c

c c
V

c

Definition and examples of soap:

1)c Cleansing agents are chemical substances used to remove greasa and dirt.
2)c There are two types of cleansing agents:
a)c Soaps
b)c Detergents
3)c Soaps are sodium or potassium salt of fatty acids that contains 12 to 18 carbon atoms per
molecule.
4)c Soaps are cleansing agents made from animal fats or vegetable oil by saponification.
History of Soap Manufacturing:

1)c Soaps have been used for more than 3000 years.It was recorded that the Babylonians

were making soap around 2800 B.C.

2)c In ancient times,soaps were made from ashes of plants which contain sodium carbonate

and potassium carbonate.The ashes were boiled with lime (calcium oxide) to produce
caustic potash (potassium hydroxide).Caustic potash is then boiled with animal fats to
produces soap.

boiled
a)c Ash + Lime Caustic Potash

(K2CO3) (CaO) (KOH)

boiled

b) Caustic Potash + Animal Fats Soap

3)c In 1816,the French chemist Michel Chevreul (1786-1889) discovered that animal fats are

composed of fatty acids and glycerol.This discovery contributed to the rapid development
of the soap and candle industry.
4)c In 1816,the Belgian chemist Ernest Solvay (1838-1922) discovered the process to make

soda (sodium carbonate) from common salt (sodium chloride) and calcium
carbonate.This process is known as the Solvay Process which produces sodium carbonate
which is used for making glass,soaps and detergent.
 Preparation of Soap by Saponification:

1 . Soap is a cleansing agents produced by the reaction between sodium

hydroxide or potassium hydroxide with animal fats or vegetable oils. This
reaction is known as saponification.
2. Fats and vegetable oils are large, naturally occurring ester molecules. When
fats or oils are boiled with concentrated alkalis, such as sodium hydroxide,
saponification occur and the ester molecules are broken down into soap and
glycerol.
Fats or vegetable oils + concentrated alkalis soap + glycerol
3. Saponification is the alkaline hydrolysis of ester using alkali solutions. From the chemist aspect,
soaps are sodium salts or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids (with 12 to 18 carbon
atoms per molecule).
4. Some examples of soaps are shown below.
a) Sodium palmitate, C15H31COONa
b) Sodium oleate, C17H33COONa
c) Sodium stearate, C17H35COONa

Additives such as perfume, colouring matter and sometimes antiseptics are

added to soaps to enhance their marketability .
5. Glyceryl tristearates are naturally occurring esters commonly found in animal
fats and vegetable oils. When the ester is boiled with concentrated sodium
hydroxide solution, saponification (alkaline hydrolysis) occurs and mixture of
sodium stearate (soap) and glycerol is obtained.
CH2COOC17H35 CH2OH

CHCOOC17H35 + 3NaOH CHOH

(heating

CH2COOC17H35 3C17H35COONa +
CH2OH
Glyceryl tristearate Sodium stearate (soap) Glycerol

6. The soap produced can be precipitated by adding common salt (sodium

chloride) to the reaction mixture.
7. The sodium chloride added reduced the solubility of soap in water. As a
result, precipitation of soap occurs.
8. The properties of soap depend on :
a) The type of alkali used for saponification
b) The type of animal fats or vegetable oils used.
9. Soaps produced from sodium hydroxide are hard, whereas soaps produced
from potassium hydroxide are soft.
 10 .Animal fats (tallow) from cows and vegetable oils (such as palm oil or olive
oil) ae used for making soap.

The structure of soap molecule :

1.c When soap is dissolved in water, it will dissociate and produce sodium ions
and carboxylate ions (RCOO-). For example, sodium stearate dissolves in
water to form sodium ions and stearate ions.
C17H35COONa (s) + water C17H35COO- (aq) + Na+ (aq)
sodium stearate stearate ions
2 . The active substance in soap is the carboxylate ion, for example, stearate
ion. The stearate ion consist of two parts : the µhead¶ and the µtail¶. The
µhead¶ id negatively charged and the µtail¶ is a long hydrocarbon chain
3. The µhead¶ contains the -C-O- ions which dissolves readily in water

(hydrophilic) but does not dissolve in oil. Conversely, the µtail¶ contains a long hydrocarbon
chain which is insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but dissolves readily in oil.

4. Soaps made from palmitic acid are known as sodium

Figure 5.2 shows the structure of the palmitate ion in soaps.

5. The figure 5.3 9a) shows the molecular model of palmitate ion and
Figure 5.3 (b) shows the simple representation of the structure of the palmitate ion.
a) The molecular model of the palmitate ion.

b) The diagrammatic representation of the soap ion.

 %
 


Definition and examples of detergent:

1.Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents made from hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum fractions. Thus,
detergents are petrochemicals.

2. Detergents can be classified into three main types, depending on the charge
on the detergent ion.
a) Anionic detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains a
negatively charged ion.

º
 ccc
Example : R ± O ± SO3-Na+ (Sodium alkyl sulphate)
 

c

b)Cation detergents where the head of the detergent particle contains a

positively-charged ion.   c

Example : R ± N (CH3)3+BR-  

c

c)Non ionic detergents

Example : R ± O ± CH2CH2OH

c
Where R represents a long hydrocarbon chain. We can represent the detergent ion, alkylbenzene sulphonate ion,more
simply as
Preparation of detergents
1.c The detergent,sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared from alcohols with chain lengths of
12 to 18 carbon atoms in two steps.
STEP 1: Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid.

ccº 
 c c c 
 c

c c
 c c  c cc 
c c cc
c c    !"#$"# %"#&# c
 

c

c
c  ' cc c c  c  c()"c c
c
 c
c  c  c !"#$"# %"#&&$º*c
$c  c + c
c c

 c c c
c  cc c,  c
c
cc

 c c
c 

c  c
ccccccccccc
ccc"#$"# %"#&#cc*cc#&-cccccccccccccccccc"#$"# %"#&&$#cc*cc#&c
cccccccccccccc.
c ccccccccccccc#&c&$# cccccccccccc c
c  c
c
cc

 c c c
c  c
ccccc
cccc"#$"# %"#&&$#º*cc*ccºc&#ccccccccccccccccc"#$"# %"#&&$ºc*cc#%c
ccccccc c
c  c

c c
 c

 c" 
c c c cc/ 

c

 c 
c c c c

c 

c  c c 
c c, 
cc

c

 c  c c0 1c
 c 

 cc , cc
c 
  c,c , cc c
, c  c 
c 

, c01c 
 cc , cc
c 
 , c,c , cc c

ccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccccc cc c c c c

c

×cccccc2 c c

c 

cc
 c c
!c 
c c

 c  c c
cc
 c c
c
 c
×cccccc c
  

c0 1c
c c
c 

c c
  cc
c 
  !c
×ccccc c 

, c01c c c

c 

c c  cc
 c
c c

 c
 
 , c

 c/
c, 
c

 c
,c 3 

c c

×c (c c
cc
 c

! c

 c,
c cc
c c
 c

c c
  c$.
c
c
c  c
×c &c

c
 c

c
 
! c

c
cc c

c c
 c c c
 c c

 cc c c

c

c  c-
c
cc
c

×cccc2 c c

cc 4 ! c


 cc, c  c c
c,
4c c
c
 c
×ccccc  c

c
 c
 c
 c 
c,  c c


c c c 

cc

! c

 cc  c
c c  c
×ccccc2 c c  cc
 c c

! c
 c c, c


 cc

c c
The Effectiveness of Soap and Detergent as Cleansing Agents.



 
1.Soaps are effective cleansing agents in soft water, that is water does not contain Mg2+ and
Ca2+
ions.
2.Soaps do not cause pollution problems to the environment. This is because soaps are made
from
chemical found in animals and plants. This means that soaps are biodegradable, that is they can
be composed by the action of bacteria.

 

 
1. Soaps are ineffective in hard water, that is, water that contains magnesium and calcium salts.

2.In hard water, soaps will react with Mg2+ and thus, soaps do not lather in hard water.

3.Scum is grey solid that is insoluble in water. It consists of magnesium stearate and calcium
stearate.

4.Soaps are not also effective in acidic water, for example rainwater containing dissolves acids.
H+
ions from acids will react with soap ions to produce carboxylic acids molecular size that are
insoluble in water.

5. Stearic acids and other carboxylic acids do not act as cleansing agents because they exist
mainly
as molecules and do not anionic hydrophilic ends (¶head¶) that dissolves in water.



 

1.Detergents are cleansing agents that are effective in soft water as well as hard water. This is
because detergents do not form scum with Mg+ and Ca2+ ions found in hard water.

2.The detergents ions (R ±O ± SO3- and R ± SO3- )react with Mg+ and Ca2+ ions in hard water.
However, the magnesium salts and calcium salts which are formed are soluble in water. Hence,
the scum is not formed and the detergents are still active in hard water and lathers easily.

3.Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents. This means that the structure of the hydrocarbon
chain
can be modified to produce detergents with specific properties. Nowadays, different types of
detergents have been synthesised for specific uses such as shampoos and dish cleaner.

4.Furthermore, detergents are also effective in acidic water because H+ ion is acidic water do not
combined with detergents ions.
 

 

1. Most detergents have branched hydrocarbon chains and are non-biodegradable, that is, they
cannot decomposed by bacteria. As a result, non-biodegradable detergents cause water pollution.

2.Phosphates in detergents act as fertilizers and promote the growth of water plants and algae.
When the plants die and decay, they will used up the oxygen dissolves in water. This will
decrease the oxygen content in water and kill fishes and other aquatic lives.

3.Detergents produce a lot of foam in water. The layer of foam that covers the water surface will
prevents oxygen from dissolving in water. This condition will cause fish and other aquatic life ti
die from oxygen starvation.

4.Additives such as sodium hydrochlorite (bleaching agents) releases chlorine gas in water that is
acidic. Chlorine gas is highly toxic and kills aquatic life.
 Additives of Detergent.

1. Modern detergents used for washing clothes usually contains a few types of additives to :

a) Increase their cleaning power.

b) Make them attractive and saleable.

2. Only about 20% of the substances in a detergent are cle4ansing agents (sodium alkyl sulphate or
sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate). The other substances are additives. The examples of
addictives and their functions are described as follows :

3.Builders : Sodium tripolyphosphate (Na5P3O10)

a)Sodium tripolyphospathe is usd to soften hard water. In the presence of sodium
tripolyphosphate, Ca2+ ions and Mg2+ ions are removed.
b) Sodium tripolyphosphate increases the pH value of water. In this way, muddy dirt can be
removed.

4. Whitening / bleaching agents : sodium perborate

a) Bleaches (bleaching agents) remove coloured stains by oxidation process. When
coloured stanis are oxidized, the colour will disappear.

b)The whitening (bleaching) agents commonly used in detergent are sodium perborate
(NaH2BO43H2O). Sodium perborate decomposes in hot water to release oxygen (an
oxidising agent) which is responsible for the whitening (bleaching) action.

c) Unlike chlorine, oxygen does not bleach the colour of dyes are not damaging to fabrics. When
properly used, the perborate bleaches make fabrics whiter than chlorine bleaches and the
colourful dyes of the fabrics do not fade when dirty stains are removed.

d) Besides sodium perborate, sodium hypochlorite, (NaCIO) can also be used as bleaches in
detergents. The IUPAC name of sodium hypochlorite is sodium chlorate (I).

e)Sodium hypochlorite releases chlorine that bleaches with dirty stains. However, high
concentrations of chlorine can be quite damaging to fabrics. These bleaches do not work well on
synthetic fabrics (polyster fabrics), often causing a yellowing rather than the desire whitening.
Also chlorine causes the dyes on fabrics to fade.

5. Biological enzymes : Amylase, lipase, and protease

a) Protein stains such blood, milk, and tomato sauce cannot be removed by the ordinary
detergents because these types of stains are insoluble in water.
 b) Biological enzymes in detergents can break down fat and protein molecules in food stains.
The fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids produced are soluble in water and are removed during
washing.

6. Brighteners
a) Figure below shows the action of brighteners. The brighteners absorb the invisible ultra-
violet and re-radiate it as blue light.
USES OF FOOD
ADDITIVES
Types of additives and examples
1.c Food preservative have been used since ancient times. Ancient civilization used
salt to preserve meat and fish, herbs and spices to improve the flavor of food.
2. Food additives are chemicals that are added to food in small quantities for specific
purposes such as protection against bacterial attack or restoring the colour of
food destroyed during food processing.

3. Food additives are used :

a) To retard food spoilage and to preserve food (longer shelf life).

b) To make food taste better or smell better.

c) To add colouring to food so that the food looks fresher, more interesting
or more appealing.
4. There are two main groups of food additives :
a) Preservatives and antioxidants to protect food from being spoiled by
bacterial attact or atmospheric oxidation. In this way, the food can be kept
longer.
b) Flavouring agents, stabilizers, thickening agents (thickeners), and dyes
(colouring agents) to enhance the taste, smell and appearance of the food.
5. Table below show a list of different types of food additives, their functions and
examples of each types.

Type of food additive Examples of food additive

Preservatives Sodium nitrite ; sodium nitrate ; benzoic acid ; sodium benzoate ;
sulphur dioxide ; sodium sulphite ; sorbic acid ; sodium sorbate

Antioxidants Ascorbic acid (vitamin C) ; BHA (butylated hydroxyanisole) ; BHT

(butylated hydrixitoluene) ; citric acid ; sodim citrate

Flavouring agents Monosodium glutamate (MSG) ; aspartame

Stabilisers and Gelatin ; acacia gum (agar)
thickening agents
Dyes (colouring Azo compounds ; tripheny compounds
agents)
 Functions of food additives

Preservatives

1. Preservatives are chemicals that are added to food to retard or to prevent the
growth of microorganism such as bacteria, mould or fungus, so that the food can
be stored for a long time.
2. In ancient times, food additives from natural sources such as salt, sugar and
vinegar were used to preserve food and to make the food taste better.

3. Nowadays, synthetic preservatives are used, table below shows the types of
preservatives commonly used. Many of the preservatives are organic acids and
salts of organic acids.

6reservative Molecular formula Uses

Sodium nitrite NaNO2  To preserve meat, cheese
Sodium nitrate NaNO3 and dried fish.
 To prevent food poisoning
in canned
foods.
 To maintain the natural
colour of meat

nd to make them look fresh

aenzoic acid C6H5COOH  To preserve sauce

Sodium benzoate C6H5COONa
(olyster, tomato or

chilli), fruit juice, jam and

margarine

Sulphur dioxide SO2  Used as bleaches and

Sodium sulphite Na2SO3 antioxidants to
prevent browning in fruit
juices.
 Maintain the colour and
freshness of
vegetables.
 To prevents the growth of
yeast
Antioxidants

1.c Antioxidants are chemicals that are added to foods to prevent the oxidation of fats
and oils by oxygen in the air.

2.c Foods containing fats or oils are oxidized and become rancid when exposed to air.

3. When the fats and oils are oxidized, rancid product are formed. This makes the
food unpalatable. The rancid product are volatile organic compound with foul
odours (for example , butanoic acid, C3H7COOH).

4. Antioxidants are added to fats, oils, cakes, sausages, biscuits and fried foods to
slow down the oxidation process so that these foods do not become rancid.
Flavouring agents

1. There are two types of flavouring agents : artificial flavours and flavour enhancer.
They are added to foods to make them taste better.

2. Flavour enhancer have little or no taste of their own. They are chemicals that are
added to food to bring out the flavours or to enhance the taste of food.

3. An example of a flavour enhancer is monosodium glutamate (MSG). MSG is used to

enhance the flavours of other foods.

4. Artificial flavour includes sweeteners and other flavours such as peppermint or

vanilla. Aspartame and saccharin are examples of artificial sweeteners.

5. Both aspartame and saccharin can be used as a substitute for sugar to enhance the
sweetness in food and drink. However, the used of saccharin is banned in many
countries because it is carcinogenic. Aspartame has largely replaced saccharin as
the artificial sweetener or choice.
6. Many esters have fruity odours and tastes and are used as artificial flavours. Table
below shows some examples of esters that are used in making drinks.

Ester Benzyl ethanoate Octyl ethanoate Ethyl butanoate

Flavour Strawberry Orange Pineapple

Stabilisers and Thickening agents.

1.c Stabilisers and thickening agents improve the texture and the blending of foods.

2.c Stabilisers are chemicals that are used to enable oil and water in the food to mix
together properly in order to form an emulsion of oil and water. Examples of
stabilizers are gelatin and acacia gum.

3.c Stabilisers are added to improve the texture of foods. For examples, stabilisers are
added to ice-cream and peanut butter to keep them smooth and creamy.
4.c In the presence of stabilisers, the emulsion of oil does not separate from water.
This means that the stabilisers improves the stability of some foods such as ice-
cream and salad dressings (mayonnaise).

5.c Without stabilisers, ice crystals would form in ice-cream, particles of chocolate
would settle out of chocolate milk, oil and vinegar in salad dressing will separate
as soon as mixing is stopped.

6.c Thickening agents are chemicals that are added to foods to thicken the liquid and
 to prevent the foods from becoming liquid. Thickening agents (also called
thickeners) absorb water and thicken the liquid in foods to produce a jelly-like
structure.

7.c Most thickening agents are natural carbohydrates. Gelatin and pectin are added to
help jams and jellies to set.

Dyes

1.c Dyes (colouring agents) are chemicals that are added to foods to give them colour
so as to improve their appearance.

2.c Some foods are naturally coloured, but the colour is lost during food processing.

The foods industry uses synthetic food colours to :

a) Restore the colour of food lost during food processing.

b) Enhance natural colours, so as to increase the attractiveness of foods.

c) Give colour to foods that do not have colour.

3.c Some dyes are naturally plant pigments while others are synthetically prepared.
The synthetic colours used in foods are azo and triphenyl compounds. Both these
compounds are organic compounds.

4.c The synthetic dyes , brilliant blue, is an example of triphenyl compound. The
synthetic dye, tartrazine and sunset yellow are examples of azo compounds.

5.c Azo compounds are organic compounds containing the diazo group, - N = N -, and
are usually yellow , red, brown, black in colour. Triphenyl compounds are organic compounds
containing three phenyl groups, -C6H5, and are usually green. Blue or purple in colour.

Effect of food additives on health

1.c The types of food additives allowed and the quantity permitted
are controlled by the 1983 Food Act and the 1985 Food
Regulation.
2. The permissible quantity depends on the type of food and the
food additives. For example, benzoic acid added must not
exceed 800 mg per kg in cordial drinks, whereas sodium nitrite
must not exceed 100 mg per kg in meat product.

3. The excessive intake of food additives for a prolonged period

of time will ruin our health. The side effects arising from taking
food additives are allergy, cancer, brain damage and
hyperactivity.

4. Allergy
a)Food additives such as sodium sulphite (preservative),
BHA and BHT (antioxidants), MSG (flavouring) and some
food colours (e.g, Yellow No. 5) can cause allergic
reactions in some people.

b)The symptoms of MSG allergy are giddiness, chest pain

and difficulty in breathing. This condition is called the
µChinese restaurant syndrome¶

c)The presence of sodium nitrate or sodium nitrite in food

can cause µblue baby¶ syndrome that is fatal for babies. This syndrome is due to the lack of
oxygen in the blood. Hence, the use of nitrate and nitrite is allowed in baby foods.
5. Cancer
a)Chemicals that cause cancer are called carcinogens.
Sodium nitrite (a preservative) is a potent carcinogen.
b)The nitrite react with the amines in food to produce
nitrosamine which can cause cancer.

6. Brain damage
Excessive intake of nitrites for a prolonged period of time can cause brain damage. In this
condition, the supply of oxygen to the brain is disrupted and this cause brain damage.
7. Hyperactivity
a)Food additives such as tartrazine can cause
hyperactivity.
b)Children who are hyperactivity become very active, find
it difficult to relax or sleep and are very restless.
The rationale for using food additives

Advantages

~


 

a)Oxidation and microorganism (bacteria, fungi) are the
main causes in the decomposition of food. In hot climate,
meat and fish rot easily. The use of preservatives is an
effective way to prevent food spoilage and to ensure that
foods can be supplied throughout the year.

b)If preservative are not used, food spoilage might

drastically reduce the food supply, making foods to cost
more.

c)Few deaths are associates with the use of food additives.

However, many people die due to food poisoning caused
by bacterial toxins.


 
  


During food processing, vitamins and minerals may be

destroyed. Thus, additives that improve nutrition can be
added. These additives include vitamin B, C and D, and
minerals such as iron. The addition of these additives increase
the nutritional value of foods.

    

a) Aspartame and sorbitol are used to make foods and

drinks sweet without using sugar. These food additives
are particularly useful as artificial sweeteners for
diabetic patients.

b) Artificial sweeteners give the sweet taste but without adding calories to the food. Thus, they
can be used to reduce obesity.

c) Potassium iodide is added to table salt to reduce the

incidence of goitre.
 d) Vitamin C is added to friut juices to prevent scurvy.
Vitamin D is added to margarine to prevent rickets.

Disadvantages

1.c Eating food additives such as preservatives, antioxidants and

flavour enhancers is excess quantities over a long period of
time is detrimental to health.

2.c Some food additives are used to make foods look more
appealing. These additives have little nutritional value. Eating
such foods increases the risk of health hazard.

3. Some foods are fortified with excess amounts of nutrients,

such as vitamins A and D, or of trace elements, such as copper
and zinc. Eating foods with excessive amounts of nutrients can
ruin our health.
Sources and uses of traditional
Medicines
1. A medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure diseases or
to reduce pain and suffering due to illnesses.

2.c Traditional medicines are medicines derived from natural

sources such as plants and animals without being processed
chemically.

3. Since ancients, mankind had used various types of plants and

roots, animals and animal part to cure diseases.

4. Medicines obtained from plants are known as herbal

medicines. The sources and uses of some herbal medicines are
shown in table below :

6lant 6art of the plant used Uses

Garlic Corm For preventing flu
attack
For reducing high
blood pressure

Ginger Rhizome For treating stomach

(horizontal pain due to wind in the
underground stem) stomach
and leaves For supplying heat
energy to keep the
body warm
For preventing flu
attack

Aloe Vera Leaves For preventing itchy

skin
For treating burns
(scalding) on the skin

Lemon (lime) Fruits For treating boils or

abscesses on the skin
For preventing flu
attack
For treating skin
 diseases

üuinine Bark of Chinchona For treating malaria

tree For preventing muscle
cramps

Ginseng Roots As a tonic to improve

the overall health of
human beings
For increasing energy,
endurance and
reducing fatigue

Lemon Grass Stem/leaves Has antibacterial and

antifungal properties
For treating cough

Tongkat Ali Roots As a tonic for after a

birth and general
health

Modern medicines
1.c Before the 20th century, most medicines were extracted from plants (herbal medicines). Since
1900. Thousands of modern drugs have been synthesised from organic compound.
2.c Modern medicines can be classified as follows based on their
effects on the human body.
3. Some examples of modern medicines are analgesics, antibiotics, psychotherapeutic drugs.

4. Modern drugs have a trade name and a generic name. For

example, the analgesic aspirin (generic name) is sold under
different brand names such as Caprin and Disprin. Similarly,
paracetamol (generic name) is sold under the trade name of
Panadol.

5.Modern medicines usually contain a mixture of active

ingredients prepared in different forms, such as capsules, pills,
solutions or suspensions. For example, Alka-Seltzer (used as
an antacid) contains sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), citric acid
and aspirin. It is the sodium bicarbonate then neutralizes the
excess stomach acid.
Fucntion of each type of modern drug
 Analgesics
1. Analgesics are medicines that relieve pain. Examples of
analgesics are aspirin, paraccetamol, and codeine. Analgesics
are sometimes called painkillers.
2. Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeine
is powerful painkillers.
3. Analgesics relive pain but do not cure the disease.
4. Aspirin : pain relief and anti-inflammatory action
a) The IUPAC name of aspirin is acetyl aslicylec acid. Aspirin
contains two functional groups, a carboxylic acid group
and the ester group. Thus, aspirin is aicidc in nature.
b) Uses of aspirin
Aspirin reduces fever and inflammable as well as relives
pain. Aspirin is used to :
(i)
Reduce fever
(ii)
Relieve headaches, muscle aches and joint aches
(iii)
Treat arthritis, a disease caused by inflammation of
the joints
(iv)
Act as an anticoagulant. It prevents the clotting of
blood and reduce the risk of the heart attack and
strokes.
5. Paracetamol
a) Paracetamol have the following structural formula. Thus,
unlike aspirin, paracetamol is neutral in nature.
b) Paracetamol is similar to aspirin in its effects (that is,
reduces fever and relieves pain) but it does not reduce
inflammation.
c) Paracetamol also reduces or relieves flu symptoms such
as fever, bone aches and runny nose.
6. Codeine
a) Codeine is an organic compound that contains the
elements of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
b) Codeine is an analgesics and is used to relive mirror to
moderate pain. Codeine is more powerful than morphine.
Codeine and morphine are narcotic drugs
c) Codeine is also used in cough mixtures for suppressing
coughs.
Antibiotics : antibacterial medicine
1. Antibiotics are chemicals that destroy or prevent the growth of

infectious microorganism.

2. Two examples of antibiotics are penicillin and streptomycin.

3. Antibiotics are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria.

4. Antibiotics are not effective against diseases caused by viral

infections such as influenza, measles, or small pox.
5. Penicillin

a) Penicillin is derived from the mould Penicillium notatum.

b) Penicillin are used to treat diseases, caused by bacteria,
such as pneumonia, gonorrhea and syphilis.
c) Penicillin is only effective on certain bacteria. For
example, it cannot be used to treat tuberculosis.
6.Streptomycin is the antibiotic that is effective in treating
tuberculosis.
Psychotherapeutic medicines
1.Psychotherapeutic medicines are a group of drugs for treating
mental or emotional illnesses.

2.Psychotherapeutic drugs can be divided into a few groups as

shown in table below :

Types of psychotherapeutic drugs Example

a)c Stimulants Caffeine,
Amphetanine
b)c Antidepressant Prozac
c)c Antipsycotic agents Chloropromazin

3.Stimulants

a)Stimulants are naturally occurring or synthetic drugs that

stimulate (excite) the activity of the brain and central
nervous system.

b)Adrenaline is a stimulant that the body produces when it

needs to prepare for demanding or energetic activities.
c)Stimulants make a person more alert, more energetic,less tired and more cheerful.
d)Examples of stimulants are caffeine and amphetamines.
Caffeine is a week, naturally occurring stimulant and is
found on coffee, tea and Cola drinks.
e)Amphetamines are strong synthetic stimulants and
increase alertness and physical ability.

f)Amphetamines increase the heart and respiration rates,

as well as the blood pressure. As a result, it causes the
body to postpone the need of sleep and can reverse,
partially and temporarily, the symptoms of fatigue.

4.Antidepressants

a)Depression is a chronic illness. Most cases of depression

are caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain.

b)People experiencing depression feel hopeless. They

experience a loss of interest in everyday activities such
as work or hobbies.

c)There is a strong correlation between the amounts of

special chemicals (called neurotransmitters) in the brain and a person¶s mood. If these chemicals
get too low, the person may feel depressed.

d)Antidepressants are medicines that increase the brain¶s

level of neurotransmitters, thus improving mood.

e)Antidepressants make a person feel calm and sleepy.

5.Antipsychotic medicines

a)Psychosis is the serious mental illness in which people

lose touch with reality. People with psychosis may,

Hear voice and see things that are not really there
(hallucinations)
Have belief that are not based on reality (delusions)
b)In psychiatry, there are a number of disorders that are
classified under µ psuchosis¶, such as schizophrenias
(madness), psychotic depression, mania and so on.

c)Psychotic patients have extreme mood swings. Their

mood changes rapidly from high spirit to deep
depression.
 d)Antipsychotic medicines do not cure symptoms to help
the person live a more normal life.

Side effects of traditional medicines

1. It is generally believed that traditional medicines have little
side effects compared to modern medicines. In fact, traditional
medicines are sometimes used to counteract the side effects of
some modern medicines.
2. However, taking high doses of quinine for a prolonged period
may cause hearing loss. German health officials recently
reported 40 cases of liver damage which were linked to the
herbal medicine containing kava-kava.
3. While the use of traditional medicine is rising globally, health
experts have insufficient data about how it affects patients.
4. The World Health Organisation( WHO) hopes to set up a global
monitoring system to monitor the adverse side effects of
traditional medicines.

Side effects of modern medicines

Type of modern Side effects
drug

Aspirin † Can cause bleeding in the stomach because

aspirin is vey acidic.
† Can cause allergic reactions, skin rashes and
asthmatic attacks

Amphetamines † People who abuse amphetamines are excitable

and talkative.
* Psycologically addictive and can cause heart
attact.
* Can cause anxiety,sleeplessness.aggressive
behaviour and decrease appetite.
* Can cause enlarged pupils,heavy perspiration
and termbling hands.

Ãodeine *Can cause addiction

6enicillin *Can cause allergic reactions
*Can cause death to people who are allergic to
it.
Streptomycin *Can cause nausea,vomiting,dizziness,rashes
and fever.
*Can cause loss of hearing following long-
term use.
Stimulus *Can cause addiction.
Antidepressant *Can cause addiction.
*Can cause headaches,grogginess and lost of
appetite.
Antipsychotic drug *Can cause dry mouth,blurred vision,urinary
retention,constipation.
*Can cause tremor and restlessness.
*Sedation(make people calmer or make people
sleepy.)

Correct ways of using medicines

c
In taking any medicine, we should know why the medicine is prescribed, how the
medicine should be used, what special precautions should be followed, what special
diet should be followed, what are the side effects, and what storage conditions are
needed. In addition, we should note the following points :

1. Self-medication
Do not prescribe medicines for yourself (self-medication) or for
other people. Discuss with your doctor and listen to him
concerning the medicine to be taken.

2. Follow the instructions given

Follow the instructions given by your doctor or pharmacist
concerning the dosage and method of taking the medicine.
3. Medicines for adult and children
Medicines for adult should not be given to children and
vice
versa.

4. Side effects
Visit the doctor immediately if there are symptoms of
allergy
or other effects of the drugs.

5. Expiry date
Like foods, medicines also have expiry date. Do not take
medicines after their expiry dates.
Photos of traditional medicines:
commonly use drugs
: Marjiuana,cocaine,opium,heroin,LSD

Reasons teen use drug

- Easy to find
- Family and relationship issues
- peer pressure
- media influence

Side effect

- heart-attack
- depression
- death and coma
- repiratory failure

immpact on soceity

- increase crime rates

- gives off a bad impression on the soceity
- decrease number of tourists

prevent drug abuse

- education on drug abuse

- control over medication
- parent's invovement in chil'd life
 Ã Ã
V Ã V V

NAME:NADIAH aINTI OSMAN

ÃLASS:5 ADIODA