A 700,000 rpm Feasibility Demonstration for Mesoscopic Scale Gas Turbine Engines

Presenter:
James F. Walton II, M. Eng.
Vice President of Program Development
Mohawk Innovative Technology, Inc.
Albany, NY 12205
USA

Authors:
Mohsen Salehi, Ph.D., Michael J. Tomaszewski, James F. Walton II,
and
Hooshang Heshmat, Ph.D.

December 3-5, 2003

Mohawk Innovative ®

Technology, Inc.

Page 1 of 9 © Copyright Mohawk Innovative Technology, Inc. 2003

ABSTRACT
A new class of miniature weapons and war
fighting systems is being developed that
requires a mesoscopic sized turbojet engine for
power and propulsion applications. These
systems require a high power density, low cost,
and fuel efficient turbojet engine that must
operate reliably, even after being stored for an
indefinite period of time. Due to the extremely
high operating speeds expected (up to one
million rpm), bearings have been shown to be a
key limiting factor. A revolutionary design
approach that integrates and uses oil-free, self-
acting hydrodynamic compliant foil air bearings
is therefore offered. This paper presents the
preliminary design and testing of a simulator
rotor bearing system that demonstrates the
feasibility of developing such a system.
A nine-gram, single piece metallic rotor was
fabricated and spun to 705,000 rpm. The rotor
was sized to be representative of a turbojet
engine with integral compressor and turbine
stages capable of approximately 2 pounds of
thrust or up to 144 watts of electrical power.
The single piece rotor design, used to simulate
the expected ceramic rotor construction,
dictated that a unique split housing and split foil
bearings be designed and fabricated. Testing
was completed with the rotor subjected to a
wide range of orientations, including rotor
inverted (i.e., 180 degree roll) and rotor spin
axis vertical. Changes in rotor orientation were
accomplished while the rotor was spinning at
speeds in excess of half a million rpm to
demonstrate suitability for air vehicle
application. Correlation between design
predictions and measured response was good,
indicating scalability of existing analysis tools
and physical hardware to the mesoscopic
scale. The success of these tests has
demonstrated the feasibility of developing ultra
high-speed mesoscopic rotating machinery
systems for power and propulsion applications.
Key words: mesoscopic turbojet, mesoscopic
generator, oil-free gas turbine engine, micro air
vehicle, uninhabited air vehicle, compliant foil
bearing, air bearing, gas bearing.
INTRODUCTION
The predicted spectrum of conflict for the 21st
Century has influenced and motivated the
development of a wide range of weapon
systems. The shift toward a more diverse array
of military operations, often involving small
teams operating in non-traditional
Page 2 of 9 © Copyright Mohawk Innovative Technology, Inc. 2003
environments, has sparked interest in miniature
or mesoscopic scale power and propulsion
systems. Mesoscopic scale power generating
(MPG) systems are needed to satisfy the
warfighter’s high electrical power demands due
to the increasingly power hungry electronic
equipment needed to sustain the soldier in the
field. Other needs include personalized cooling
systems for the individual soldier; and vacuum
pumps and blowers for battlefield chemical and
biological warning systems. Commercially,
MPGs with their high power density are also
envisioned for use autonomous robotic and
mobile applications. Propulsion systems for
Microair vehicles (MAVs) and Small UAVs
(SUAVs) are needed to support
reconnaissance functions for on-demand
information about surroundings and potential
targets as well as providing a dense or
autonomous swarm of sensor, decoy and/or
intelligent de-mining or munitions carrying
platforms. By providing unprecedented
situational awareness, rapid response
intelligent munitions, enhanced field capabilities
and real time command and communication,
greater effectiveness, battlefield superiority and
fewer casualties will be realized.
Mesoscale machines (i.e., "sugar cube to fist
sized" and typically weighing 50 grams or less)
offer a unique opportunity to meet these power
and propulsion needs efficiently, reliably and
inexpensively. Mesoscopic scale turbine
powered systems are currently attracting
attention due to their high power density and
output energy efficiency. Among the power
sources using chemical fuels, the gas turbine
generator is known to have the highest power
to weight ratio [1]. Significant additional
commercial applications are also expected in
support of miniature fuel cells, diesel engines
and other propulsion and power generating
machinery. An analysis of a gas turbine-fuel
cell hybrid micro generation system has shown
power efficiency of over 65% in the best
possible case [2]. Such a hybrid system would
be based on a micro gas turbine (µGT) and a
solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) and is expected to
achieve much higher efficiency than a
traditional µGT. With progress in
manufacturing techniques, it is expected that
the cost of these mesoscopic scale machines
will be reduced drastically, making the
application of these devices more attractive [3].
However, many issues need to be addressed,
including compressor, combustor and turbine
efficiency, component fabrication and scaling.
In addition to these, the long overlooked rotor-
bearing system integration issues are essential
to the ultimate operation of such systems. For
example, the reduced size of mesoscopic scale
machines impacts internal clearances,
balancing, manufacturing tolerances, damping
and thermal management. To address the
engine system development issues that will
make these mesoscopic turbo machines a
reality with high performance, reliability and
long term storability, MiTi® has developed and
demonstrated the supporting oil-free bearing
technologies [4].
The importance of oil-free compliant foil
bearings to the successful development of
mesoscopic gas turbine engines is seen in the
series of preliminary cycle analyses shown
schematically in Figure 1. In the cases
analyzed, the influence of compliant foil and
rolling element bearing power loss on the
mesoscopic engine was evaluated to assess
their impact on available shaft output power.
Figure 2 is a plot comparing power loss of each
bearing as a function of speed. The bearing
power loss calculations were performed
assuming that each bearing was sized for the
mesoscopic rotor. For a given operating speed
of 870,000 rpm and varying inlet air
temperatures, holding compressor, combustor
and turbine efficiencies constant, the available
output or generating power was determined.
Combustor
P2 = 303.9 kPa
 = 0.92 P3 = 280 kPa
T3 = 1000C
T2 = 171C
 = 2 g/sec
m
P0 = 101.3 kPa Compressor Turbine
c = 3.0 t = 2.70
T0 = 15C
 = 2 g/sec
c = 0.7 t = 0.7
m • •
W = 334 Watt Losscfb = 32 W W = 510 Watt
 = 870 krpm
Lossreb = 180 W
Available Output Power
(Watts)
T0 (C) Foil Bearing Ball Bearing
15 144 - 4
25 113 -35
50 105 -43
Figure 1. Mesoscopic Brayton cycle analysis
comparison.
As seen in Figure 1, even at the lowest inlet
temperature of 15°C, which results in the
highest available output power, the ball bearing
power loss would prevent full speed operation.
In this first idealized case, the combined power
needed to drive the compressor and overcome
the ball bearing power loss exceeds turbine
Page 3 of 9
output power by 4 watts. Conversely, the foil
bearing supported system, with its substantially
lower power loss, would make it possible to
provide up to 144 watts of electrical generating
power. The situation only gets worse as the air
inlet temperature increases.
Mesoscale Turbine- Bearing Powerloss
250
Ball Bearing Loss
Foil Bearings
200
150 5.5 Times lower
losses for foil
100 bearing
50
0
0 200000 400000 600000 800000 1000000 1200000
Rotor Speed (rpm) 03-0030
Figure 2. Comparison of foil and ball bearing
power loss versus speed.
The cycle analysis with increased inlet air
temperatures also points out the need for
system thermal management to limit the heat
soak back from the turbine to the compressor
during operation. Due to the close proximity of
all components and the limited available
pathways to remove heat, it is essential that
materials with low thermal conductivity be used
and that parasitic heat losses be minimized in
these machines. For example, with higher
physical temperatures of the compressor itself,
additional turbine power is needed to maintain
the compression ratio and mass flow rate. The
extraction of additional work from the turbine
P4 = 101.3 kPa reduces the available shaft output power to
T3 = 840C
drive a generator. Thus, from this simple
Output
analysis, it is concluded that the feasibility of
144 Wattcfb
developing efficient mesoscopic power and
-4 Wattreb propulsion turbine engines will require the use
of ceramic rotors with their low thermal
conductivity and foil bearings with their low
power loss.
Having identified the need for ceramic rotors
03-0031D
and foil bearings, one must then consider
manufacturing related and cost issues,
especially for mesoscopic sized rotor and
bearing systems. For example typical
clearance ratios (clearance/diameter) in gas
bearings ranges from .0001 to .001, which for a
6 mm diameter shaft, would mean that the
bearing diametral clearance would be between
0.6 and 6 m. Centrifugal growth of a ceramic
shaft at 1 million rpm would be approximately
0.4 m, consuming from 15% to over 60% of
the available bearing clearance, if a rigid pad
© Copyright Mohawk Innovative Technology, Inc. 2003
gas bearing design were used. With the
addition of thermal growth, which for ceramics
would be on the order of 1.5 m for a shaft-to-
bearing differential temperature as small as
75°C, bearing clearance could be totally
eliminated with certain gas bearing designs.
The compliant foil bearing inherently is
designed to readily accommodate such growth.
Figure 3. Mesoscopic turbojet engine with
photos of simulator hardware
Besides shaft growth and manufacturing
processes, balancing of the rotating group must
also be considered, both from manufacturing
and operating points of view. Balance
specifications according to ISO 1940/1 and
ANSI S2.19 for gas turbine and turbogenerator
class rotors, would dictate that the balance limit
for a nine gram rotor should be 9x10-5 gr-in
when operating at 700,000 rpm and 1x10-5 gr-in
when operating at one million rpm. At this
balance level the expected rotor vibration would
be approximately 2.8 m when operating at
700,000 rpm. Given that a bearing clearance
of less than 6 m would be likely, the combined
rotor growth of 2 m and rotor displacement of
2.8 m would make operation of the rotor
system unlikely without a unique bearing
system. Further, achieving such stringent
balance levels would be nearly impossible with
a multi-piece rotor assembly. It is also well
known that joining and structural integrity are
two issues that must be addressed when using
ceramics. Thus when combined with the need
for low cost, the only real logical manufacturing
method is to make the rotating group as a
single piece. The single piece rotor design
choice dictates that split bearings be used in
order for assembly to be possible. Figure 3
shows a conceptual turbojet engine cross
section with a single piece ceramic rotor and
Page 4 of 9 © Copyright Mohawk Innovative Technology, Inc. 2003
foil bearing cartridge along with photos of
tested simulator hardware.
SIMULATOR DESIGN AND TEST METHOD
Since bearings have been identified as one of
the key limiting factors in the operation of high
speed mesoscopic machines, it was felt that
machine feasibility would best be demonstrated
through rotor-bearing system simulator testing.
As such a mesoscopic scale rotor-bearing
system dynamic simulator was designed, built
and tested to demonstrate rotor-bearing system
stability, design analysis scalability and the
potential of successfully operating and
manufacturing split compliant foil bearings. In
this section of the paper details of the
experimental set up (simulator), rotordynamic
analysis and experimental results are
explained.
Turbine Simulator Test Rig
The MiTi® mesoscopic turbine simulator
consists of an impulse turbine driven single
piece rotor supported by two compliant foil
journal bearings. Two compliant foil thrust
bearings were used to maintain rotor axial
position. Compliant foil air bearings were
selected for this demonstration because of their
ability to operate at almost unrestricted speeds,
their low power loss as discussed above and
ability to operate at temperatures above 1100°F
for extended durations. MiTi®’s Korolon high
temperature, high durability coating will permit
thousands of machine start/stop cycles without
degradation. The newly developed split journal
and thrust designs were also used.
The simulator housing included a split bearing
shell, a turbine nozzle box, end caps and
provision for fiber optic displacement sensors
and speed pickup. Total simulator weight was
56 grams, including the 9-gram rotor. The
simulator housing was made of aluminum with
an overall length and diameter of 32.7 and 28.6
mm, respectively. The assembled simulator
hardware is shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5.
Two end caps with embedded holes were used
on both ends of the simulator housing to secure
to split housings and provide a location for the
optical speed pick up and/or an axial
displacement probe if desired and finally for
directing the impulse turbine exhaust to the
outside. The simulator shell or housing
included holes for the impulse turbine drive air
and optical displacement probes. The
simulator housing and interior components
such as the bearing shells and nozzle box were
made of two halves. The drive turbine nozzle
box featured a ring with ID of 7.518 mm and
OD of 11.43 mm on whose circumference 12
holes in six equally spaced circumferential
positions were installed.
Drive
Air Inlet
Fiberoptic
Housing Speed Probe
Fiberoptic
Displacement
Probes
Figure 4. Assembled instrumented mesoscopic
simulator test rig.
Displacement Probes
 15 mm
Thrust Foil Bearings
(0.59")
Impulse
Turbine
 28.6 mm 24 mm
(1.125")
Speed
Pickup
Journal Foil Bearings
32.7 mm
(1.287")
Figure 5. Schematic diagram of mesoscopic
simulator.
The PH 13-Mo metallic rotor shown in Figure 6
has an overall length of 24 mm, a shaft
diameter of 6 mm and featured two 15 mm
diameter, 1.664 mm long wheels at each end of
the rotor. The 15 mm diameter wheels were
used to simulate the mass and inertia
properties of a turbine and compressor stage.
The 6 mm diameter shaft center section was
used as the foil bearing journal surface. The
impulse turbine pockets used to drive the rotor
were machined in the center of the single piece
rotor. The split foil thrust bearings have an
outside diameter of 15 mm and an inside
diameter of 8 mm.
The PH-13 Mo bearing shells each had overall
outside diameter and length of 21.26 and 5.08
mm, respectively as shown schematically in
Figure 5 to accommodate the smooth top foil
and supporting compliant bump foil assembly.
Page 5 of 9
The simulator was equipped with two
displacement probes and one speed pickup
probe. The optical displacement probes were
positioned to record simulator wheel motion.
The speed pickup probe was installed on one
of the end caps pointing at the axial face of the
one of the two wheels. Probe locations are
shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5.
Figure 6. Metallic simulator rotor.
BEARING SYSTEM DESIGN AND ANALYSIS
Due to concerns regarding scalability of the
physical hardware, detailed and iterative
bearing and rotordynamic analyses were
 6 mm completed prior to hardware fabrication. First a
finite element model of the rotor was prepared
and critical speed analysis performed to
establish required the nominal bearing stiffness
range that would ensure adequate rotor-
bearing critical speed margin. Figure 7 and
03-0006-R3
Figure 8 present the results of the preliminary
design analysis. As seen from Figure 8 bearing
stiffness coefficients from 1.75 KN/m to 1750
KN/m would provide acceptable critical speed
margins. Given this wide latitude, the 6 mm
diameter compliant bearings were then
designed to provide the most desired
performance – namely high levels of damping
for stability. The predicted bearing stiffness
characteristics (non-dimensional values) are
shown in Figure 9. Using the speed dependent
bearing dynamic stiffness coefficients, rotor
bearing whirl analysis was then conducted to
assess system stability. During the
whirl/stability analysis, the range of damping
needed for a stable well controlled system was
determined. Based on the required damping
level, the bearing design was reviewed and
further analyzed to ensure adequate damping
would be provided. As an additional
verification of the predicted bearing damping,
data from MiTi®’s extensive empirically
correlated database of bearing damping was
mined and scaled to the mesoscopic scale
bearings. A detailed technical background on
© Copyright Mohawk Innovative Technology, Inc. 2003
integration of structural and fluid film dynamic speeds and at various rotor axis orientations
elements, frictional damping and scaling in foil through rolling or rotation of the simulator while
bearings may be found in [5-10]. it was spinning. These tests identify the
performance of the bearing in maintaining a
The results of the rotordynamic whirl and
stable rotor system while transient dynamic
stability analysis are presented in Figure 10
conditions are imposed on the rotor system.
and Figure 11. Figure 10 shows both the
The results are shown based on the rotor
predicted and measured rigid body natural
spectrum for various speeds and various
frequencies when operating at speeds up to
orientations.
550,000 rpm. As seen, even with the small
scale rotor and foil journal bearings, correlation 90

between the measured and predicted natural 80 Kxx

frequencies is quite good. The logarithmic 70 Y
60 Kyy
decrements reported on Figure 10 are those 50
predicted for the two rigid body modes when 40 Shaft
X
operating at the corresponding spin speeds. 30

Figure 11 shows that rotor system stability is 20 Kxy

10
expected over the entire operating speed range -0
as noted by the positive logarithmic decrements -10

for all speeds. -20 Kyx

1.5 mm 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600

Speed (rpm in thousands) 01025-F025

Mode 2
34,006 rpm Mesoscopic
Figure 9. Simulator
Non-dimensional Comparison
speed dependent
6 mm Impulse bearing dynamicAnalysis vs Measurement
stiffness coefficients.
Turbine Mode 1
24,593 rpm Translatory Measured
120000 Translatory Predicted
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
110000 Concical Measured Y

Conical
100000 Conical Predicted X

Mode
90000
Measured Damped Natural
80000 Frequency
Mode 3
3,011,493 rpm 70000 Predicted Damped Natural
6.35 mm 60000 Frequency with Logarithmic Z

17.7 mm Decrement Between 0.43 and 0.52

50000
File: P:\01025\Data\mg-msvh1.rot 40000
Translatory
01025-F024
Mode
Y

30000
X

Figure 7. Rotor finitie element model and critical Predictecd Damped Natural
20000 Frequency with Logarithmic
speed mode shapes 10000
Decrement Between 0.31 and 0.58
Z

Critical Speed Map 0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000 600000

107
Speed (RPM) 01025-F002C
Figure 10. Whirl map comparing predicted and
measured natural frequencies.
106
Operating speed range

105

104

103
101 102 103 104 105 106 Lb/in
175x101 175x102 175x103 175x104 175x105 175x106 N/m
File: P:\01025\Data\mg-msvh1.rot Bearing Stiffness 01025-F023

Figure 8. Preliminary critical speed map for

mesoscale rotor.
Figure 11. Stability map.
Figure 12, a Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
TEST RESULTS waterfall plot of rotor vibration versus frequency
In this section the results of tests with simulator at discrete time steps, presents the results of
are shown. The simulator was tested at various the 702,000 rpm high-speed run of the

Page 6 of 9 © Copyright Mohawk Innovative Technology, Inc. 2003

mesoscopic simulator. This plot shows rotor
startup, acceleration to full speed and
coastdown. The critical information gleaned
from this plot besides the high speed operation
is the very small amplitude levels for the two
rigid body rotor natural frequencies when
operating at high speed. The low amplitudes of
these sub-synchronous vibrations, is indicative
of good bearing damping characteristics. It is
also instructive to note that the operating speed
frequency is approximately 28 times greater
than the rigid body natural frequencies. In early
first generation air bearing designs circa
1980’s, rotor instability was often encountered
when the spin speed frequency approached 5
or 7 times the rigid body natural frequencies.
Through the improved fourth generation
bearing designs developed by MiTi® that
produce high levels of damping, this barrier has Figure 13. Mesoscopic rotor instantaneous
been successfully overcome. vibration spectrum when operating at 672 Krpm.

Figure 12. Waterfall FFT plot showing 702,000

rpm
A more detailed examination of rotor vibration
response was also conducted at a variety of
speeds to assess overall vibration performance
of the mesoscopic rotor-bearing system. The
frequency spectrum obtained from two fiber
optic displacement sensors with the rotor in the
preferred horizontal position while spinning at
672,000 rpm is shown in Figure 13. As shown,
a very small rotor displacement in the order of
0.25 μm (0.00001 inch) at the spin speed is
observed.
Figure 14 and Figure 15 show rotor vibration
spectrum with the rotor remaining horizontal,
but the housing rolled or rotated about the spin
axis 90° and 180° from its preferred orientation.
Figure 16 shows the vibration spectrum when
the rotor spin axis is rotated to the vertical
orientation. The increase in rotor orbits when
operating with the spin axis vertical is expected
due to the reduced bearing stiffness
experienced during unloaded operation [11].
Figure 14. Vibration spectrum for operation with
the simulator rolled 90° about the spin axis.
These tests verified the high-speed all attitude
operation of the mesoscopic turbine rotor
simulator. Of most importance is the lack of any
real subsynchronous natural frequency
vibration content in the measured spectrum.
These clean spectra are indicative of a well-
damped rotor bearing system. Further, the lack
of observed subsynchronous vibrations
throughout the test speeds indicates that
operation to speeds of one-million rpm are
possible. Based on previous high temperature
testing of MiTi® foil bearings up to 1200°F,
operation of mesoscopic turbojets appears
highly feasible. For this initial test series, over
30 start stop cycles and more than 1 hour of
run time were accumulated. The maximum
operating speeds attained during testing

Page 7 of 9 © Copyright Mohawk Innovative Technology, Inc. 2003

represent the first ever demonstration test of its
kind.
Figure 15. Vibration spectrum for operation with
simulator inverted (i.e., rolled 180° about spin
axis).
Figure 16. Vibration spectrum for simulator
operating with the spin axis vertical
CONCLUSIONS
The successful operation of a mesoscopic
turbojet simulator on compliant air foil journal
and thrust bearing up to speeds as high as
705,000 rpm was demonstrated. The bearing
DN values at this condition exceeds 4,200,000.
The results of the experimental work showed
that the air bearing performance scaled to the
current mesoscopic level was successful. The
performance of the newly developed
technology of split bearing design was also
Page 8 of 9 © Copyright Mohawk Innovative Technology, Inc. 2003
demonstrated. Based on this very successful
demonstration of a mesoscopic sized rotor
supported on compliant foil bearings, the
potential to develop a 1 million rpm lubricant-
free mesoscopic turbine rotor system appears
highly feasible. Additional testing and
developments are planned to further refine and
quantify the benefits to be gained with foil
bearings in mesoscopic sized applications.
These data will then be used to assess the
application of foil bearings to numerous other
applications for both military and commercial
systems. Specific potential applications include
turbojets for MAV propulsion and MPG drives.
Additional applications include mesoscopic
turbochargers for miniature diesel engines, and
motor driven compressors for high power
density fuel cells.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The work was supported by MiTi®, as an
internal research and development program.
The authors would like to thank MiTi® for
supporting this project. Special thanks are
reserved for Mr. David Slezak for his fabrication
of the mesoscale foil bearings and Mr. Romano
Sandomenico for machining critical parts used
in the testing.
REFERENCES
1. Isomura, K. et al., 2002, “Development Of
Microturbocharger And Microcombustor For
A Three-Dimensional Gas Turbine At
Microscale”, Paper, GT-2002-3058,
Proceedings of ASME Turbo EXPO.
2. Uechi, H., Kimijima, S., Kasagi, N., 2001,
“Cycle analysis of gas turbine-fuel cell
hybrid micro generation system”,
proceedings of JPGC 01, New Orleans, LA,
June 4-7.
3. Kang, S., Stampfl, J., Cooper, A., Prinz, F.,
2001, “Application Of The Mold SDM
Process To The Fabrication Of Ceramic
Parts For A Mircro Gas Turbine Engine”
from publication of Rapid Prototyping
Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford,
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Development Newsletter, 2003,
“Mesoscopic Turbojet Simulator Tested at
Speeds Above 700,000 rpm on Air Foil
Bearings”, Vol. 17. January 2003.
5. Heshmat, H. and Ku, C.-P.R. "Structural
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Journal Bearings." ASME Paper No. 93-
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Tribology Conference, October 24-27, 1993
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Lubrication, Sep. 3rd to 7th , Vienna, Austria,
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559-575.
7. Heshmat, C.A., Xu, D. and Heshmat, H., “
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Finite Difference Methods,” presented at
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Design Engineering Technical Conferences,
17th Biennial Conference on Mechanical
Vibration and Noise, ASME Paper No.
DETC/VIB-8271, September 12-15, 1999
Las Vegas, Nevada
9. Salehi, M., Heshmat, H., Walton, J., 2003,
“The Frictional Damping Characterization of
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99-GT-391