 Strategies for endogenous
Development © Unesco 1986 seems to be the choice of the people? A realistic question arises: who
am I to suggest a recommendation? Is there a soul that would implement my point of view? A
challenge!

Recommendation
Needless to specify the felicities of humans the following may be considered as recommendations:

1. Good governance that may realistically administer projects either planned or non‐planned or
internationally funded projects taken up by the state especially towards climate change, if
any.
2. Available and accessible funds towards awareness campaigns on Climate change allowing the
unfortunate masses to realize their contribution in a more subtle way.
3. Decentralization of units for instance, public sanitation, waste collection and its disposal.

Conclusion

An administrative challenge lies ahead for every government official. A preemptive solution rather
theorized as ‘living the primitive life’ is out of the question but an action requiring strong leadership
yet maintaining decorum of a society’s need and its uncertain ambitions taken into consideration
should be followed. Quoting Shakespeare: “…citizens of Rome, lend me your ears…” is a required
necessity.

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References

1. DERRICK, A. (2009) Highly Likely Poverty Induced Disease In Mongolia Will Significantly Threaten US
Political, Economic And Security Interests In Region.
2. DEUTSCH, M. & GERARD, H. B. (1955) A study of normative and informational social
influences upon individual judgment. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 51, 629‐636.
3. DIRECTORATE OF ECONOMICS & STATISTICS, M., AIZAWL (2008) Statistical Hand Book,
Mizoram
4. DIVISION, A. W. D. (July 2009) Aizawl Water supply Report July 2009.
5. REV, L. (2002) Mizo Chanchin, Aizawl, L.T.L Publications, Mission Veng, Aizawl.
6. ROCHHINGA, C. (1995) Aizawl a Motor Lut Hmasa Ber.
7.TRANSPORT DEPARTMENT, M. (2009) Vehicle Registration. Aizawl.
8.URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND POVERTY ELEVATION, M. (2009)
Municipal Solid Waste Collection Chart within Aizawl City.
9. WALKER, W., G (1972) Centralization and Decentralization:
An international viewpoint on an American dilemma. A Special CESEA report., University of
Oregon.

182
Photo Section

Fig. 1‐ Dimapur‐ Earth Hour '09 initiative by DMC‐ Kids from Hope Academy

Fig.2 ‐ A rented KMC disposal site beside NH 61

183
Fig.3 ‐ Massive smoking unsegregated garbage flowing down hill

Fig. 4 ‐ Kohima‐ A foot path on the verge of collapse and a pig sty
over a ward drainage system

184
Fig. 5‐ Water channels from the up‐ hill to Kohima town residents
passing through NH 61‐ the monthly bill ranging

Fig. 6‐Kohima‐ A man collecting water from a pipe leakage

in the middle of town

185
Traffic Movement Study Towards Strengthening
Existing Green Policy and Planning in Kohima Municipality
Renilo Nuh

1.0 Abstract

This paper deals with a felt need on the study of the existing traffic systems and the associated
pollutants from vehicle emissions contributing to the atmosphere on a daily basis in Kohima, which
is the capital of the state of Nagaland.The study covers physical aspects of vehicular movements,
policy and institutional planning, suggestive and corrective measures that could ameliorate present
situation primarily environment and socio‐economic benefits. This paper concentrates only on the
carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO) (equivalent to CO2) emitted from the vehicular
emission.

2.0 Introduction

It has been felt that traffic volume and traffic density has been increasing in the last few years in
Kohima municipality leading to more frequent traffic jams inducing more emissions from the
engines. Adding to the woe of traffic jam is the time lost, extra fuel consumption and most
importantly the associated emissions from the engine exhaust. Despite the existence of some
departments in the state machinery which should be concerned over the matter, there has been a
visible lack in spheres of research and planning basing upon actual data. It is envisaged that
collection and collation of data to study trends in changes in traffic pattern, the present situation
and prediction of future traffic condition will definitely help the government take a stringent action
towards pragmatic traffic systems and practices leading to a cleaner and greener environment.

Transportation planners in any developing and growing locality face a number of problems that
require innovative solutions. It has been projected that 70% of the air pollution is contributed by
emission from vehicular movement in India.52 In Kohima, large increase in urban population and
pollution have seriously compromised existing transportation systems and significantly increased
the challenge of creating future transportation systems leading to dire environmental
consequences. And despite extensive spending on urban transportation systems (especially 4‐
wheelers), the problems seem to only get worse.

3.0 Objective

The objective of conducting this study lies in the fact that this particular road stretch of Kohima has
been observed to having a high intensity of traffic movement and this road stretch has the highest
frequency of traffic jams in Kohima. This road stretch acts as the main lifeline connecting various
colonies of the municipality and caters to all kinds of slow and fast moving vehicles, different
categories of vehicles and serves as the only road connectivity to the states of Manipur and Assam.

It has been observed that traffic congestion on this road exists mostly due to poor planning on the
part of the authorities. This is despite the fact that there has been increase in the vehicular

52
http://www.gits4u.com/envo/envo4.htm#Air Pollution

186
movement owing to addition of new vehicles to the state. Table below shows the trend in increase
of vehicle due the addition of new vehicle and the ultimate increase in traffic density.

Table 1

Year 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

No. of Vehicles
2423 2820 2493 2921 3175 2591 3193 3230 3576 3817 3753
Registered
Source: Motor Vehicle Inspector, Regional Transport Office, Kohima

Table 2
Year No of Vehicles Cumulative Cumulative % in Average Cumulative %
Increase increase Increase Annually
1998 2423 2423
1999 2820 5243 53.78%
2000 2493 7736 32.22%
2001 2921 10657 27.41%
2002 3175 13832 22.95%
2003 2591 16423 15.78%
2004 3193 19616 16.28%
2005 3230 22846 14.14%
2006 3576 26422 13.53%
2007 3817 30239 12.62%
2008 3753 33992 11.04% 21.97%

Chart – I

Trend in Increase of Vehicles Registered

4500

4000
3817 3753
3576
3500

3175 3193 3230

3000
2921
2820
Nos of Vehicles

2591
2500 2493
2423
Series1
2000

1500

1000

500

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Year 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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Therefore, the principle objective of the study is to exert a major impact to the state government
towards strengthening the existing anomalies; to reducing emissions and also help the authorities to
come up with viable and people friendly planning leading to smoother and faster traffic movement
in the town that can be replicated in other towns of the state as well.

4.0 Causes of Traffic Congestion as per Study

It can be noted that the complex transportation problem in Kohima is triggered by certain trends, all
of them interrelated.

4.1 Urban population

Urban population growth is one such trend. For example, according to the 2001 census, the
approximate population of Kohima stood at 209630. By the year 2008, this figure shot up to 314366
which is a percentile growth of 33.3%. Projected population growth in next 10 years is 418106.78
and this will definitely lead to traffic paranoia.

Universally, it is a known fact that growth in population naturally causes growth in car ownership.
The trend in car procurement can be seen in Table ‐1. The mobility and affordability advantages of
these vehicles have diminished the pollution disadvantages and related environmental impacts. It
can be projected from the graph that in the next 10 years, the traffic volume in Kohima will stand at
X Nos.

4.2 Land Use Patterns

The interaction between land use and transportation is a complex relationship. In Kohima, allocation
of proper parking lots is very sparce, some government offices are in crowded areas of the city,
leading to traffic jams caused by the parked official cars. The location of hospitals, educational
institutions, churches, businesses, etc further add tho the chaos. Basic public amenities such as
electric poles, water supply pipelines, telecom lines are haphazardly placed, also hinder smooth
traffic flow on this stretch of road which is applicable in centre of town as well.

This complex relationship may become unmanageable in the next few years with the abrupt rise in
importance of the third dimension‐ “the environment”. This will make the relationship ‘ultra
complex’. Climate Change and carbon emission concerns associated with cities and their
transportation activity locally will place a great deal pressure on transportation systems and public
transport providers to deliver more sustainable solutions.

4.3 Policy and Planning

Proper policy tailored to the specific locality has to be put in place. Building bye‐laws are not being
implemented properly resulting in buildings flourishing by the roadsides without proper provision of
aprons and road shoulders as per Indian Roads Congress (IRC) specifications, all in the interest of
economic, politic gains. The absence of alternate route for heavy vehicles plying on the national
highways and a lack of separate thoroughfares for market centers, further compound the problem.

In this road stretch, there are 4 traffic points to regulate highway traffic. It is observed that the
cause of traffic jams is caused mainly by improper design at traffic intersections.

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 After crossing the first traffic point at PR
Hill, all vehicles coming from uphill
towards TCP gate has to be stopped
thrice to allow other vehicles coming
from other the end. There exists a lot of
conflicting points as shown below. These
conflict points are major causes of traffic
jams and a matter of concern related to
poor planning and design at traffic
intersections especially crossing,
diverging and merging maneuvers causing
delays and an increased probability of
accidents.

Fig1. Traffic Jn. At TCP Gate

• Conflict Points

Fig.2 Traffic Jn. at NSF Martyrs

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 Fig.3 Traffic Pt. At PWD Jn

5.0 Adverse Effects of Existing Improper Traffic Planning

Automobile pollution arises due to combustion of fossil fuel with air inside the cylinder of the
vehicle.

Fuel + Air Unburned Hydrocarbons + Nitrogen Oxides + Carbon monoxide + Carbon dioxide +
Water. The main automobile exhaust gases are Carbon Monoxide (CO), Carbon dioxide (CO2),
Hydrocarbon (HC), Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx), Particulate Matter (PM), Steam (H2O), etc Within a
certain range they are acceptable, but when they exceed the limits these are very harmful. Pollution
increases due to old vehicular technology and the quality of fuel.

The environmental and social impacts of traffic movement are significant because they are directly
related to quality of life and urban productivity. These effects include:

5.1 Health

The implications on health of these pollutants are of particular concern:

• Carbon Monoxide (CO) competes with oxygen in the bloodstream and is especially
dangerous to those with heart disease.
• Hydrocarbons (HC) are precursors to the formation of ground‐level ozone which leads to
smog. Several exhaust hydrocarbons have also been shown to be carcinogenic.
• Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) causes ground level ozone which aggravates respiratory conditions
and causes smog. NOx also contributes to acid rain.
• Particulate Matter (PM) has been shown to affect the respiratory function and has been
found to be carcinogenic in some studies.

On approaching the Naga Hospitals Authority, Kohima (NHAK), there has been increasing cases of
asthma, bronchitis and other allergies related to dust other particulate matters in the last few years.

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5.2 Congestion

It can be noted in Kohima per se that congestion is perhaps the most visible manifestation of the
failures in transportation planning by the authorities, and its costs are significant. The time lost
during traffic jams in this stretch of road is about 1hour normally, which can be covered in 5 minutes
when there is no traffic jam. The inclusive expenditure covering times that was lost for paying
salaries of office‐going staffs if calculated is enormous.

5.3 Energy consumption

Consumption of fuel during jams is much more as most vehicles stranded on this road stretch keep
their engines running during jams according to taxi drivers interviewed. The cost on fuel consumed
by vehicles in this road stretch, during traffic jams, works out to be a little over Rs.3 crores per year,
including cost of mechanical wear and tear.

5.4 Air pollution

Motor vehicles are a major source of air

pollution within human habitation. The
transportation sector is the most
rapidly growing source of greenhouse
gases. The detailed studies are
discussed in this paper.

5.5 Accidents
In terms of traffic accidents, recorded
occurrence of accidents related to
improper traffic planning stands at 33 Traffic jam at TCP gate Traffic Pt.
and casualty recorded is 15 in the last
three years i.e. 2005‐2008 (Source:
Superintendent of Police Office, Photo Courtesy: Deptt. of Urban Development
Kohima). However, the frequency is more as
most accidents in this road stretch are amicably settled between owners of vehicles themselves and
not recorded in police records.

6.0 Methodology and Approach

The case study was conducted on the road stretch along NH39 having an approximate distance of
about 1.26 kilometer, in the Kohima Municipality. Data relating to traffic count per hour per day and
the type of vehicles plying within this particular stretch and section of road was vital for the study.
Traffic count along the stretch of road was collected from Traffic Engineering Cell, Kohima
Municipality taking into consideration different categories of vehicles; identification of vehicles
using different types of fuels and its emissions levels recorded was procured from regional transport
office, Kohima. Simultaneously, with the collation of pollution levels of the types of vehicles, the
traffic volume and density was calculated according to formulae specified by Central Motor Vehicles
Rules, 1989. This was considered during peak hour in a day spreading across certain period of
weeks, months.

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6.1 Recording of emission of smoke, vapor, etc. from motor vehicles

Emission of smoke was done and compared with the emission standard as per Central Motor
Vehicles Rule, 1989. It states that, every motor vehicle, other than motorcycle engine (capacity not
exceeding 70CC), and for any petrol driven vehicle, the Mass Emission Standards for such vehicles
53
manufactured on and after 1st June 1999 is as follows:

For Petrol Driven Vehicles

Table ‐ 2
Passenger Cars (Cubic Capacity) CO(g/km) HC+NOx(g/km)
C>= 1400 8.68 3.00
C>1400>= 2000 11.20 3.84
C>2000 12.40 4.36

54
Emission Norms for Passenger Cars (Central Pollution Control Board)
Table ‐3
Norms CO(g/km) HC+NOx(g/km)
1991 Norms 14.3 ‐ 27.1 2.0 (Only HC)
1996 Norms 8.68 – 12.40 3.00 – 4.36
1998 Norms 4.34 – 6.20 1.50 – 2.18
India stage 2000 norms 2.72 0.97
Bharat stage II 2.2 0.5
Bharat stage III 2.3 0.35(combined)
Bharat stage IV 1.0 0.18(combined)

6.2 Analysis and Deductions

(2004 Traffic Census Data : Source, Traffic Engineering Cell, Govt. of Nagaland)

Location of Check Point:‐ NH39 (TCP Gate)

Duration of Census:‐ 7 days
Hours:‐ 12hours/day
Traffic intensity/day (No. of vehicles per day average of 7 days count):‐
a) Cars/jeep/vans :‐ 3715.42 Nos
b) Bus/Trucks:‐ 627.42 Nos
c) Two Wheelers:‐ 303.28 Nos
Traffic Intensity (Equivalent Passenger Car Units: PCUs)
a) Car/jeep/vans:‐ 3715.42x1* = 3715.42 Nos
b) Bus/Trucks:‐ 627.42x3* = 1882.26 Nos
c) Two Wheelers:‐ 303.28x0.5* = 151.64 Nos
d) Pedal Rickshaw:‐ Nil
e) Cycle:‐ Nil
f) Others:‐ Nil
Total PCU equivalent = 5749.32

53
The test was carried out using the instrument type approved as per rule 16(3) of the Central Motors Vehicles Rules, 1989 (CMVR) with
the vehicle engine warmed up after a run of minimum of 15 mins on a variable course under normal traffic condition. During the test, the
vehicle engine was running at idle speed and the sampling probe was inserted into the vehicle exhaust system to a depth not less than
300mm. In case CO and/ or HC emission values recorded.
54
http://www.cpcb.nic.in/Vehicular_Exhaust.php

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 Total traffic PCUs (Excluding slow moving) = 5749.32
Total traffic PCUs (Including slow moving) = 5749.32

Therefore, total traffic PCUs in one hour = 5749.32/12 = 479.11

Considering 1 PCU covering 1.26kM (0.777 miles) from PR Hill Junction till TCP Gate in 1 Hour in a
typical jam situation. This may be considered equivalent to have covering 25.2kMs (15.55 miles)
travelling @ 20 km/Hour during no jam condition.

Number of miles traveled by 1 PCU in one month = 1 x 30 x 15.55 = 466.5kM

Emission levels from 1 PCU equivalent = 1.65 Tons of CO equivalent per month55

Assuming that 30% of the above vehicles switch off engines during jams
Therefore, total number of vehicles engines emitting = (30/100) x 479.11 = 335.38

Emission from 335.38 PCUs per month in this road stretch = 1.65x335.38 = 553.37 Tons of CO
equivalent per month considering one hour count during peak hour (10:30am – 11:30 am) in a day.

It can be concluded from Table‐2 that the trend in increase from 1998‐2008 is 92.87%. Hence for the
next 10 years it can be projected that addition of new vehicles on this road by 2018 would be
increased drastically. It can be deduced that the emission would be (92.87x553.37)/100= 1068 tons
of CO per month considering only 1 hour in peak hour per day.

If the various projects under Urban Development materializes, one diverting the traffic on NH39 via
the Science College (refer Map‐2), leading to heavy vehicles being diverted away from the main
town and the other, widening of roads at traffic intersections especially near the war cemetery‐
these will greatly help in reducing “conflict points” (refer fig.1, fig.2, fig.3). It can be concluded that
60% of present traffic congestion could be done away with, thereby reducing 60% of emissions.

7.0 Conclusion

The traffic study in the interest of environmental well being can be conducted year after year by
concerned authorities, spreading over several months, in order to have more comprehensive and
reliable data to make accurate predictions. The study is expected to atleast create awareness
amongst the drivers of the threats to their environment and also help the government to properly
plan and adopt policies that are beneficial both for the economic progress of the area as well as the
environment.

8.0 Recommendations and Strategies for Solving Transportation Problems in

Kohima

1. Policy involving practices shall have to be strengthened. As of now, the state is adopting pollution
control measures adopted centrally, however, steps practicable to location specific has to be
identified.

55
Calculation based on standard Carbon Emission as in http://www.carbonify.com/carbon‐calculator.htm
* As per IRC specification, equivalency factor for Medium vehicle = 1, Heavy Vehicle = 5, Two Wheelers = 0.5

193
2. Strict enforcement of law for the phasing out old vehicles with excessive engine exhausts, which
do not pass Transport Safety norms.

3. Sustainable development emphasized and to be incorporated in the Master Plan of Kohima

Municipality (currently under development by Town Planning Deptt, Govt. of Nagaland) that could
substantially reduce the economic, environmental, and social costs of some of the negative trends
and impacts of existing transportation systems.

4. Provision for separate lane for heavy vehicles. The possible diversion of NH39 from Peducha
connecting Viswema village via BSF Camp, Kohima, in order to avoid NH39 that is currently passing
through the main town.

5. It has been reported that some petrol pumps use adulterated fuels. Checking on the quality of
fuel is a must by the authorities.

6. Expansion of road by atleast 5m at PWD junction traffic point and at TCP gate.

7. Full pavement of road shoulders is required as most drivers tend to remain in paved roads
avoiding road shoulders which are not paved. Present road width is about 7m blacktopped which
still have about 2m for paved expansion.

8. Procurement of latest equipments for studies, empowering authorities to better implement rules
and regulations.

9. It has been found that although vehicles are being tested to meet emission standards,
documentation procedures have not improved. Traffic accident cases and medical records of
accident cases should be properly documented, to provide a more accurate scenario of the gravity
of the situation. Traffic studies conducted by various departments have been few and far apart.
Such studies have to be carried out on a regular basis to enable planners arrive at the best solution.

10. As per Nagaland Building Bye Laws, 2001, Govt. of Nagaland, provisions for setbacks, right of
ways, parking specifications, building frontage are specified, however, some areas do not follow the
regulations causing traffic problems.

11. Demarcation of zones for residential, office, industrial activity etc. should be incorporated in any
future developmental plans.

12. As per IRC specifications, road width for a national highway, should be 8.80 metres for a two
lane road in mountainous and steep terrain. However, present road width is much less than what is
specified. This has reduced the carrying capacity of the road. Widening of the road is strongly
recommended especially at traffic intersections.

9.0 Expected Outcome

¾ Modification of existing roads by way of expansion and enforcing mandatory and

prohibitory rules
¾ Identification/rectification of possible anomalies in traffic practices.

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 ¾ Identification and creation of new thoroughfares that have conflicting points as discussed.
¾ Adoption of practices like car pooling by office employees to reduce vehicular congestion
and emission.
References

1. Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989, P85, Professional Book Publishers.

2. Central Pollution Control Boards, New Delhi
3. Highway Engineering, S.K. Khanna & C.E.G Justo, Nem Chand & Bros.Publishers, 2001.
4. http://www.carbonify.com/carbon‐calculator.htm
5. http://www.gits4u.com/envo/envo4.htm#Air Pollution

Definitions

Traffic Volume – is the number of vehicles moving in a specified direction on a given lane that pass a
given section in a specified unit of time usually expressed as vehicles per hour or vehicles per day.

Traffic Density – is the number of vehicles occupying a unit length of lane at a given instant usually
expressed as vehicles per km
Map of Study Area
MAP‐1 Yellow lines depicting paths of study area

Map Source: Google Earth

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 MAP-2

Red – Proposed
Green - Competed
Blue - Existing

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Community Regulated Payment of Eco Services in Tuensang
Takum Chang

Abstract/Summary

According to many experts, water and its availability and quality will be the main issue for societies
and the environment under climate change. Climate, freshwater, biophysical and socio‐economic
systems are interconnected and interdependent in complex ways.

Water resources, both in terms of quantity and quality, are critically influenced by human activity,
including agriculture and land‐use change, construction, management of reservoirs and water shed
management.

Water use is linked primarily to demographic change in population, food consumption, economic
policy, technology, lifestyle and society’s views about the value of freshwater ecosystems. In order
to asses the relationship between climate change and freshwater, it is necessary to consider how
freshwater has been, and will be, affected by changes in these non‐climatic drivers.

Management of water shed areas is vital aspect to sustain the availability of water for drinking and
agriculture.

An expanded use of economic incentives like Payment of Ecosystem Services (PES) to encourage
water conservation holds considerable promise for management of water sheds, water savings and
the reallocation of water to highly valued uses.

It is important to draw the attention of policymakers and stakeholders about the implications of
climate change and climate change response options for water resources.

Introduction

National action plan on climate change encompass mission on water, sustaining the Himalayan
ecosystem and creating carbon sink asset. This case study may underline how the three missions i.e.
National water mission, National mission for sustaining the Himalayan ecosystem and national
mission for a green India – carbon sinks, could be looked at as an interconnected and
interdependent entity.

Tuensang is located on the eastern most part of Nagaland bordering Myanmar. Tuensang remained
un‐administered by the British. Only after independence of India, the people of this area started
reaching out by administering activity of India. Since then the people were led to a state of
dependency on the government support.

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 Distance view of Tuensang

Since time immemorial, the people of Tuensang were self sufficient. Their economy was purely
based on agriculture, mainly jhum cultivation and every individual possessed land.

Lakdak is a pristine forest on the eastern side of Tuensang Town. Tuensang Town and Tuensang
Village gets its water from the Lakdak area which is owned primarily by two of the four Khels of
Tuensang village (with 1242 households) – Lomou Khel and Kangshou Khel. Availability of required
water for the terrace fields in the downstream depends on the Lakdak water shed area.

The forest is enduring rampant deforestation for firewood, timber and charcoal. Some few clansmen
derive monetary benefits and in some cases, poor ignorant villagers are paid small amounts by
loggers to cut down trees which are more than thousand years old.

The foothill ends of this forest are also transformed into cultivable land by the people belonging to
the tribes of Chang, Sangtam, Yimchunger and Khiamniungan living in Tuensang town, after paying
meager yearly amounts to the landowners. The town dwellers depend on Lakdak forest for
vegetables, corn, fire‐wood, timber, charcoal and animal fodder.

Due to rampant deforestation, the Lakdak water sources have been drastically decreased and
should the trend continue, all the water sources will dry up completely. It has been learnt that the
water from Lakdak, which is known for being clean and clear throughout the year, now gives muddy
colored water during rainy seasons.

With increasing population, the terrain of deforested spots in Lakdak will keep on expanding due to
adverse human activity. The downstream terrace cultivation, which has been alternative to jhum
cultivation impacting environment has been threatened due to reduced amount of water provided
by Lakdak watershed.

The villagers agree that with decreased water from Lakdak watershed which is under rampant
deforestation, they have to depend on seasonal rainfall for their rice cultivation in the down stream.
They have sensed that rainfall pattern has been drastically altered in the last few years.

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The need to preserve this forest is to address the decreasing water resources and preserve the
forest as a reservoir for carbon sink.

The Study

Objective

• To engage the community in jointly studying on how preservation of primary forest will lead
to retaining water table along the Lakdak range, thereby affecting sustained livelihood and
positively contributing to the global climate.
• To study the community management of forest resources and initiate ownership of the
water and help in crediting value to the rich carbon deposit in the region.
• As an outcome of the study, it is anticipated that the end users will be mobilized to ensure
payment for environmental services.

Methodology

Participatory approach

• One to one interaction and one to group interaction

Interacted with villagers to share with them and also learnt from them about the
climate change imperatives. The villagers revealed several local observations on climate
change.

• Focus group discussion.

The villagers were divided into groups where each group being represented from Village
elders, farmers, land owners, SHG and women group(s).

• Interview.
Unstructured interview was carried out to know more on traditional forest, biodiversity,
livelihood and water.

• Dialogue.
Dialogue with the clan elders and government machineries had been carried out and the
process will continue. Through the dialogues, the commitment of the clan elders to
preserve Lakdak forest has been strengthen. Need for better policy of the government
department to manage the watershed areas and improved distribution system has been
discussed.

• Workshop for all the stakeholders.

Workshop for the town dwellers, farmers, land owners, village elders, loggers and
women had been conducted.

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Assessment

The villagers of Tuensang get water for drinking, for irrigation and for fishery activities from the
Lakdak water shed. They also get timber, fuel wood, cane, wild berries, fruits, nuts and edible
vegetable leaves from Lakdak forest.

Lakdak forest is under rampant deforestation. Logging is mostly done by the town dwellers. Serious
initiatives need to be undertaken with stakeholders to deter rampant salvaging of common
resources.

Jhum Clearance Jhum Encroaching Pristine Forest

The foothill ends of this forest are also transformed into cultivable land by the people belonging to
the tribes of Chang, Sangtam, Yimchunger and Khiamniungan living in Tuensang town, after paying
meager yearly amounts to the landowners. The town dwellers depend on Lakdak forest for
vegetables, corn, fire‐wood, timber, charcoal and animal fodder.

The land owners lease off half an acre of land for Rs. 500/‐ to town dwellers. The town dwellers get
firewood, timber and land to cultivate. The town dwellers cultivate this land for two years and also
cut the trees that falls within the perimeter of land which they leased from the land owner.
With the increase in population, the terrain of deforested spots in Lakdak will keep on expanding.

Timber From Lakdak Forest Drying Water Source in Lakdak

In the downstream, the terrace cultivation, which has been an alternative to jhum cultivation, has
been threatened due to reduced amount of water provided by Lakdak watershed. Lakdak water
shed is responsible for providing sufficient water for the farmers to irrigate their terrace rice
cultivation and also the fishery ponds of the farmers. The farmers are already apprehensive of
decrease in the volume of water they get from Lakdak water shed. They opined that the decreased
volume of water at the moment is the least they have ever experienced in their record.

200
Tuensang town may be the only town in Nagaland where the people have not experienced scarcity
of water. The abundance of water supply to Tuensang town is been assured by the Lakdak water
shed. All the water source of Tuensang town and Tuensang village is located in Lakdak water shed.
There are four water sources in Lakdak for Tuensang town which are maintained by the Public
Health Engineering Department (PHED), Government of Nagaland. At present the end users of
Lakdak water source are paying Rs. 50 as water bill to PHED.

Observation

As the population increases, the pressure on Lakdak forest has drastically increased. The cultivable
land becoming reduced and thus the people have started encroaching the forest area. Rampant
forest exploitation limits the services provided by Lakdak forest. Decrease in availability of water,
both potable and for irrigation in the downstream is the most affected phenomenon due to rampant
deforestation undertaking in Lakdak forest.

The land owners of the Lakdak forest were mostly those belonging to poor section of the society.
The community, who are already facing less food productivity and high price rise, need resources for
the management this forest.

There are many landowners who have not ventured into the forest for a long time and have no idea
on status of standing trees and logging done in Lakdak forest. The town dwellers have extra money
to pay for standing tree.

The once self sufficient people now feel that the government is the provider of infrastructure and
aid. For this once self sufficient community that lived closely attached to nature as a flourishing
society is a thing of the past and today they are deemed as the people living in the fringes of
developmental atlas. It is the question of modern development making them a dependent society
and relegating them to the lowest strata of development.

There are about 2000 house holds which is 43% of total households of Tuensang Town who are
paying water bill to PHED. Independent surveys have noticed that there are many households which
are not paying water bill and hence regulated user payee guidelines need to be put into force.

The villagers have now realized that they are very much dependent on unpredictable and erratic
rainfall as the water tables in the river have decreased. The villagers also have instinctively realized
that the decrease in the volume of water flow in the rivers is due to decrease in their forest cover.

Villager Elders Participating in the Interaction PRA with the Villagers

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It is observed that the community of Tuensang has been already experiencing climatic changes and
adapting to those changes. PRA with the villagers revealed that their sowing season has been
changed. There is a shift in cultivation pattern of Jhum and terrace rice cultivation due to change in
rainfall pattern. Various crops are sowed one month earlier than the previous sowing month. Some
of the crops which are grown at lower altitude are undergoing upward trend and so have to be
grown at higher altitude. They have already changed some cropping pattern. Every year, most of the
farmers practicing terrace rice cultivation (TRC) have to wait for the arrival of monsoon to transplant
the rice sapling in their fields. Some irrigation channels are abandoned due to drying rivers.

Rampant deforestation for timber and firewood has resulted in decreased water discharge in the
river and deteriorating soil fertility. Decreased water discharge in the river system has affected
fishery ponds and aquatic life forms. Some farmers have to abandon part of their terrace field due
to shortage of water. Village wells are drying up and springs near the villages start flowing only in
the late summer and that too only for few months.

The community also stated about the loss of medicinal plants due to warmer temperature,
emergence of new species of snails in terrace rice field and emergence of new species of
mosquitoes and flies. The community experience warmer temperature and lesser winter days.
Forest fires are new phenomenon. A species of bird that raids rice field found in lower elevation is
now found in higher elevation.

Women groups indicated that some indigenous crops are less productive. A variety of tomato from
neighboring plain areas now grows well which otherwise was unsuitable when the villagers tried
before. Women also recognized that pest and disease infestation is more in plants and especially on
vegetables in recent decade. They also highlighted the prevalence of various anthropogenic
diseases. They also reported about the dying of bamboo species without flowering.

Key Outcomes

People of Tuensang are willing to pay Rs. 5 and give it to land owners to use it in the management of
Lakdak water shed. As observed, it is not the payment of Rs. 5 by the end users that matters most‐
but the whole community and the end users becoming conscious of the value of natural resources
and services available from mountain ecosystem.

Advocacy with the government has already been initiated. The PHED department has to change
their age old practice of just finding perennial water sources and abandon it when the sources dry
up. The department has to look for the opportunity to manage the water shed area to enhance the
quantity and quality of water. The distribution system of water it the towns and municipals are not
properly planned which has resulted in wastage of water and inequitable use of water resources.

In the course of interaction with the villagers, it is revealed that they have already resolved to
strengthen the conservation of their traditional preserved forests as they realized that forests are
important for sustaining water flow for their agriculture. The community also realized that
availability of water for their fields is vital for their food security. Management, conservation of
common pool resources entails sustainable use by both upstream and down stream people.

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The Ecosystem services provided by natural forest include climatic regulation, water regulation &
supply, erosion control, soil rejuvenation, nutrient cycling, genetic resource, food production and
recreation. It is envisaged that the community with the involvement of all stakeholders, will be able
to mobilize themselves to harness the value of these services. The worth of these services will
enable the community to help in dynamic sustenance of both human life and environment.

Gaps

Knowledge gap

The community and the land owners fall short to value the services provided by the natural forest.
Many land owners could not evaluate or appraise current status of the forest that belongs to them.

Economic inequity

The town dwellers are more economically robust than the village community. The town dwellers
have money to pay for the trees owned by the villagers. As most of the land owners belong to
poorer section of the society, they easily concede to the offer of meager amount of money for the
trees by the town dwellers.

Policy implications/Recommendation.

• Negotiate with the stake holders and provide guidelines for the land use.
• Regulate safeguard principles against destruction of trees under lease land.
• Implement development initiative that provides sustainable livelihood for the poor
community. Providing an alternative livelihood for the community ensures the decrease of
dependency and exploitation of forest resources.
• The government establishments looking after water resources have to formulate strategy to
maintain the water shed areas to retain the quantity and quality of water.
• Intensive study has to be carried out to fill in the gaps that exist in the management of
natural resources and livelihood of the community.

Conclusion

Payment for ecosystem services (PES) could be an important approach to encourage the
stakeholders to conserve and manage the Lakdak mountain eco‐system.
The challenge is to address the issue of the community depending on services provided by the
Lakdak forest for their livelihood. Providing alternative livelihood options for those communities
that depend on the services provided by Lakdak forest will decrease the pressure on the forest for
its environmental resources. The stakeholders contributing some amount for the maintenance of
forest will have a sense of ownership over the services provided by Lakdak forest.

PES may be able to make all the stakeholders to become conscious of the value of common natural
resources and services available from mountain ecosystem. The government establishment for
water resources may now be more aware on significance of management of water shed areas to
retain the quantity and quality of water. The availability of water for drinking and agriculture is

203
closely related to the management of water shed areas especially for those upstream communities
living on the mountain range. The management of Lakdak forest by the community through the PES
could be replicated in all the hilly regions where the communities have close relation with the forest
and depend much on services provided by the forests.

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Impact of Grazing on Perennial Water Sources in Hee Bermiok,
West Sikkim
Markit Lepcha & TB Subba

Summary

Hee Bermiok is the mixed community village located in the fringe of the Barsey Rhododendron
Sanctuary with an area of 104 sq km, at an attitude of 5500 ft above mean seas level. Limboo,
Chettri, Bhutia and Tamang are the communities residing in this village with diverse occupation. The
perennial streams that flow through the villages originate from the Hee Reserve. Before this forest
was declaration as a Sanctuary, it was heavily exploited for livestock grazing and collection of
various forest produce like timber and firewood. As a result of this heavy exploitation, almost all the
perennial streams flowing through the Hee Bermiok Village, which are the main sources of water for
the local inhabitants, are gradually drying up.

Soon after the declaration of this forest as protected area, livestock grazing was discouraged and all
the local residents removed their livestock from the forest area. This on one hand led to the
improvement of the health of the forest, but on the other hand, this move to restrict cattle grazing
in the forested areas has adversely affected the livelihoods of the locals.

Introduction

Among the different eco‐systems, the greater Himalayas have one of the most fragile ecosystems
which is crucial for the wellbeing of the entire planet. It is imperative that this fragile ecosystem is
conserved and protected for the sake of human survival. It has been a common practice for many
decades to allow grazing of cattle in these mountains. The local herders also construct and maintain
permanent cattle sheds in the mountainous forests.

Deforestation has become one of the key drivers of climate change and grazing in the Himalayas
has been a key factor responsible for deforestation.

Complete loping of broad leaved trees in the temperate forest for fodder by the herders has
contributed to climate change by minimizing leaf surface for carbon trapping during photosynthesis.
The reduction in green cover has resulted in more carbon dioxide being present in the atmosphere,
which is a primary cause of global warming.

There should be a ban on building cattle sheds inside the temperate and alpine forests of the
Himalayas and as well as a ban on livestock grazing in order to protect the mountain eco‐system.

All the herders involved in grazing livestock in the temperate forest are from marginal economic
status and therefore they require sustainable alternative livelihood options. These people can be
involved in the Eco‐Tourism activities that can be promoted in these villages since the natural and
cultural resources are already present.

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Study

To find out the quantum of pressure caused by grazing on the natural resources (Fodder/Firewood)
of the forest and ways in which the availability of these natural resources have been affected.

To find out the improvement in the environment after grazing was completely stopped in the Hee
Reserve Forest

Methodology

All the herders who had cattle sheds in the Hee Reserve Forest were interviewed and considered for
this study and all the required information collected from them. The study also aims to find out
what alternative livelihoods methods they adopted after they removed their cattle sheds and
stopped grazing in the forest. And whether their alternative livelihood was sustainable or not. In
order to co relate the grazing impact, average annual data for the least 8 years was collected from
the Rain Fall Data Collection Centre at Dentam, located very closed to Hee Bermiok.

For the mitigation of the adverse impact of climate change due to deforestation, the option of
ecotourism in the village can be considered by the ex‐herders as an alternative means of livelihood.

Analysis

There is slight improvement in the forest cover that has improved. This may be a direct consequence
of the ban imposed on grazing. The rainfall data also indicates an improvement in the rainfall
pattern in the region.

The rain fall data collected from the Rainfall Data Collection Centre at Dentam near Hee Bermiok is
as follows:

Figure I

Year 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Average
Annual 6.90 5.78 7.92 4.94 5.49 6.03 6.46 5.11
rainfall

The as per the above data of average annual rainfall for eight years shows that there has been a
slight decrease in the rainfall pattern in the region which directly affects the water sources in the
forest. This is a direct result of deforestation.

Policy implications

The people depended on the forest for their livelihood requirements and the loss of the forest
grazing land has had an adverse economic impacted on them. They have not been able to find a
suitable alternative to effectively meet their economic needs. In such a scenario, the prospect of the

206
 local population taking up eco‐tourism as a primary means of livelihood is a very lucrative
proposition; more so because the Hee Bermiok village is very rich in natural and ethnic cultural
heritage.

Effective interventions needed.

The local residents who depended on this Hee Reserve Forest should be educated and made aware
of the ill‐effects of climate change, global warming and the serious impact that livestock grazing has
upon the forest and the perennial water sources. Alternative livelihood options have to be provided
so that people follow environmentally friendly means of livelihood to mitigate the impact of grazing
and other such activities which have an adverse bearing on the environment and lead to climate
change and global warming.

Data
LIST OF EX‐COW HERDERS OF HEE BERMIOK WHO STOPPED GRAZING IN THE FOREST LAND.

Sl. Name of ex‐ Parentage Address No. of Cattles Fodder/ Fire Period Stop Fodder Firewood
Collec
No. herder Cow/b Day In wood/ of ped Collection
tion
hl day grazing grazing
1 Dhan Raj LT Budhi Raj Sapong 23 12 2 34 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Khamthak ( Rai Maila) Kengbari
2 Bhakta Bdr Lt Aito Pethey line 22 12 2 40> 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Khamthak (Askotey) Kengbari
3 Chabi Nath Lt Bhim Bdr Sapong 20 9 2 40> 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Khatri Kengbari
4 Bahadur Lt Bhim Bdr Sapong 30 15 3 40> 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Khatri Kengbari
5 Kul Bdr Khatri Lt Bhim Bdr Sapong 16 6 2 40> 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Kengbari
6 Dirgha Singh Lt Bhim Bdr Sapong 10 4 2 40> 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Khatri Kengbari
7 Budhi Man Lt Jas Bdr Kengbari 18 8 2 40> 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Tamling (Chaphutey)
8 Jas Dhoj Lt Bahadur Kengbari 12 5 2 40> 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Phago (Karbari)
9 Sri Dhoj Lt Run Bdr Upper 16 7 2 40> 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Phurumbo (Haldar S ) Kengbari
10 Suk Raj Lt Karan Dhoj Upper 12 5 2 40> 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Phurumbo (Sriman) Kengbari
11 Bir Bdr Lt. Lt Dhan Sapong 12 5 2 8 1990 Lopped Only Dry
grass

207
 Sawaden Bdr Kengbari
(Maneybng)
12 Dhan Bdr Lt Jagat Bdr Kengbari 46 17 3 40> 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Bista (Thebey)
13 Run Bdr Lt Laxman Sapong 16 6 2 30 1993 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Bhandari Bhandari Kengbari
14 Shribhakta Lt. Krishna Sapong 15 6 2 30 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Basnett Bdr Kengbari
15 Til Bdr Subedi Tej Bdr Pechrek 26 11 2 40> 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Subedi
16 Chandra Bdr Tej Bdr Pechrek 16 7 2 12 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Subedi Subedi
17 Jas Bdr Lt Dik Bdr Pechrek 32 15 3 40> 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Bhandari
18 Hari Bdr Bista Lt Puk Man Hee Gaon 9 4 2 6 1995 Lopped Only Dry
grass
(Lutey)
19 Krishna Lall Lt Janga Bdr Sapong 25 10 2 30 1990 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Bista (Jugey Knch) Kengbari
20 Gadur Singh Aita Singh Hee Gaon 28 12 3 13 1992 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Tamling (Lall Saila)
21 Kul Bdr Bista Lt Parti Man Hee Gaon 25 11 2 40 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
(Ledey)
22 Janga Bdr Kul Bdr Hee Gaon 20 8 2 40 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Bista (Tikhey)
23 Nor Bdr Bista Jit Man Hee Patal 45 18 3 40 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
(Khudey
Maila)
24 Srinarayan Jit man Hee Patal 40 17 3 40 1994 Lopped Only Dry
grass
Bista (Khudey
Kaila)
25 Chandra Bdr Jit Man Hee Patal 60 25 4 40 1994 Lopped Lopped
grass grass
Bista (Khudey
Jetha)
26 Bhakta Bdr Tika Ram Hee Patal 20 8 2 40 1994 Lopped Lopped
grass grass
Kunwar (Rafangey)
27 Sarman Khanuedarey Hee Patal 25 8 2 40 1994 Lopped Lopped
grass grass
Kunwar Kancha
28 Kenzang Chyadarey Hee Patal 20 8 2 40 1994 Lopped Lopped
grass grass

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 Bhutia
29 Pem Gyatso Muktiar Hee Patal 12 5 2 40 1994 Lopped Lopped
grass grass
Bhutia Kancha
30 Angi Bhutia Sishney Jetha Hee Patal 16 6 2 40 1994 Lopped Lopped
grass grass
31 Pem Tenzing Eskuley Jetha Hee Patal 16 6 2 40 1994 Lopped Lopped
grass grass
Bhutia
32 Needup Pou Antarey Hee Patal 20 8 2 40 1994 Lopped Lopped
grass grass
Bhutia
33 Bal Kumar Goguney Hee Patal 17 6 2 40 1994 Only Dry
Bista Kancha
Total 740 Nos. 312 hl 74 hl

1. Fodder was collected only by lopping of trees for stall feeding and grass was
for grazing purpose. Firewood is dry firewood.

As per the above data it has been found 740 cows grazed in a small area of hardly 10 sq km.
Daily 312 head load of fodder was collected only from the lopping of Oak, Maple and Mechilus
trees which are broad leaf varieties responsible for the carbon sequestration. Daily 74 head load
of firewood was collected and consumed, which were the branches of the broadleaf tree. It was
a serious impact of grazing and herding in the forest resulting in climate change and global
warming. All the water sources of perennial streams were damaged and disturbed by the
grazing cattle.

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Stakeholders meeting with CCLs Markit Lepcha and TB Subba at Case Study Site Formatted: Font: Calibri, 11 pt

Formatted: Centered

Meeting with Cattle herders and CCLs Markit and TB Subba at Case study site Formatted: Font: Calibri, 11 pt

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Regional Advisory Committee ‐ North East

Mr. Amba Jamir is a development consultant and Director, The Missing Link (TML
India) ‐ Society for Environment and Communication, that works in the Eastern
Himalayan region, particularly Northeast India. . He is a trained environment
educator and communicator with a degree in law and specialised on
environmental law.

Mr. Nalong Mize is the Chief Functionary and Director of Program Operations of
Future Generations India. He has a Bachelor’s Degree in Sociology from the
University of Delhi and Post‐Graduate Diploma in Advertising and Public Relations.

Mr. Raj Kumar Verma has been a member of the civil service in the Government
of Nagaland. At present he is Joint Secretary in the Government of Nagaland,
Deputy Team Leader of NEPED and Project Director of the World Bank assisted
NERLP.

Dr. Saroj K. Barik is an Associate Professor (Reader) of Ecology working with the
Department of Botany, North‐Eastern Hill University (NEHU), Shillong. He is also a
Member of the Core Group in the Regional Centre of National Afforestation and
Eco‐development Board, Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt. of India
located at NEHU, Shillong.

Ms. Deepshikha Deka is Deputy Chief Engineer with the M/S Oil India Ltd., in
Duliajan, Assam. Her area of interest is, environmental impact assessment studies,
especially related to hydrocarbon exploration and drilling.

211
Mr. Lalbiak Mawia Ngente is the Chairman of L.B.Associates ‐ the premier
architecture and construction consultancy firm in Mizoram and the Chief
Executive of Aizawl West Building Centre. As an architect, his main interest lies in
sustainable and appropriate building technology, improvement of rural housing
and socio‐economic conditions of the people.

Mr. Thomas Chandy, a 1985 batch Indian Forest Service officer, he is a Chief
Conservator of Forests in the Forests, Environment and Wildlife Department of
the Government of Sikkim. He is responsible for the administration and
enforcement of forest and wildlife laws in four territorial divisions. He is also
involved in forest management policy making.

Brij Mohan Singh Rathore is an Indian Forest Service officer of the1982 batch. He
is recipient of national award "Indira Priyadarshini Vriksh Mitra Award”, for
excellence in community based forest management. He is curremtly engaged with
the Winrock India.

Dr. Joyshree Roy is Professor of Economics at Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal. She
initiated and also coordinates the Global Change Programme at Jadavpur University.

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Regional Advisory Committee ‐ North

Dr. Pushkin Phartiyal is Executive Director of Central Himalayan Environment

Association (CHEA) based at Nainital and working for Indian Central Himalayas.
Before joining his current assignment, Dr. Phartiyal was a faculty for seven years
with the Centre for Development Studies working under aegis of apex training
institute Uttarakhnad Academy of Administration, Nainital. Dr. Phartiyal has a
post‐graduate degree in Sociology, a Ph D in History and Post Graduate
Diplomas in Journalism & Mass Communication and Tourism.

Prof S. P. Singh is former Vice Chancellor, HNB Garhwal University. He is a

Fellow of the Indian National Science Academy. Forest Ecology of the Himalayas
is his principal area of interest. He has more than 32 years of research
experience.

Dr. G.C.S. Negi is working as Scientist (Forest Ecology) at G. B. Pant Institute of Himalayan
Environment & Development. His research area is Ecological Economics and
Environmental Impact Analysis. He was also awarded the Visiting Fellowship by
the Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Bangalore. He
has over 80 publications to his credit both in National and International
journals.

Mr. Rajiv Bharti is an officer of the Indian Forevst Service and belongs to the
Uttranchal Cadre. He is presently working as Conservator of Forests, Bhagirathi
Circle. He is a member of the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas and
has been closely involved with formulation of guidelines and capacity building in
the eco‐development programmes for involving in biodiversity conservation and
in launching awareness and interpretation programmes both at Corbett and at
WII.

Mr. Kapil Mohan is presently working as Director (Distribution) in Ministry of

Power, Government of India. Prior to this assignment he was at Woodrow
Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, USA, as
McNamara Fellow and worked in areas of public policy and science, technology
and environmental policy. Major areas of interest include public infrastructure,
public finance, energy and climate change issues and application of good
scientific ideas to solve environmental issues.

213
Mrs. Purnima Chauhan is Special Secretary (IPH) to the Gov. of Himachal Pradesh
& Executive Director (HIMUDA) and is based in Shimla, Himachal Pradesh. Room No.A‐411
Armsdale Building, H.P. Secretariat Shimla‐171002

Dr. S. S. Samant is Scientist‐in‐Charge at the GBPIHED, Himachal Unit,

Mohal‐Kullu‐ 175 126, Himachal Pradesh

Dr. Gopal S. Singh is Senior Lecturer, Department of Botany, BHU, Varanasi.

Dr. Ashish Tewari is Lecturer, Forestry Department, DSB Campus, Kumaun University, Nainital,
Uttarakhand.

Mr. Digvijay Singh Khati is CEO, Uttarakhand Bamboo and Fiber Development Board, WMD Indira
Nagar Forest Colony, PO New Forest, Dehradun, Uttarakhand

214
Profile of CCLs

1. Anita Paul is Director (Community Initiatives) in Pan Himalayan

Grassroots Development Foundation (Grassroot), Ranikhet,
Uttarakhand. A graduate in Sociology and Masters in Social Works from
Delhi University, she is involved in organising networks of women in the
Himalaya, with the primary idea of empowering them to harness their
energies and engage in bringing forth change and development at the
grassroots in languishing river basins. She has created network of over
2,000 women who are currently scaling‐up rural business initiatives in
the central Himalaya.
Email: apaul@grassrootsindia.com

2. Dr. Anjuli Agarwal has a Masters and a Ph.D. Degrees in Biochemistry

from G.B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar. She
is Associate Professor in G. B. Pant University of Agriculture &
Technology, Pantnagar since May 2003. She joined the University as a
Lecturer in 1993. At present she is posted at one of the research stations
of the university, Agricultural Research Station, Majhera for the past five
years. She has established Plant Tissue Culture Laboratory at ARS,
Majhera and producing at present plants of Bamboo and Ginger. She is also doing work on
in vitro conservation of Dactylorhiza hatagirea, an endangered medicinal plant of High
Himalaya. She has handled and completed various projects funded by various agencies. She
has successfully transplanted micro propgules of bamboo in field.
Email: anjulit@rediffmail.com

3. Mr. Ashish Rawat has a post graduate degree in environment science

and pursuing his Ph.D. from Forest Research Institute, Dehradun. He is
working as a project associate in the Ecology & Environment Division of
the reputed Forest Research Institute, Dehradun.
Mr. Rawat has taken up several studies related to role of native plant
species to mitigate the landslide problems. He is having keen interest on
the studies relating to impact of global valuation of landslide resources,
bio‐stabilization of landslide areas and ecological & economical valuation of landslides. Mr.
Rawat has also done work on Municipal Solid Waste Management and eco‐restoration of
derelict Mined areas.

He is presently working on ecological & geological aspect of landslide problem in Garhwal

Himalaya.
Email: ashish.fri@gmail.com

215
4. Shri Jagat Singh ‘JANGLI’ is a farmer and a prominent environmentalist of
Uttarakhand. He is a great advocate of mixed forests and received a great
success in increasing forest cover. He developed a technique of Forest‐
agriculture without harming forest trees, which has helped not only in
livelihood generation but also in ground water recharge. In addition to this
he is also engaged in cultivation of rare‐endangered medicinal plants like
Saussurea costus (Kuth), Picrorhiza kurrooa (Kutki), Potentilla spp.
(Bajradanti), Dactylorrhiza hatagirea (Salampanja) etc. He has replicated
mixed Forest model in various other places too and thus, enhanced people’s participation in
the region.
Shri Singh has been awarded with more than 35 times for his contributions to different
environment related activities. Some important awards include ‘Gauradevi, Uttarakhand
Gaurav, Him Gaurav, Green Award, and Priyadarshini Indira Gandhi Brikshamitra award
2000’.
Presently he is associated with HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar for developing a mixed
forest model for the wasteland available in the university.
Email: c/o CHEA at hcbjoshi@gmsail.com

5. Sh. Jagdish Singh is Scientist in Himalayan Forest Research Institute (HFRI),

Shimla (H.P). He has over 15 years experience in the field of forestry
research and has extensively worked for the sustainable development of
rural ecosystems and communities. Dr. Singh has Masters and M. Phil
Degrees in Botany from Punjab University Chandigarh.
Email: singhj@icfre.org

6. Manish Khanna is a qualified chartered accountant with extensive

experience in auditing of entities involved in climate change and sustainable
livelihood. During the course of professional assignments, Mr. Khanna has
gained in‐depth knowledge of issues related to climate change affecting
society at micro levels, especially rural areas. As a keen believer in
managing climate change at micro levels, he has also organized an
afforestation drives by funding from own resources. Manish regularly gives monetary
assistance to rural communities from his resources with a view to enable them to acquire
new means of sustainable development and improve livelihoods.
Email: karma.and.prayes@gmail.com

216
7. Mr. Manoj Bhatt earned his Masters Degree in International Affairs
(MIA) in 2005‐07 from School of International and Public Affairs (SIPA),
Columbia University, New York. In the same year Mr. Bhatt received
Environment Protection through Incentives for Conservation (EPIC) Luce
Foundation Special Fellowship Award by Columbia Business School to
write case studies on Van Panchayats (Forest Councils). Mr. Bhatt is
presently the Executive Director of Research, Advocacy and
Communication In Himalayan Areas (RACHNA), based in Laxman Chock,
Dehradun.
Email: manojbtt@gmail.com

8. Dr. Pankaj Tewari is Senior Project Manager in Central Himalayan

Environment Association (CHEA), Nainital. He has worked on indo‐
gangetic plains to study genetic characters of Shisham and change
occurring due to various environmental alterations. He has vast
experience of working with rural communities on livelihood improvement
programmes through sustainable usage of natural resources and
strengthening of Van Panchayats.
Email: pankutewari@gmail.com

9. Mr. Prabhu Dayal Sharma is the Director of Parvatiya Jana Shiksha Evam
Vikash Sangthan. Mr. Sharma has been engaged in the spread of
environmental awareness among people for Himalaya and its climate. He
has mainly worked in Hilly regions and addressed the problems of water,
climate change, forests and safety measures. At present, he is involved in
the formation and strengthening of Self Help Groups (SHGs), water
management through rain water harvesting, off‐season vegetable
cultivation, medicinal plant cultivation, technical trainings, farmers club and local resource
utilization.
Email: c/o CHEA at hcbjoshi@gmail.com

10. Mrs. Rama Bisht is a social worker and working in Himalayan Hills for the
last 15 years in the far flung villages. She is the President of Social and
Cultural Society‐AAS, and has been working with community of Bhimtal
development block for the last 09 years.
Email: c/o CHEA at hcbjoshi@gmsail.com

11. Dr. Ravindra Kumar Joshi did his Masters and Ph.D. in zoology from Almora
Campus College, Kumaun University Naintal. Dr. Joshi has been working as a
Research Associate for last two years in Govind Ballabh Pant Institute of
Himalayan Environment & Development (GBPIHED), an Autonomous
Institute of Ministry of Environment & Forest Govt. of India.
Email: rhinoraboo@yahoo.com

217
12. Mr Rohit Devlal is a post graduate in forestry with specialisation in
economics & management from Forest research Institute, Dehradun, Mr.
Devlal is presently working as Regional Coordinator with Sustainable
Environment & Ecological Development Society (SEEDS), which is a non‐
governmental organisation working in the field of disaster management
since 1994.
Email: rohit@seedsindia.org

13. Sarfaraz H. Malik is Manager (Indian Operation) in a British Handicrafts

Import Company. He received management training in International
Business, in 2004 from England. He put lots of new ideas regarding
environment into practice in day to day activities. He has organized a
show on global warming and door to door awareness on the use of CFL.
He has also worked on the flora and fauna of Uttarakhand.
Email: safindia@rediffmail.com

14. Mr. Vishal Singh is Research Fellow in D.S.B. Campus Kumaun University,
Nainital. His present endeavor is in a collaborative project between
Kumaun University and Indian Institute of Remote Sensing on National
Carbon Project. He has worked in Forest Research Institute, Dehradun as
Junior Research fellow and in Central Himalayan Environment Association
(CHEA), Nainital.
Email: vishal.the.1st@gmail.com

15. Mr. Yashpal Negi has been an avid bird watcher for last several years in the Ukhimatch area
of Rudra Pryag district, Uttarakhand. In a way, he has been living with them. To use his
immense knowledge and understanding of bird behavious, he was requested to participate
in this project as one of the climate change leaders. Mr Negi has been working as a bird‐
watchers’ guide in this area for the last several years.
Email: c/o CHEA at hcbjoshi@gmsail.com

16. Sri Anjan Jyoti Phukan joined OIL INDIA LIMITED as a drilling engineer in the year 1988 after
completing B.E in Mechanical Engineering in 1987 from Assam Engineering College
Guwahati and is currently the Deputy Chief Engineer (Drilling).
Email: anjanphukan@oilindia.in

17. Mr.C Furkumzuk, has a Masters in Science degree in Geography and

Resource Management from Nagaland University. He is presently a Junior
Research Fellow in the Department of Geography and Resource
Management in Nagaland University, Head‐quartered at Lumami,
Nagaland. He is also pursuing his Ph. D degree from the same university.
Email: Jhonnyfur_36@rediffmail.com

218
18. Ms. Imrongkumla, hailing from Longkhum Yim in Nagaland, is a Post
graduate in General Microbiology, from Bangalore University (2001‐
2003), Karnataka. She is presently based in Kohima, and is working as
Programme Assistant for NEPED/SCEN Programme, for last one year.
Email : imongro@gmail.com

19. Ms. Indrila Guha is a Reader in Economics & Visiting Researcher In

Global Change Program, Jadavpur University. She has taught economics
at the college under Calcutta University since 1997. She was the
Principal Investigator of the Project “Estimation of Tourism Demand in
Indian Sundarbans and its contribution to local economy" which was
sponsored by The South Asian Network for Development and
Environmental Economics (SANDEE) and located in Global Change
Program, Jadavpur University. She is also advisor to WWF – Eastern India on their
Sundarbans Program.
Email: indrilaguha@hotmail.com

20. Mr. Kallol Roy completed his Bachelor of Commerce degree from the
University of Kolkata and then qualified as a lawyer from the same
university. His specialized area is Estate Law. He has established a
successful practice in Barrackpore sub‐division, West Bengal. He along
with a few other like minded people from the local area formed and
registered the charity organization `EMPATHY (Elevation of Marginalized
People and generating Awareness Towards Hopeful Yearning)' on 2004.

21. Besides being a lensman at the Doordarshan Kendra, Aizawl, Mr. Lalchuangliana takes part
in production of a variety of documentary films relating to environment, social and
developmental issues, health and education. He is also actively involved with the activities
of the Department of Environment & Forest, Mizoram Pollution Control Board and Science
& Technology Department of the state Government.
Email: chuanga@gmail.com

22. Mr. Renilo Nuh is a Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech). He’s worked with the
NIC, Nagaland State Unit, CPWD, KCSD, Power Deptt, Traffic Engineering
Cell, PWD (R&B) and finally SDO, Power Deptt. G0\ovt. of Nagaland. During
the last one year he has been supervising and executing the 1000kW Lang
Mini Hydel Project.
Email: ren_nuh@yahoo.com

219
23. Takum Chang works with Nagaland Empowerment of People through
Energy Development (NEPeD) on its mission to integrate environmental
governance and energy dimensions into sustainable livelihood strategies.
He is in charge of Tuensang and Kiphere districts which are on the most
eastern part of Nagaland bordering Myanmar and most undeveloped
areas. NEPeD, having established its strong credibility working in all
villages of Nagaland, has been providing me a right avenue to work with
most unprivileged rural poor.
Email takum.chang@gmail.com

24. Til Bahadur Subba entered in the Forest Environment and Wildlife
Management Department, Government of Sikkim, in 1986 and is
currently holding the post of a Range Forest Officer. He has raised more
than 500 hectare of plantation in the degraded forest areas in West
Sikkim to mitigate the climate change and global warming and worked
to create widespread awareness on environmental conservation and
protection. He is also currently General Secretary of the Tourism
Development and Heritage Conservation Society in West Sikkim. His
interestes include mountaineering, bird watching, conservation and environmental
education.
Email: yakthungtb@yahoo.co.in

25. Markit Lepcha is the President of the Gram panchayat of her village Gyatan karmatar, a
village in West District of Sikim called Gyatan karmatar. She is undertaking a number of
environment related initiatives such as encouraging development of plantations to prevent
soil erosion, promoting alternative livelihoods like bee keeping, preventing the use of
firewood, etc. She is in touch with the renewable Sources Department to install Solar Water
Heater and has also tied up with the Agriculture Department to promote Organic farming in
her village. Her Panchyat is one of the Panchayats selected for Nirmal Gram Puraskar Award
2008.

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