Fundamentals of SOLENOID coil

What is a solenoid?

A solenoid converts electrical power into linear mechanical power. Whereas a motor converts
electrical power into a continuous rotational mechanical power, a solenoid has a finite, generally
only short, mechanical movement.

Solenoids are normally built by winding a coil of wire around a moveable soft iron core. When a
current is passed through the coil, the core moves towards the centre of the solenoid. The current
can be DC, AC, or a pulse-width modulated waveform that is partly DC and partly AC.

Magnetic circuit theory

Before describing how solenoids work, it is necessary to know a little about magnetic circuits.
Magnetic circuits are similar to electric circuits in many respects. Let’s introduce some terms:

Magneto-Motive Force (MMF)

This is the equivalent of electro-motive force (EMF or voltage) in an electric circuit. It’s units is
Ampere-turns (At). A coil carrying I amps with N turns will generate an MMF of NI Ampere-
turns. It is designated by the fancy letter F.

Flux

Magnetic flux is similar to current in an electric circuit. It’s unit is the Weber (Wb), and it is
designated by the Greek letter Phi (Φ)

Flux density

The flux density is the flux divided by the cross sectional area of the magnetic conductor that the
flux is transported in. It’s unit is the Weber-per-metre-squared, or Tesla (T), and it is designated
by the letter B.

Reluctance

This is the ratio of MMF to Flux in the magnetic conductor, and so is equivalent to electrical
resistance. It is proportional to the length of the path, and inversely proportional to the cross-
sectional area, just like resistance. It’s unit is the Ampere-per-Weber, and it is designated by the
fancy letter R.
Permeability

Permeability is a bit like reluctance. It describes how much a material resists magnetic flux flow,
and so is equivalent to the resistivity of electrical conductors. It has units of Tesla-metres-per-
Ampere, and is designated by the Greek letter Mu (µ).

The permeability of free space, µ0, has a fixed value of 4πx 10-7.

Relative permeability

This is the permeability of a conductor relative to that of free space. For example, soft iron has a
relative permeability of around 6000, which means its actual permeability is 6000 x 4πx 10-7 =
0.0075 Tm/A. It has the symbol µr.

let’s examine a magnetic circuit. This is a solid iron square ring with a cross sectional area of A
metres2, and an average path length of L:

The coil has a resistance of Rcoil, which is shown as a lumped resistance, so the coil current for a
DC supply, V, is I = V/Rcoil. The coil generates an mmf of NI ampere-turns, which drives a flux
Φ around the iron. Some simple equations can be written to describe this:

The mmf generated by the coil, is given by:

The reluctance of the iron is given by the equation:

where L is the average length of the path, and A is the cross sectional area. Note that the symbol
µ is used a simple term to cover both µ0 and µr.

The flux generated is then:

and the flux density in the core is:

An equivalent electrical circuit can be drawn to represent this:

The inductance of the coil is given by the equation:

The inductance of the coil is given by the equation:

Now what happens if an air-gap is introduced:

The reluctance of the iron is still almost the same (it is nearly the same length and same csa), but
there is an added reluctance in series, that of the airgap. The relative permeability of air is 1, so
the reluctance of the airgap is

Now the electrical equivalent circuit looks like this:

Forces in magnetic systems

It is a feature of magnetic circuits that there is a force on any component that if moved, will
reduce the reluctance (or increase the inductance, same thing) of the circuit. Therefore in the
previous diagram, there is force between the ends of the iron core each side of the air gap. If the
iron could move, the ends would come together to eliminate the air gap. One way of
understanding this is that the coil makes the iron into an electromagnet, with an N pole at one
end and an S pole at the other, across the air gap. These two poles, being opposite, attract each
other.

DC, AC, or PWM drive

When you buy a solenoid, it will be rated for DC (continuous current) drive, pulse-width
modulated (PWM) drive, or AC drive. What do these mean? The waveforms below show
examples of these drive signals:
DC is obviously the simplest to use. AC is generally only useful if you are using it from an AC
supply derived from the mains. PWM is a lot harder to generate, but is the best to use.

Why is PWM best?

In the previous magnetic ciruit diagrams, just the resistance of the coil was shown. If the driving
voltage is DC, then that’s all there is to worry about. However, the coil also has a very large
inductance. Remember from the equation written previously:

The inductance of the coil is dependant on the reluctance of the magnetic circuit. When an airgap
is introduced, the total reluctance increases, and so the inductance decreases. If the voltage
source is AC, or PWM which is a mixture of AC and DC, then the inductance will also resist the
flow of current. The impedance (like resistance) of an inductor is given by the equation:
where f is the frequency and L is the inductance. The impedance of the whole circuit, including R
is:

As the resistance, frequency, or inductance increases, the impedance increases, and the current
will fall.

Let’s have a look at what a real solenoid looks like. This is a lengthwise cross section through a
cylindrical solenoid:

The coil creates an MMF which drives flux (shown in red in the diagram) left through the
plunger, then around the frame of the solenoid over to the right hand side, then through the
airgap and back into the plunger. The reluctance of this path is mostly made up by the airgap.

When the plunger is out, as shown in the diagram, the reluctance is quite high. When current is
applied to the coil, the plunger moves to the right, and the reluctance decreases. This is an
example of what was said before about forces in magnetic systems – they always act to reduce
the reluctance, or increase the inductance. Eventually, the plunger will collide with the frame on
the right hand side, and the air gap will be zero, and the reluctance will be at a minimum.

What happens to the inductance of the coil as the plunger moves. Remember the equation for the
coil inductance:
With the plunger fully to the left, the air gap is quite wide, and so the reluctance is quite high, so
the inductance is low. Remember from before that the impedance of the coil to the supply
voltage is dependant on the inductance of the coil:

The current in the coil is simply the voltage divided by the impedance (Ohm’s law):

With the plunger fully out, the inductance is low, and so the current will be quite high. As the
plunger moves in, the inductance increases, and the current falls. This high initial current is
called the "inrush current" since it only last for a short time until the plunger is fully in. The
inrush current is useful, because it allows a large current to start with which generates a large
force to get the plunger going. Once the plunger has pulled in, less force is required to just hold it
there, and conveniently, there is less force because the current is now lower.

This is why PWM drive is the best for solenoids. A solenoid designed for PWM drive will
have quite a low coil resistance. If DC was applied to it, the coil would heat up and burn
out. It is the inductance of the coil on a PWM signal that restricts the current to safe values.
Of course this means that if for any reason the plunger gets stuck in the "out" position,
where the inductance is low, the coil may burn-out.

Force-stroke curves

When you are selecting a solenoid to buy, the datasheet will always have a force-stroke curve.
This shows how much force you can expect the solenoid to be able to pull or push given how far
out of its position it is. Often manufacturers sell the same mechanical solenoid with a variety of
drive waveforms – DC or PWM. As described previously, the PWM drive solenoids have much
lower resistances because they rely on the inductance to limit the current.

Let’s have a look at an example force-stroke diagram for the BLP

There are four curves all superimposed on the same graph. Notice that the solenoids designed for
shorter on-timesa in PWM mode have much larger forces due to the geater currents that they can
carry.

As the plunger approaches the end-stop (stroke approaching zero) the force is at its maximum.
The equation that governs the force-stroke curve varies depending upon the physical construction
of the solenoid. Most are based on an inverse square law however:

where r is the radius of the cylindrical plunger. This equation would indicate that the force would
be infinite when the stroke is 0mm. This is obviously impossible, but this equation is only an
approximation and neglects the reluctance of the iron, and the fact that some of the magnetic
field will leak out into the air around the iron – "fringing effects". It also assumes a perfect
cylindrical solenoid – most are not built that way.

In fact, often the force can be nearly independant of the stroke distance, andcan tend towards the
much simpler equation:

where A is the cross sectional area of plunger and B is the flux denisty in the plunger.

These equations are only approximations. To find the actual force you will need to refer to the
solenoid daatsheet and examine the force-stroke curves, or if it is a solenoid of your own
manufacture, you can measure the force at each position and plot your own curves.

Plunger end styles

You may wonder how the shape of the end of the plunger can have any effect on the force.
Remember though that the coil MMF drives a flux, Φ, through the iron. However, the force is
dependant on the flux density, B, and so if the area that the flux is passing through is decreased,
the flux density is increased, since

Therefore, the plunger of the solenoid may have a chamfered look as in the diagrams below.
Generally, doing this increases the pulling force at larger stroke lengths. When the stroke is 1mm
or less, then a flat plunger produces a higher force.

The following force-stroke graph shows the effects of the differing plunger end styles on the
curve shape:
Latching solenoids

Once the plunger has reached the end-stop (stroke = 0mm), it will remain there as long as current
continues to flow. The current may be reduced if required to hold it there, probably by reducing
the PWM ratio. However, most commercial solenoids have a spring fitted so that if the current is
turned off completely, the plunger will return to its starting point, at maximum stroke. If you
want the solenoid to stay at its zero stroke position, you must maintain the current. This can be
quite wasteful of power if it to remain there long. In this case, a latching solenoid is the best
option.

Latching solenoids integrate permanent magnets into the design which hold the plunger in the
zero stroke position, even when the coil current is removed. To return the plunger to its extended
position, a pulse of coil current is applied in the opposite direction to push the plunger away
from its end-stop. This means that a latching solenoid driver must be able to force current
through the coil in either direction. This is usually achieved using an H-bridge arrangement
similar (although generally lower power) to those used in speed controllers.
Driving solenoids

If you are going to drive your solenoid with DC, then it is very simple. Just switch the DC supply
to it with a relay or transistor, and the solenoid will fire. However, if you are going to use PWM,
then a solenoid driver chip is the best solution.

7.1. Flywheel diodes

However the solenoid is driven, flywheel diodes are necessary. The large inductance of the coil
can cause large voltage spikes to appear across the switching element (relay or transistor doing
the switching), unless the current flowing through the coil is allowed to dissipate slowly.

When the switch is closed, the current flowing down through the coil is limited by the resistance
of the coil. Inductors do not like the current flowing through them to change quickly, and they
will generate a voltage of their own to stop this happening. Therefore when the switch is opened,
the inductor generates a voltage to make the current continue down through the coil. Because the
switch is now opened, the current flows up through the diode, and back round into the inductor.
The diode is called a "flywheel" diode.

7.2. Suppression

Even with the diode in place, a solenoid can generate a lot of electromagnetic noise spikes. These
may be suppressed using snubber networks if required.

7.3. Solenoid driver chips

By far the easiest way of driving solenoids, especially when using PWM, is to use a solenoid
driver chip. These are available from several manufacturers and come in a large variety of forms.
They integrate all the components for generating a PWM waveform, and also often have features
such as an initial DC pull-in, short circuit protection, integrated flywheel diodes, and multiple
drivers in one chip.
DC pull-in

Because the pull-in current required is much larger than the holding current, many chips drive a
short DC pulse to strat the plunger moving, before driving with the PWM waveform.

Short-circuit protection

If the output of the solenoid driver is short-circuited for any reason, a solenoid driver chip with
this feature will turn off the output to save frying itself. Also remember PWM solenoids take a
very large current when the plunger is at maximum stroke. If it is stuck in this position, it can
burn out. The short circuit protection may be able to protect against this too.

Integrated flywheel diodes

This is often intgerated into the chip to save on external components.

Multiple drivers

Solenoid drivers are available that integrate a shift register and solenoid drivers so that up to
eight solenoids may be controlled from a synchronous serial interface. If you have a
microcontroller on your robot, this is a very pin-efficient method to drive all your solenoids
using just three control pins. The shift register in some can also read the state of the output so
short circuit conditions can be read back to the microcontroller and an error condition entered.