Dairy Farming by Landless Women73

in Southern States of India

S.V.N. Rao, S. Ramkumar, and Kevin Waldie*

L
andless dairy farming is emerging as an important livestock farm-
ing system characterized by rearing one or two low productive
cattle maintained exclusively on grazing on common property
lands or private land with little or negligible purchased inputs. The lan-
dless dairy farmers mostly derive their bread from working as agricul-
tural labourers; they supplement their income with income generated
from cattle rearing. The contribution of landless dairy farmers to the
national milk bowl is quite substantial (Shukla and Brahmankar, 1996;
De Leeuw et al., 1999; Ahuja et al., 2000; Datta, 2002). Realizing the po-
tentiality of dairy cattle in improving the economy of resource poor peo-
ple, especially the landless, the government of India has recognized
dairying as an instrument of socio-economic change. It is a boon for
these families to own a cow or a buffalo (Candler and Kumar, 1998) and
the ownership of this asset increases the confidence and self-worth of
women (Ramaswamy et al., 1999), whose contribution to cattle rearing
is well recognized (Dhaka et al., 1995; Rangnekar et al., 1993; Patel, 1993;
Patel, 1998; Ahuja et al., 2000; Bravo-Baumann, 2000; Rao, 2001;
Ramkumar and Rao, 2001). The surplus labour in these families can best

* S.V.N. Rao is Professor and Head of the Department of Veterinary and Animal Hus-
bandry Extension; Rajiv Gandhi College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences,
Kurumbapet, Pondichery 605 009. Email: vetextensio@vsnl.net
S. Ramkumar is Associate Professor, Department of Veterinary and Animal Husbandry
Extension, Rajiv Gandhi College of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Kurumbapet,
Pondichery 605 009. Email: ragacovas@vsnl.com
Kevin Waldie is with International and Rural Development Department, The University of
Reading, Whiteknights Road, Reading RG6 6AH, UK. Email: k.j.waldie@reading.ac. uk
74 Livestock Services and the Poor

be utilized in rearing dairy cattle thereby generating productive em-

ployment in rural areas.
Landless dairy farming is being practised in all parts of the country irre-
spective of the regional differences. However, there exist some similari-
ties and dissimilarities in the way cattle are being reared, the purpose
for which they are being reared, mode of acquisition of animals, extent
of contribution of income from dairying to family income, and the occa-
sions on which the animals have rescued the families. This paper aims
at drawing similarities that exist among the landless families owning
cattle in southern states of India.

METHODOLOGY
The study was conducted in five villages, one each from four southern
states of India and one from the Union Territory of Pondicherry.
Respondents were landless women rearing one or two dairy animals
and supplying milk to the cooperative society. Interviews were con-
ducted with the help of a semi-structured schedule besides personal
observations of the investigator. A total of 57 case studies were con-
ducted for this purpose (Table 1).

TABLE 1: NUMBER OF RESPONDENTS

States Respondents
Andhra Pradesh 9
Karnataka 8
Kerala 10
Tamil Nadu 8
Pondicherry 22
Total 57

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The information collected through case studies was processed and pre-
sented, however, with the limitation that the village selected may not
exactly represent the concerned state.

1. Profile of Respondents
Respondents were in the age group of 20 to 71 years, the average age
being about 40 years (Table 2). Most respondents were illiterate in
Dairy Farming by Landless Women in Southern States of India 75

Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Pondicherry, whereas in Kerala and

Tamil Nadu they had primary level education (Table 3). Dairy cattle
rearing is the most important secondary occupation for majority of
respondents. The main occupation for them is agricultural labour, which
is seasonal in nature. Hence the need to rear cattle to supplement their
income and sustain their livelihood.

TABLE 2: AGE OF RESPONDENTS

States Mean age of Respondents (Years)

Andhra Pradesh 26.8
Karnataka 29.4
Kerala 48.8
Tamil Nadu 45.25
Pondicherry 42.8
Total 39.8

TABLE 3: EDUCATION OF RESPONDENTS

States Literate Illiterate Total

Andhra Pradesh 2 7 9
Karnataka 3 5 8
Kerala 5 5 10
Tamil Nadu 5 3 8
Pondicherry 9 13 22
Total 24 33 57

2. Experience in Cattle Rearing

The case studies revealed interesting findings on the experience of
women in cattle rearing. A little over half of the respondent women
were involved in cattle rearing activities before their marriage (Table 4).

TABLE 4: RESPONDENTS’ EXPERIENCE IN DAIRYING BEFORE MARRIAGE

States Frequency
Andhra Pradesh 2/9
Karnataka 7/8
Kerala 5/10
Tamil Nadu 3/8
Pondicherry 13/22
Total 30/57
76 Livestock Services and the Poor

In the case of Andhra Pradesh only two respondents were involved in

cattle rearing activities before their marriage and three out of nine were
married into the families who owned cattle. (Table 5). Almost a similar
finding was noticed in case of the respondents of Tamil Nadu. Almost
all respondents in Karnataka and most of the respondents in Pondicherry
and 50 per cent in Kerala had prior exposure to dairy farming before
their marriage and they were in fact married into traditional dairy farm-
ing families. In the case of a few women respondents (five out of 57) in
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka, animals accompanied them as family
gift (Table 6).

TABLE 5: CATTLE REARING AT HUSBAND’S HOME

States Frequency
Andhra Pradesh 3/9
Karnataka 8/8
Kerala 6/10
Tamil Nadu 3/8
Pondicherry 7/22
Total 27/57

TABLE 6: ANIMALS AS FAMILY GIFT

States Frequency
Andhra Pradesh 2/9
Karnataka 3/8
Kerala 0/10
Tamil Nadu 0/8
Pondicherry 0/22
Total 5/57

TABLE 7: EXPERIENCE IN DAIRY FARMING AFTER MARRIAGE (Years)

States Frequency
Andhra Pradesh 11.7
Karnataka 14.3
Kerala 14.4
Tamil Nadu 23.1
Pondicherry 14.0
Total 15.1
Dairy Farming by Landless Women in Southern States of India 77

Respondents in the sample village of Andhra Pradesh had less experi-

ence in dairy farming compared to their counter parts in other states.
Respondents in the sample village of Tamil Nadu were more experi-
enced with an experience of 23 years (Table 7).

3. Mode of Acquisition of Animals

There was variation in the way respondents acquired animals. In Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, the women purchased milking cows out of
their savings coupled with the earnings of their husbands (Table 8). In
Karnataka most of the respondents availed loans advanced by the banks
under one or the other schemes of the state government. The Special
Component Plan of the Milk Cooperative Society in Kerala provided
financial assistance in acquiring animals in half of the cases and the rest
had to depend upon money-lenders for purchasing animals. The gov-
ernment of Andhra Pradesh helped most of the respondent families in
acquiring female calves through the Indira Gandhi Calf Rearing Scheme.
In Pondicherry, the women respondents purchased cows through loans
taken from either government or private agencies in addition to their
own sources which included the money obtained by either sale or pledge
of ornaments and personal savings. Conversion of animals to cash or
ornaments and back to animals was a common phenomenon in these
poor families depending upon their economic situation. Few years ago,
government agencies provided financial assistance to landless families
to acquire the dairy cattle through one or the other schemes as a part of
the poverty alleviation scheme. In majority of cases, respondents used a
combination of ways to acquire the animal assets.

TABLE 8: MODE OF ACQUISITION OF ANIMALS

Frequency
States Loan Own Husband Family Gift Combination Total
Andhra Pradesh 1 1 - - 7 9
Karnataka 4 1 - - 3 8
Kerala 4 - - - 6 10
Tamil Nadu - 1 1 - 6 8
Pondicherry 1 5 3 3 10 22
Total 10 8 4 3 32 57
78 Livestock Services and the Poor

Wide variation was also noticed in the type of animals reared by these
families, The respondent families in Andhra Pradesh were found rear-
ing buffaloes whereas in other states crossbred cows were the choice. In
Karnataka the respondent families were rearing Holstein Freisian (HF)
crosses whereas in Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry it was Jersey crosses
and in Kerala a mixture of all crosses probably in tune with the policies
of the respective state governments as well as consumers’ preference
for cow or buffalo milk.

4. Reasons for Rearing Dairy Cattle

The prominent reasons offered by respondents for rearing cattle, in the
order of descending importance, were: regular cash income through sale
of milk; less tedious than agriculture labour; and flexibility in working
time.

Respondent families of Andhra Pradesh preferred dairy farming as there

was no need for them to move out of the village in search of alternative
employment and they considered it as better alternative to agricultural
labour. Respondents in Kerala reasoned that dairy farming was a prof-
itable venture in their prevailing life situation as it provided regular
income. The fact that the government helped them in acquiring animals
encouraged them to pursue dairy farming as an occupation.

TABLE 9: REASONS FOR REARING DAIRY CATTLE

Reasons Andhra Karnataka Kerala Tamil Pondicherry Total

Pradesh (9) (8) (10) Nadu (8) (22) (57)
Regular income 1 4 2 4 16 27
Flexibility in 4 1 3 — 3 11
working time
Less tedious 1 — — 3 8 12
compared to
agricultural labour
Previous 2 1 — — 9 12
experience

Agricultural labour was the main source of income for almost all re-
spondent families in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Pondicherry. In
the recent past there has been a shift in occupation from agricultural
Dairy Farming by Landless Women in Southern States of India 79

labour to cattle rearing. All the respondents in Pondicherry and almost

all the respondents in Karnataka and Kerala felt that they could not
have managed their livelihood without dairy cattle. In Andhra Pradesh
and Tamil Nadu, respondents were confident of managing their liveli-
hood without dairy cattle as they depended to a great extent on agricul-
ture labour for their livelihood.

TABLE 10: MANAGING LIVELIHOOD WITHOUT DAIRY CATTLE

Frequency
States Able to manage Not able to manage Total
Andhra Pradesh 7 2 9
Karnataka 2 6 8
Kerala 2 8 10
Tamil Nadu 7 1 8
Pondicherry 0 22 22
Total 18 39 57

5. Income through Dairying

The mean annual income from dairying ranged from a low of Rs.14,822
in Andhra Pradesh to a high of Rs.47,820 in Kerala. The overall mean
annual income through dairying in all the states was Rs.23,286 (Table
11). Contribution of income from dairying to the income of the family
was significant. Majority of the families (28 out of 57) were earning
between 50 and 75 per cent of their income from dairying and in about
18 cases the contribution was beyond 75 per cent (Table 12). There was
no single family which was deriving less than 25 per cent of its income
from dairying. This highlights the importance of dairy cattle to these
landless families.

TABLE 11: ANNUAL INCOME FROM DAIRYING

States Mean Income (Rs.)

Andhra Pradesh 14,822
Karnataka 24,000
Kerala 47,820
Tamil Nadu 15,312
Pondicherry 18,236
Total 120,190
80 Livestock Services and the Poor

TABLE 12: CONTRIBUTION BY DAIRYING IN 2000

States Contribution (per cent)

Below 25 25-50 50-75 75-100
Andhra Pradesh — — 8 1
Karnataka — — 7 1
Kerala — — 3 7
Tamil Nadu — 5 2 1
Pondicherry 0 6 8 8
Total 0 11 28 18

6. Utilization of Dairy Income

It is a well established fact that dairying is an occupation which pro-
vides regular income through sale of milk, a very strong reason for most
of the dairy farmers to continue rearing dairy cattle. This income was
being utilized mainly for purchase of food items and other household
requirements (Table 13). It was also being utilized to repay the loans as
well as to save for future use. In some cases they used this income for
the treatment of sick family members. This was in addition to the quan-
tity of milk retained for home consumption. It was very common to
notice that these families consume milk whenever their animals are in
milk. Otherwise they normally do not purchase milk for family con-
sumption.

TABLE 13: UTILIZATION OF DAIRY INCOME

Frequency
States Food Medicines Clothes Loan House Savings Others
Items
Andhra Pradesh 9 - - 2 4 4 -
Karnataka 8 - - 8 8 - -
Kerala 9 4 - 7 5 1 -
Tamil Nadu 7 1 - 3 8 4 -
Pondicherry 22 7 2 1 - 11 21
Total 55 12 2 21 25 20 21

7. Occasions in which Cattle came to the Rescue of Respondents

The animals came to the rescue of poor dairy farming families in many
ways. Very aptly are animals referred to as “moving banks”. On occa-
Dairy Farming by Landless Women in Southern States of India 81

sions like marriage of daughters, repayment of loans, and education of

children, the dairy animals came to the rescue of most of the landless
families (Table 14).

Whenever the respondents were forced to sellout their animals to meet

contingent expenditures, the tendency in these families was to re-estab-
lish the dairy farm at the earliest. It took time for them to purchase ani-
mals mostly through their own savings (sale of ornaments) in Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu; or by availing loans through government
agencies in Karnataka, or from money-lenders in Kerala. The mode of
re-establishment of the dairy farm in Pondicherry was by retaining a
female calf or heifer.

TABLE 14: CATTLE COMING TO THE RESCUE OF RESPONDENTS

Reasons Andhra Karnataka Kerala Tamil Pondicherry Total

Pradesh (9) (8) (10) Nadu (8) (22) (57)
Daughter’s marriage 2 3 3 1 7 16
Repayment of loan 1 1 1 2 2 7
Education of children 2 2 1 — — 5
Treatment of family 2 — 2 — 4 8
members
House construction — 2 — 1 5 8

8. Access and Control over the Animals and Animal Products

An effort was made to ascertain accessibility and control of animals and
animal products. Both wife and husband in all the 57 respondent fami-
lies were involved actively in taking care of the animals. When it is the
question of accessibility, the women had complete accessibility to milk,
dung, and animals in all states except Andhra Pradesh where both
husband and wife had access to animals as well as their products
(Table 15).

Income from dairy farming was totally controlled by the women of

respondent families in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Pondicherry, whereas
in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka both women and men had a say
(Table 16). On matters related to milk sale the decisions were usually
taken by the women in all states except in Andhra Pradesh where the
 82
TABLE 15: ACCESS AND CONTROL OVER THE ANIMALS AND ANIMAL PRODUCTS

Frequency
States Cow Milk Dung
Respondent Husband Joint Total Respondent Husband Joint Total Respondent Husband Joint Total
Andhra Pradesh 5 - 4 9 5 1 3 9 6 - 3 9
Karnataka 5 1 2 8 5 - 3 8 6 - 2 8
Kerala 9 - 1 10 10 - - 10 8 - 2 10
Tamil Nadu 6 1 1 8 7 - 1 8 8 - - 8
Pondicherry 21 1 - 22 22 - - 22 22 - - 22
Total 46 3 8 57 49 1 7 57 50 0 7 57

TABLE 16: CONTROL OVER DAIRY INCOME

States Frequency
Respondent Husband Joint Total

Livestock Services and the Poor

Andhra Pradesh 4 1 4 9
Karnataka 4 2 2 8
Kerala 7 - 3 10
Tamil Nadu 6 - 2 8
Pondicherry 17 5 - 22
Total 38 8 11 57
 Dairy Farming by Landless Women in Southern States of India
TABLE 17: DECISION MAKING ON MILK SALE, FEED PURCHASED, SALE OF ANIMAL, DISPOSAL OF DUNG AND PURCHASE OF
ANIMAL

Frequency
States Milk sale Feed Purchase Disposal of dung Purchase of animal Sale of animal
R H J T R H J T R H J T R H J T R H J T
Andhra Pradesh 1 4 4 9 1 3 - 4 5 0 4 9 0 0 9 9 0 2 7 9
Karnataka 5 0 3 8 4 - 4 8 5 0 3 8 1 2 5 8 1 2 5 8
Kerala 8 2 0 10 6 2 1 10 4 1 5 10 0 2 8 10 1 2 7 10
Tamil Nadu 7 0 1 8 3 - 5 8 8 0 0 8 1 2 5 8 3 2 3 8
Pondicherry 20 2 0 22 19 3 - 22 20 1 1 22 14 4 4 22 13 5 4 22
Total 41 8 8 57 33 8 15 57 42 2 13 57 16 10 31 57 18 13 26 57
R=Respondents, H=Husband, J=Joint, T=Total

83
84 Livestock Services and the Poor

decisions were taken jointly by both men and women. Decisions related
to the purchase of cattle feed and purchase and sale of animals were
taken invariably by both men and women (Table 17).

9. Participation of Children
Many of the women in these selected villages were in favour of their
children participating in the dairy farming (Table 18). This was mainly
because of their anticipation of poor employment opportunities avail-
able for children in future. Excepting in Andhra Pradesh, children helped
their parents in performing dairy farming activities (Table 19). On an
average the children spend about 1 to 3 hour in a day on performing
various activities.

TABLE 18: ALLOWING CHILDREN TO TAKE UP DAIRYING

Frequency
States Interested Not Interested Total
Andhra Pradesh 8 1 9
Karnataka 6 2 8
Kerala 8 2 10
Tamil Nadu 6 2 8
Pondicherry 14 8 22
Total 42 15 57

TABLE 19: CHILDREN’S PARTICIPATION IN DAIRY FARMING ACTIVITIES

Frequency
States Involved Not involved Total
Andhra Pradesh 0 9 9
Karnataka 7 1 8
Kerala 3 7 10
Tamil Nadu 3 5 8
Pondicherry 9 13 22
Total 22 35 57

10. On the Concept of Poverty and Rich

We also thought it appropriate to elicit the perceptions of the respond-
ents on the concepts of “poverty” and “rich.” For many poverty meant
inadequate food, no regular source of income, working as agricultural
Dairy Farming by Landless Women in Southern States of India 85

labour, inadequate clothing, etc. which all reflect on the basic needs. On
the contrary they conceived “rich ‘’as those who got regular income,
possessing more money, land and permanent house, and more animals.
Some of the avenues suggested by the respondents to come out of pov-
erty were: buying more animals through government schemes; doing
regular jobs; and working hard and doing own business.

CONCLUSIONS
Rearing one or two cows is an important livelihood engagement of the
landless women in the rural areas of the southern states of India. Clubbed
with seasonal agricultural labour work, dairying is one of the very few
alternatives that the rural landless women are left with. Livestock, par-
ticularly cattle, have a strong role in poverty alleviation, although the
degree and nature of their contribution has varied.

Cattle provide regular cash income on which women have better con-
trol. But of equal, if not greater importance, is the contribution that cat-
tle make to household security. Cattle are an integral and major part of
their assets; since they have no land, cattle form an important resource
next only to their family labour. It is the complex, multifaceted, poverty
reducing capacity of dairy cattle that makes dairying a practical propo-
sition for this vulnerable group. Landless women rearing dairy cattle
offer a beneficial entry point in shaping major policy decisions in view
of their unique potential of promoting gender aspects and alleviating
poverty.

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