Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Prof. Peter Crossley
Lecture will explain why Power System engineers
prefer to express impedance, current, voltage and
power in per unit values rather than ohms,
amperes, kilovolts, MegaVArs or MegaWatts
Why Use the Per Unit System?
• Multiple voltage levels: UK = 400kV, 275kV, 132kV, 11kV, 400V
• Makes circuit analysis rather confusing
• Transformer impedance (W) depends on prim/sec referral
• Normalise all quantities to help understanding
• Avoid confusion due to transformers
• Ideal transformer winding can be eliminated
(assumes proper specification of base values)
• Voltages, currents and impedances expressed in perunit do
not change when referred from primary to secondary
• Perunit impedances of equipment of similar type are usually
similar if equipment ratings are used as base values
• Manufacturer usually specify impedance of item of plant in per
unit (or percent) using nameplate rating as base
• Perunit values result in more meaningful data
© Kirschen + Crossley 2
Why perunit = meaningful data
• Consider: “the armature resistance is 4.0 W”
Then ask yourself if this a high, typical or a low value?
Answer depends on size of machine:
In a large machine 4.0W is excessive, small machine too low
• now consider: “if the rated machine current is passed
through the armature resistance, the voltage across
the resistance will be 8% or 0.08 perunit of the rated
machine voltage”
Although the statement is long and complicated we have an
indication of the relative magniture of the armature resistance
• simplify expression to “armature resistance is 0.08 perunit”
© Kirschen + Crossley 3
Principle
Actual quantity
Per Unit quantity =
Base value
Example: nominal voltage at busbar A is 132 kV
and actual voltage at A is 127 kV. The per unit
voltage at A is:
voltage in kV
voltage in p .u . =
base voltage in kV
pu 127 kV
V
A = = 0.96 per unit = 0.96 p .u .
132 kV
© Kirschen + Crossley 4
Notes
• Normalisation applies only to magnitudes
• Angles do not need to be normalised (they already are!)
• If the nominal value is chosen as the base voltage:
a “normal” voltage value will be close to 1.0 p.u.
© Kirschen + Crossley 5
Choice of Base Values
• Need base value for all quantities:
n Power, Voltage, Current, Impedance, Admittance
• Base values do not have to be the same for all
equipment in the system
• Wise choice helps simplify the analysis
© Kirschen + Crossley 6
Rules for Choosing Base Values
• Choose ONE base power for the entire system
n Arbitrary choice
n Commensurate with the system
n e.g. 415V use 100kVA or 1MVA, 11kV use 10MVA,
132KV use 100MVA, 400kV use 1000MVA
n Choice also depends on rating of generators/transformers
n If network contains multiple voltages, select base power based on
“section of most interest”
n e.g. commercial/industrial building = mainly 415V use 100kVA
distribution utility = mainly 11kV use 10MVA
transmission utility = use 100MVA or 1000MVA
• Choose ONE base voltage for each voltage level
n Choose the nominal voltage
• Other base values chosen to get the same relations
between per unit quantities as between actual quantities
© Kirschen + Crossley 7
S = V I (in VA)
S pu = V pu I pu (in p.u.)
S V I
=
S B V B I B
1 1 1
=
S B V B I B
Base S B
I B =
Current: V B
© Kirschen + Crossley 8
V = Z I
V pu = Z pu I pu
V Z I
=
V B Z B I B
1 1 1
=
V B Z B I B
Base V B 2
V B
Impedance: Z B = =
I B S B
© Kirschen + Crossley 9
Singlephase networks:
base MVA 1 F
base current (kA ) = = base kA
base kV LN
base kV LN ( base kV LN ) 2
base impedance ( W ) = =
base kA base MVA 1 F
I 2
I 1
V 1 V 2
N 1 N 2
Ideal transformer:
V 1 N 1
=
V 2 N 2
I 1 N 2
=
I 2 N 1
© Kirschen + Crossley 11
Real Transformers
Ideal
R m X m Transformer
N 1 /N 2
• R 1 , R 2 : ohmic losses in conductors
• X L1 , X L2 : leakage flux
• X m : imperfect magnetisation
• R m : core losses (eddy currents, hysteresis)
© Kirschen + Crossley 12
Practical Transformer Model
I 1 I 2
Ideal X L
V 1 Transformer V 2
N 1 /N 2
© Kirschen + Crossley 13
Which Side Impedance?
I 1 I 2
Ideal X L
X 1 V 1 Transformer
V 2
N 1 /N 2
N 1
V 2 2 2
V 1 N 2 æ N 1 ö V 2 æ N 1 ö
X 1 = = = ç ÷ = ç ÷ X L
I 1 N 2 è N 2 ø I 2 è N 2 ø
I 2
N 1
© Kirschen + Crossley 14
Which Side Impedance?
I 2
I 1
Ideal X L
V 1 Transformer E 2 V 2 X 2
N 1 /N 2
V 2
X 2 = = X L (because E 2 = 0 )
I 2
2
æ N 1 ö
Þ X 1 = ç ÷ X 2
è N 2 ø
© Kirschen + Crossley 15
Per Unit Voltages in Transformers
V 1 N 1
=
V 2 N 2
Choose:
V 1 B V 1 Nom N 1
= =
V 2 B V 2 Nom N 2
V 1
V 1 pu V 1 B V 1 V 2 B N 1 N 2
pu
= = × = × = 1
V 2 V 2 V 2 V 1 B N 2 N 1
V 2 B
pu pu
V 1 = V 2
© Kirschen + Crossley 16
Per Unit Currents in Transformers
I 1
pu
I 1 I 1 B I 1 I 2 B
pu
= = × B
I 2 I 2 I 2 I 1
I 2 B
S B
I 1 B = B I 1 pu N 2 N 1
V 1 I B
V B
N 1 = × = 1
2 1
B
= B = I 2 pu N 1 N 2
B I 1 V 2 N 2
S
I 2 B = B
V 2
I 1 N 2 pu pu
= I 1 = I 2
I 2 N 1
© Kirschen + Crossley 17
Per Unit Impedance in Transformers
2
æ N 1 ö
Z 1 = ç ÷ Z 2
è N 2 ø
2
pu Bæ N 1 ö pu B
Z 1 × Z = ç
1 ÷ Z 2 × Z 2
è N 2 ø
B B 2 B B 2
B
V 1 V 1 B
V
2 V
2
Z =
1 B
= B
Z =
2 B
= B
I 1 S I
2 S
2 2 B 2
puV æ N 1 ö
1 B pu V 2
Z ×
1 = ç ÷ Z 2 × B
S B è N 2 ø S
B 2 2
V 1 æ N 1 ö
= ç ÷ pu
Z 1 = Z 2
pu
B 2 è N 2 ø
V 2
© Kirschen + Crossley 18
Transformer Model in SI units (V, A, VA, W)
I 1 I 2
Ideal X L
V 1 Transformer V 2
N 1 /N 2
© Kirschen + Crossley 19
Transformer Model in Per Unit
pu pu
V 1 = V 2
pu
I 1 = I 2
pu V 1 pu V 2 pu
pu pu
Z 1 = Z 2 Ideal transformer has disappeared!
Transformers modelled by simple impedances
© Kirschen + Crossley 20
PerUnits in ThreePhase System
Goal:
Have the same per unit values for linetoline and
linetoneutral quantities
Make everything look like a single phase circuit
© Kirschen + Crossley 21
ThreePhase Per Unit Voltage
In a three phase system, we have:
V LL = 3V LN
We would like to have:
V V
pu pu LL LN
V = V =
LL LN
V V
B , LL B , LN
V = 3V
B, LL B , LN
© Kirschen + Crossley 22
ThreePhase Per Unit Power
In a three phase system, we have:
S = 3 S
3ø 1ø
We would like to have:
S S
pu pu 3ø 1ø
S = S =
3 ø 1ø S S
B, 3ø B,1ø
S = 3 S
B , 3ø B ,1ø
© Kirschen + Crossley 23
ThreePhase Per Unit Current
In a three phase system, we have:
S = 3V I = 3V I
LN L LL L
We would like to have:
S V I
pu pu pu = LL L
S = V I S V I
B, 3ø B, LL B
S
B , 3 ø
I =
B 3 V
B , LL
© Kirschen + Crossley 24
ThreePhase Per Unit Impedance
In a single phase, we have:
V = Z I
LN 1ø L
We would like to have:
V Z I
pu pu pu LN = 1ø L
V = Z I V Z I
B, LN B B
V 2
B, LL
Z =
V
B, LN
=
3
=
(
V
B, LL )
B I S S
B B, 3 ø B , 3ø
3V
© Kirschen + Crossley
B, LL 25
Summary
1. For the entire system, choose arbitrarily
S = S
B B , 3 ø
2. For each voltage level, choose:
V = V
B B , LL
3. Then, for each voltage level, calculate:
S
B , 3 ø
I =
B 3V
B , LL
2
Z =
(
V
B , LL )
B S
B , 3ø
© Kirschen + Crossley 26
Manufacturer’s Data
• Impedances of generators and transformers
are given on the basis of the rating of the
component
• All impedances must be converted to a
common basis for network studies
• Example:
n Generator rated at 10MVA, 20kV
n Impedances given on the following basis
S = 10 MVA
B
V = 20 kV
B
© Kirschen + Crossley 27
System Studies
• To study a system, all per unit quantities must
be expressed in a consistent basis
n Same base power for the whole system
n Same base voltage for all the components in a
voltage level
• Need to know how to convert from one base
to another
© Kirschen + Crossley 28
Base conversion
If an impedance is expressed in a new base and an old base,
We must have:
pu pu
Z = Z Z = Z Z
actual new B,new old B ,old
Z V B 2
pu pu B,old But we always have: Z B =
Z = Z S B
new old
Z
B, new
2
pu pu
S B ,new
æ V B ,old
ö
Z new = Z old ç ÷
S B ,old è V B ,new ø
© Kirschen + Crossley 29
Base Conversion
V B ,new = V B ,old
• We usually have because a
generator is almost always connected at its
nominal voltage
• Important base conversion formula:
pu pu
S B ,new
Z new = Z
old
S B ,old
© Kirschen + Crossley 30
Example
• Generator rated at 10MVA, 20kV
• To be included in a system study where
© Kirschen + Crossley 31
• Example: Consider a 400kV transmission line with a hot
weather rating of 1400 MVA (UK 400kV quad conductor line)
base MVA 3F = S B,new =1400 MVA : base kV LL = V B,new = 400 kV
Hence: base MVA 1F = 1400 ¸ 3 = 466.7 MVA
base kV LN = 400 ¸ Ö3 = 230.9 kV
• If the line is operating at 390 kV at the cold weather rating of
2200 MVA calculate perunit voltage using lineline voltage
base and lineneutral voltage base.
V LL pu = kV LL ¸ V B,new = 390 ¸ 400 = 0.975
V LN pu = kV LN ¸ base kV LN = (390 ¸ Ö3) ¸ 230.9 = 0.975
• calculate perunit MVA using base MVA 1F & base MVA 1F
S pu = S 3F ¸ S B,new = 2200 MVA ¸ 1400 MVA = 1.57
S pu = S 1F ¸ base MVA 1F = (2200 ¸ 3) ¸ 466.7 = 1.57
© Kirschen + Crossley 32
Example: perunit in balanced 3F networks
• A Y connected load consisting of three equal impedances of
10Ð60º W is connected to an 11kV busbar at a substation by a
3F overhead line of impedance 0.5Ð75º W per phase.
• Calculate the lineline voltage at the terminals of the load in per
unit and in kV if the base lineline voltage is 11kV and the 3
phase “MegaVoltAmpere” is 10MVA.
• Finally evaluate the current in each phase of the line in perunit
and kA.
© Kirschen + Crossley 33
Example: Changing the base of perunit quantities
• The subtransient reactance of a generator (X”) is
given as 0.2 perunit based on the generators name
plate rating of 11.8KV, 200MVA.
• Calculate the perunit impedance of the generator
referred to the power system base of 11.0KV,
100MVA.
© Kirschen + Crossley 34
Example: Perunit applied to transformers
• A 3F two winding transformer is rated at 75MVA,
11.8/145kV, 50Hz and the equivalent leakage
impedance referred to the 11.8kV winding is Z eq =
0.22 W.
• Using the transformer ratings as base values,
determine the perunit leakage impedances referred
to the 11.8kV winding and the 145kV winding.
© Kirschen + Crossley 35
Example: Application of perunit
• The power network shown below consists of three
zones connected to each other using transformers.
Transf.12 is rated at 5000kVA, 66kV/11kV and its leakage reactance = 12%
Transf.23 is rated at 5000kVA, 66kV/33kV and its leakage reactance = 10%
1 2 2 3
G1 = synchronous generator = 75MVA, 11.8kV, sync reactance Xd = j1.83 p.u.
T1 = generator transformer = 75MVA, 11.8kV/145kV X = j0.125 p.u.
L1 = 132kV transmission line: Z = 0.18 + j0.40 W/km, length = 20km.
T2 = stepdown transformer = 45MVA, 132kV/11kV, X = j0.125 p.u.
ZL = 11kV load = 10MVA, cos f = 0.8.
© Kirschen + Crossley 37