Basics To Automobile Engineering by Waqas Ali Tunio

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by an internal combustion engine may make use of
Engine various motors and pumpsï but ultimately all such
devices derive their power from the engine.
pn or is a machine designed to convert The term was originally used to distinguish the
energy into useful mechanical motion new internal combustion engine-powered vehicles from
earlier vehicles powered by steamï such as the steam
Motors converting heat energy into motion are usually roller and motor rollerï but may be used to refer to any
referred to as ï which come in many types. p engine.
common type is an engine such as an internal
combustion engine which typically burns a fuel with air
and uses the hot gases for generating power. External ðeat engine
combustion engines such as steam engines use heat to
generate motion via a separate working fluid.

pnother common type of motor is the electric motor.

ombustion engines are heat engines driven by the heat
This takes electrical energy and generates mechanical
of a combustion process.
motion via varying electromagnetic fields.
i

Other motors including pneumatic motors that are
driven by compressed air and motors can be driven by pnimation showing the four stages of the4-
elastic energyï such as springs. Some motors are driven stroke combustion engine cycle:
by non combustive chemical reactions. 1. Induction
2.
ompression
Terminology
3. Ignition
Originally an engine was a mechanical device that 4. Emission
converted force into motion. Military devices such
The
is an engine in which
as catapultsï trebuchets and battering rams are referred
the combustion of a fuel (generallyï fossil) occurs with
to as . The term "gin" as in cotton gin is
an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an
recognized as a short form of the Old
internal combustion engine the expansion of the
French word ï in turn from the Latin ï
high temperature and pressure gasesï which are
related to . Most devices used in the industrial
produced by the combustionï directly applies force to
revolution were referred to as enginesï and this is where
components of the engineï such as the
the steam gained its name.
pistons or turbine blades or a nozzleï and by moving it
In modern usageï the term is used to describe devices over a distanceï generates useful mechanical energy.
capable of performing mechanical workï as in the

original steam engine. In most cases the work is
produced by exerting a torque or linear forceï which is pn
(E
engine) is a heat
used to operate other machinery which can engine where an (internal) working fluids heated by
generate electricityï pump waterï or compress gas. In combustion of an external sourceï through the engine
the context of propulsion systemsï an air-breathing wall or a heat exchanger. The fluid thenï by expanding
engine is one that uses atmospheric air to oxidize the and acting on the mechanism of the engine produces
fuel carried rather than supplying an independent motion and usable work. The fluid is then cooledï
oxidizerï as in a rocket. compressed and reused (closed cycle)ï or (less
commonly) dumpedï and cool fluid pulled in (open cycle
In common usageï an burns or otherwise
air engine).
consumes fuelï and is differentiated from an electric
machine (i.e.ï electric motor) that derives power without "
ombustion" refers to burning fuel with an oxidizerï to
changing the composition of matter. p heat engine may supply the heat. Engines of similar (or even identical)
also serve as a
ï a component that configuration and operation may use a supply of heat
transforms the flow or changes in pressure of from other sources such as nuclearï solarï geothermal or
a fluid into mechanical energy. pn automobile powered exothermic reactions not involving combustion; but are
2 www.aliwaqas.tk | .::No Sin - I Win::.

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not then strictly classed as external combustion enginesï

but as external thermal engines.
Operation of engines typically has a negative impact
The working fluid can be a gas as in a Stirling engineï upon air quality and ambient sound levels. There has
or steam as in a steam engine or an organic liquid such been a growing emphasis on the pollution producing
as n-pentane in an Organic Rankine
ycle. The fluid can features of automotive power systems. This has created
be of any composition; gas is by far the most commonï new interest in alternate power sources and internal-
although even single-phase liquid is sometimes used. In combustion engine refinements. plthough a few limited-
the case of the steam engineï the fluid production battery-powered electric vehicles have
changes phases between liquid and gas... appearedï they have not proved to be competitive
owing to costs and operating characteristics. In the

twenty-first century the diesel engine has been
increasing in popularity with automobile owners.
p gas turbine is internal combustion is the sense that the
Howeverï the gasoline engineï with its new emission-
combustion takes place in the working fluidï but external
control devices to improve emission performanceï has
combustion in the sense that the combustion is not fully
not yet been significantly challenged.
closed in and is outside the actual moving turbine
section. Traditionallyï "internal combustion" usually

excludes gas turbinesï jets and rockets.
Exhaust from a spark ignition engine consists of the

following: nitrogen 70 to 75% (by volume)ï water
vapor 10 to 12%ï carbon dioxide 10 to
pir-breathing engines are combustion engines that use
13.5%ï hydrogen 0.5 to 2%ï oxygen 0.2 to 2%ï carbon
the oxygen in atmospheric air to oxidize ('burn') the fuel
monoxide: 0.1 to 6%ï unburnt hydrocarbons and
carriedï rather than carrying an oxidizerï as in a rocket.
partial oxidation products (e.g.aldehydes) 0.5 to
Theoreticallyï this should result in a better specific
1%ï nitrogen monoxide 0.01 to 0.4%ï nitrous oxide <100
impulse than for rocket engines.
ppmï sulfur dioxide 15 to 60 ppmï traces of other
p continuous stream of air flows through the pir- compounds such as fuel additives and lubricantsï also
breathing engine. This air is compressedï mixed with halogen and metallic compoundsï and other particles.
fuelï ignited and expelled as the exhaust gas. Thrust
arbon monoxide is highly toxicï and can cause carbon
produced by a typical air-breathing engine is about eight monoxide poisoningï so it is important to avoid any
times greater than its weight. The maximum velocity build-up of the gas in a confined space.
atalytic
of pir-breathing engines is limited to 1ʹ3 km/s due to converters can reduce toxic emissionsï but not
extreme temperature and dissociation of the exhaust completely eliminate them. plsoï resulting greenhouse
gas; howeverï the maximum velocity of a hydrogen- gas emissionsï chiefly carbon dioxideï from the
breathing engine of the same design is about 4 times widespread use of engines in the modern industrialized
higher. world is contributing to the global greenhouse effect ʹ a
primary concern regarding global warming.

Typical air-breathing engines include:
Some engines convert heat from non combustive
Reciprocating engine processes into mechanical workï for example a nuclear
Steam engine power plant uses the heat from the nuclear reaction to
=as turbine produce steam and drive a steam engineï or a gas
duct jet engine turbine in a rocket engine may be driven by
Turbo-propeller engine decomposing hydrogen peroxide. ppart from the
IRIS engine different energy sourceï the engine is often engineered
Ôulse detonation engine much the same as an internal or external combustion
Ôulse jet engine.
Ramjet
Scramjet
Liquid air cycle engine/Reaction Engines Sp RE

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compressed gases (such as pneumatic motors)ï springs
and elastic bands.
Non thermal motors usually are powered by a chemical
reactionï but are not heat engines. Examples include: Historic military siege engines included
large catapultsï trebuchetsï and (to some
Molecular motor - motors found in living things extent) battering rams were powered by potential
Synthetic molecular motor energy.
Ô

pn uses electrical energy to p
is a machine which converts
produce mechanical energyï usually through the potential energy in the form of compressed
interaction of magnetic fields and current-carrying air into mechanical work. Ôneumatic motors generally
conductors. The reverse processï producing electrical convert the compressed air to mechanical work though
energy from mechanical energyï is accomplished by either linear or rotary motion. Linear motion can come
a generator or dynamo. Traction motors used on from either a diaphragm or piston actuatorï while rotary
vehicles often perform both tasks. Electric motors can motion is supplied by either a vane type air motor or
be run as generators and vice versaï although this is not piston air motor. Ôneumatic motors have found
always practical. Electric motors are ubiquitousï being widespread success in the hand-held tool industry and
found in applications as diverse as industrial fansï continual attempts are being made to expand their use
blowers and pumpsï machine toolsï household to the transportation industry. Howeverï pneumatic
appliancesï power toolsï and disk drives. They may be motors must overcome efficiency deficiencies before
powered by direct current (for example being seen as a viable option in the transportation
a battery powered portable device or motor vehicle)ï or industry.
by alternating current from a central electrical
distribution grid. The smallest motors may be found in

electric wristwatches. Medium-size motors of highly
standardized dimensions and characteristics provide p
one that derives its power from
convenient mechanical power for industrial uses. The a pressurized fluid. This type of engine can be used to
very largest electric motors are used for propulsion of move heavy loads or produce motion.
large shipsï and for such purposes as pipeline
compressorsï with ratings in the thousands of kilowatts.
Electric motors may be classified by the source of In the case of sound levelsï engine operation is of
electric powerï by their internal constructionï and by greatest impact with respect to mobile sources such
their application. as automobiles and trucks. Engine noise is a particularly
large component of mobile source noise for vehicles
The physical principle of production of mechanical force operating at lower speedsï where aerodynamic and tyre
by the interactions of an electric current and a magnetic noise is less significant. Ôetrol and diesel engines are
field was known as early as 1821. Electric motors of fitted with mufflers (silencers) to reduce noise.
increasing efficiency were constructed throughout the
19th centuryï but commercial exploitation of electric
motors on a large scale required efficient electrical
generators and electrical distribution networks. Depending on the type of engine employedï different
rates of efficiency are attained.
y conventionï refers to a
railroad electric locomotiveï rather than an electric
motor. internal combustion
Ô
engine
Some engines are powered by potential energyï for
example some clocks have a weight that falls under The
is an engine in which
gravity. Other forms of potential energy include the combustion of a fuel (normally a fossil fuel) occurs
with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber.

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In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the

high-temperature and -pressure gases produced by
combustion applies direct force to some component of pt one timeï the wordï "Engine" (from Latinï via Old
the engineï such as pistonsï turbine bladesï or a nozzle.Frenchï ï "ability") meant any piece of
This force moves the component over a distanceï machineryͶa sense that persists in expressions such
generating useful mechanical energy. as . p "motor" (from Latin ï "mover")
is any machine that produces mechanical power.
The term usually refers to an Traditionallyï electric motors are not referred to as
engine in which combustion is intermittentï such as the "Engines"; howeverï combustion engines are often
more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke piston enginesï referred to as "motors." (pn refers to
along with variantsï such as the Wankel rotary engine. p a locomotive operated by electricity.)
second class of internal combustion engines use
continuous combustion: gas turbinesï jet engines and Engines can be classified in many different ways: y the
most rocket enginesï each of which are internal engine cycle usedï the layout of the engineï source of
combustion engines on the same principle as previously energyï the use of the engineï or by the cooling system
described. employed.
The internal combustion engine (or I

E) is quite different Ô

from external combustion enginesï such
Reciprocating:
as steam or Stirling enginesï in which the energy is
delivered to a working fluid not consisting ofï mixed Two-stroke cycle
withï or contaminated by combustion products. Working Four-stroke cycle
fluids can be airï hot waterï pressurized or even liquid Six-stroke engine
sodiumï heated in some kind of boiler.
Diesel engine
p large number of different designs for I
Es have been
developed and builtï with a variety of different strengths ptkinson cycle
and weaknesses. Ôowered by an energy-dense fuel
(which is very frequently petrolï a liquid derived Rotary:
from fossil fuels)ï the I
E delivers an excellent power-to-
weight ratio with few disadvantages. While there have Wankel engine
been and still are many stationary applicationsï the real

ontinuous combustion:
strength of internal combustion engines is in mobile
rayton cycle:
applications and they dominate as a power supply for
carsï aircraftï and boatsï from the smallest to the largest. =as turbine
Only for hand-held power tools do they share part of the Ket
market with battery powered devices. engine (including turbojetï turbofanï ramjetï Roc
ket etc

Internal combustion engines are most commonly used
for mobile propulsion in vehicles and portable Internal combustion engines can be classified by
machinery. In mobile equipmentï internal combustion is their configuration.
advantageous since it can provide high power-to-weight
ratios together with excellent fuel energy density.

=enerally using fossil fuel(mainly petroleum)ï these
engines have appeared in transport in almost all vehicles

(automobilesï trucksï motorcyclesï boatsï and in a wide
Four-stroke cycle (or Otto cycle)
variety of aircraft and locomotives).
1. Intake
Where very high power-to-weight ratios are requiredï 2.
ompression
internal combustion engines appear in the form of gas 3. Ôower
turbines. These applications include jet 4. Exhaust
aircraftï helicoptersï large ships and electric generators.

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ps their name impliesï operation of four stroke internal yield triglycerides such as soybean oil)ï can also be used.
combustion engines have four basic steps that repeat Engines with appropriate modifications can also run
with every two revolutions of the engine: on hydrogen gasï wood gasï or charcoal gasï as well as
from so-called producer gas made from other
i
convenient biomass.
ombustible mixtures are emplaced in the combustion Internal combustion engines require ignition of the
chamber mixtureï either by spark ignition (SI) or compression
ignition (
I). efore the invention of reliable electrical

methodsï hot tube and flame methods were used.
The mixtures are placed under pressure

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=asoline engine ignition systems generally rely on a
The mixture is burntï almost invariably a u ï combination of a lead-acid battery and an induction
although a few systems involve detonation. The hot coil to provide a high-voltage electrical spark to ignite
mixture is expandedï pressing on and moving parts of the air-fuel mix in the engine's cylinders. This battery is
the engine and performing useful work. recharged during operation using an electricity-
generating device such as

an alternator or generator driven by the engine.
=asoline engines take in a mixture of air and gasoline
The cooled combustion products are exhausted into the and compress it to not more than 12.8 bar (1.28 MÔa)ï
atmosphere then use a spark plug to ignite the mixture when it is
compressed by the piston head in each cylinder.
Many engines overlap these steps in time; jet engines do
all steps simultaneously at different parts of the engines. # i Ô
Diesel engines and H
I (Homogeneous charge
compression ignition) enginesï rely solely on heat and
pll
depend on
pressure created by the engine in its compression
the exothermic chemical process of combustion: the
process for ignition. The compression level that occurs is
reaction of a fuelï typically with oxygen from the air
usually twice or more than a gasoline engine. Diesel
(though it is possible to inject oxide in order to do more
engines will take in air onlyï and shortly before peak
of the same thing and gain a power boost). The
compressionï a small quantity of diesel fuel is sprayed
combustion process typically results in the production of
into the cylinder via a fuel injector that allows the fuel to
a great quantity of heatï as well as the production of
instantly ignite. H
I type engines will take in both air

steam and carbon dioxide and other chemicals at very
and fuel but continue to rely on an unaided auto-
high temperature; the temperature reached is
combustion processï due to higher pressures and heat.
determined by the chemical makeup of the fuel and
This is also why diesel and H
I engines are more

oxidizers (see stoichiometry)ï as well as by the
susceptible to cold-starting issuesï although they will run
compression and other factors.
just as well in cold weather once started. Light duty
The most common modern fuels are made up diesel engines with indirect injection in automobiles and
of hydrocarbons and are derived mostly from fossil light trucks employ glow plugs that pre-heat
fuels (petroleum). Fossil fuels include diesel the combustion chamber just before starting to reduce
fuelï gasoline and petroleum gasï and the rarer use no-start conditions in cold weather. Most diesels also
of propane. Except for the fuel delivery componentsï have a battery and charging system; neverthelessï this
most internal combustion engines that are designed for system is secondary and is added by manufacturers as a
gasoline use can run on natural gas or liquefied luxury for the ease of startingï turning fuel on and off
petroleum gases without major modifications. Large (which can also be done via a switch or mechanical
diesels can run with air mixed with gases and a pilot apparatus)ï and for running auxiliary electrical
diesel fuel ignition injection. Liquid and components and accessories. Most new engines rely on
gaseous biofuelsï such as ethanol and biodiesel (a form electrical and electronic control system that also control
of diesel fuel that is produced from crops that the combustion process to increase efficiency and
reduce emissions.

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$
Sulzerturbocharged two-stroke diesel as used in large
container ships. It is the most efficient and powerful
Engines based on the two-stroke cycle use two strokes internal combustion engine in the world with over
(one upï one down) for every power stroke. Since there 50% thermal efficiency. For comparisonï the most
are no dedicated intake or exhaust strokesï alternative efficient small four-stroke motors are around 43%
methods must be used to scavenge the cylinders. The thermal efficiency (SpE 900648); size is an advantage for
most common method in spark-ignition two-strokes is to efficiency due to the increase in the ratio of volume to
use the downward motion of the piston to pressurize surface area.
fresh charge in the crankcaseï which is then blown
through the cylinder through ports in the cylinder walls.
ommon cylinder configurations include the straight or
inline configurationï the more compact V configurationï
Spark-ignition two-strokes are small and light for their and the wider but smoother flat or boxer
power output and mechanically very simple; howeverï configuration. pircraft engines can also adopt a radial
they are also generally less efficient and more polluting configuration which allows more effective cooling. More
than their four-stroke counterparts. In terms of power unusual configurations such as the Hï Uï Xï and W have
per cm³ï a two-stroke engine produces comparable also been used.
power to an equivalent four-stroke engine. The
advantage of having one power stroke for every 360° Multiple crankshaft configurations do not necessarily
of crankshaft rotation (compared to 720° in a 4 stroke need a cylinder head at all because they can instead
motor) is balanced by the less complete intake and have a piston at each end of the cylinder called
exhaust and the shorter effective compression and an opposed piston design. ecause here gas in- and
power strokes. It may be possible for a two stroke to outlets are positioned at opposed ends of the cylinderï
produce more power than an equivalent four strokeï one can achieve uniflow scavengingï which isï like in the
over a narrow range of engine speedsï at the expense of four stroke engineï efficient over a wide range of
less power at other speeds. revolution numbers. plso the thermal efficiency is
improved because of lack of cylinder heads. This design
Small displacementï crankcase-scavenged two-stroke was used in the Kunkers Kumo 205 diesel aircraft engineï
engines have been less fuel-efficient than other types of using at either end of a single bank of cylinders with two
engines when the fuel is mixed with the air prior to crankshaftsï and most remarkably in the Napier
scavenging allowing some of it to escape out of the Deltic diesel engines. These used three crankshafts to
exhaust port. Modern designs (Sarich and Ôaggio) use serve three banks of double-ended cylinders arranged in
air-assisted fuel injection which avoids this lossï and are an equilateral triangle with the crankshafts at the
more efficient than comparably sized four-stroke corners. It was also used in single-bank locomotive
engines. Fuel injection is essential for a modern two- enginesï and continues to be used for marine enginesï
stroke engine in order to meet ever more stringent both for propulsion and for auxiliary generators.
emission standards.
Ê

Research continues into improving many aspects of two-
stroke motors including direct fuel injectionï amongst
other things. The initial results have produced motors
that are much cleaner burning than their traditional
counterparts. Two-stroke engines are widely used
in snowmobilesï lawnmowersï string trimmersï chain
sawsï jet skisï mopedsï outboard motorsï and
many motorcycles. Two-stroke engines have the
advantage of an increased specific power ratio
(i.e.
)ï typically around 1.5 times
that of a typical four-stroke engine. The Wankel cycle. The shaft turns three times for each
The largest internal combustion engines in the world are rotation of the rotor around the lobe and once for
two-stroke dieselsï used in some locomotives and large each orbital revolution around the eccentric shaft.
ships. They use forced induction (similar to super- The Wankel engine (rotary engine) does not have piston
chargingï or turbocharging) to scavenge the cylinders; an strokes. It operates with the same separation of phases
example of this type of motor is the Wartsila-

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as the four-stroke engine with the phases taking place in Intake and exhaust occur at bottom dead center. Some
separate locations in the engine. form of pressure is neededï either crankcase
In thermodynamic terms it follows the Otto compression or super-charging.
engine cycleï so may be thought of as a "four-phase"
engine. While it is true that three power strokes typically
ompression stroke: Fuel-air mix compressed and
occur per rotor revolution due to the 3:1 revolution ratio ignited. In case of Diesel: pir compressedï fuel injected
of the rotor to the eccentric shaftï only one power and self ignited
stroke per shaft revolution actually occurs; this engine
Ôower stroke: piston is pushed downwards by the hot
provides three power 'strokes' per revolution per rotor
exhaust gases.
giving it a greater power-to-weight ratio than piston
engines. This type of engine is most notably used in the Two Stroke Spark Ignition (SI) engine:
current Mazda RX-8ï the earlier RX-7ï and other models.
In a two strokes SI engine a cycle is completed in two

stroke of a piston or one complete revolution (360º) of a
crankshaft. In this engine the suction stroke and exhaust
p gas turbine is a rotary machine similar in principle to
strokes are eliminated and ports are used instead of
a steam turbine and it consists of three main
valves. Ôetrol is used in this type of engine.
components: a compressorï a combustion chamberï and
a turbine. The air after being compressed in the The major components of a two stroke spark Ignition
compressor is heated by burning fuel in it. pbout а of engine are:
ylinder: It is a cylindrical vessel in which a
the heated air combined with the products of piston makes an up and down motion. Ôiston: It is a
combustion is expanded in a turbine resulting in work cylindrical component making an up and down
output which is used to drive the compressor. The rest movement in the cylinder.
ombustion
hamber: It is
(about Ы) is available as useful work output. the portion above the cylinder in which the combustion
of the fuel-air mixture takes place. Inlet and exhaust
%
ports: The inlet port allows the fresh fuel-air mixture to
Ket engines take a large volume of hot gas from a enter the combustion chamber and the exhaust port
combustion process (typically a gas turbineï but rocket discharges the products of combustion.
rank shaft: a
forms of jet propulsion often use solid or liquid shaft which converts the reciprocating motion of piston
propellantsï and ramjet forms also lack the gas turbine) into the rotary motion.
onnecting rod: connects the
and feed it through a nozzle which accelerates the jet to piston with the crankshaft.
am shaft: The cam shaft
high speed. ps the jet accelerates through the nozzleï controls the opening and closing of inlet and Exhaust
this creates thrust and in turn does useful work. valves. Spark plug: located at the cylinder head. It is
used to initiate the combustion process.
Engine cycle
Working: When the piston moves from bottom dead
centre to top dead centreï the fresh air and fuel mixture
enters the crank chamber through the valve. The
mixture enters due to the pressure difference between
the crank chamber and outer atmosphere. pt the same
time the fuel-air mixture above the piston is
compressed.
Idealised Ô/V diagram for two stroke Otto cycle
Ignition with the help of spark plug takes place at the
$ end of stroke. Due to the explosion of the gasesï the
piston moves downward. When the piston moves
This system manages to pack one power stroke into downwards the valve closes and the fuel-air mixture
every two strokes of the piston (up-down). This is inside the crank chamber is compressed. When the
achieved by exhausting and re-charging the cylinder piston is at the bottom dead centreï the burnt gases
simultaneously. escape from the exhaust port.
The steps involved here are: pt the same time the transfer port is uncovered and the
compressed charge from the crank chamber enters into

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the combustion chamber through transfer port. This
fresh charge is deflected upwards by a hump provided
on the top of the piston. This fresh charge removes the
exhaust gases from the combustion chamber. pgain the

piston moves from bottom dead centre to top dead
centre and the fuel-air mixture gets compressed when #
the both the Exhaust port and Transfer ports are
covered. The cycle is repeated.

Idealised Ôressure/volume diagram of the Otto cycle

showing combustion heat input Qp and waste exhaust Ô-v Diagram for the Ideal Diesel cycle. The cycle follows
output Qoï the power stroke is the top curved lineï the the numbers 1-4 in clockwise direction.
bottom is the compression stroke
Most truck and automotive diesel engines use a cycle
Engines based on the four-stroke ("Otto cycle") have reminiscent of a four-stroke cycleï but with a
one power stroke for every four strokes (up-down-up- compression heating ignition systemï rather than
down) and employ spark plug ignition.
ombustion needing a separate ignition system. This variation is
occurs rapidlyï and during combustion the volume varies called the diesel cycle. In the diesel cycleï diesel fuel is
little ("constant volume"). They are used in carsï injected directly into the cylinder so that combustion
larger boatsï some motorcyclesï and many light aircraft. occurs at constant pressureï as the piston moves.
They are generally quieterï more efficientï and larger
than their two-stroke counterparts. The ritish company ILMOR presented a prototype of 5-
Stroke double expansion engineï having two outer
The steps involved here are: cylindersï working as usualï plus a central oneï larger in
Intake stroke: pir and vaporized fuel are drawn in. diameterï that performs the double expansion of
exhaust gas from the other cylindersï with an increased
ompression stroke: Fuel vapor and air are compressed efficiency in the gas energy useï and an improved SF
.
and ignited. This engine corresponds to a 2003 US patent by =erhard
Schmitzï and was developed apparently also by Honda
ombustion stroke: Fuel combusts and piston is pushed of Kapan for a Quad engine. This engine has a similar
downwards. precedent in a Spanish 1942 patent (# Ô0156621 )ï by
Francisco Kimeno-
ataneoï and a 1975 patent (#
Exhaust stroke: Exhaust is driven out. During the 1stï Ô0433850 ) by
arlos Ubierna-Laciana ( www.oepm.es ).
2ndï and 4th stroke the piston is relying on power and The concept of double expansion was developed early in
the momentum generated by the other pistons. In that the history of I
E by Otto himselfï in 1879ï and a
caseï a four-cylinder engine would be less powerful than
onnecticut (USp) based companyï EHVï built in 1906
a six or eight cylinder engine. some engines and cars with this principleï that didn't
There are a number of variations of these cyclesï most give the expected results.
notably the ptkinson and Miller cycles. The diesel cycle
is somewhat different.

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'
First invented in 1883ï the six-stroke engine has seen Engines are often classified by the fuel (or propellant)
renewed interest over the last 20 or so years. used.
Four kinds of six-stroke use a regular piston in a regular

cylinder (=riffin six-strokeï ajulaz six-strokeï Velozeta
six-stroke and
rower six-stroke)ï firing every three Nowadaysï fuels used include:
crankshaft revolutions. The systems capture the wasted
Ôetroleum:
heat of the four-stroke Otto cycle with an injection of air
or water. Ôetroleum spirit (North
pmerican term: gasolineï ritish term: petrol)
The eare Head and "piston charger" engines operate
Ôetroleum diesel.
as opposed-piston enginesï two pistons in a single
cylinderï firing every two revolutions rather more like a putogas (liquified petroleum gas).
regular four-stroke.
ompressed natural gas.
Ket fuel (aviation fuel)
&
Residual fuel

oal:
Most methanol is made from coal.

=asoline can be made from carbon (coal) using
the Fischer-Tropsch process
Diesel fuel can be made from carbon using
the Fischer-Tropsch process
rayton cycle iofuels and vegoils:
Ôeanut oil and other vegoils.
p gas turbine is a rotary machine somewhat similar in
principle to a steam turbine and it consists of three main iofuels:
components: a compressorï a combustion chamberï and
iobutanol (replaces gasoline).
a turbine. The air after being compressed in the
iodiesel (replaces petrodiesel).
compressor is heated by burning fuel in itï this heats and
ioethanol and iomethanol (wood alcohol) and
expands the airï and this extra energy is tapped by the
other biofuels (see Flexible-fuel vehicle).
turbine which in turn powers the compressor closing the
iogas
cycle and powering the shaft.
Hydrogen (mainly spacecraft rocket engines)
=as turbine cycle engines employ a continuous
combustion system where compressionï combustionï Even fluidized metal powders and explosives have seen
and expansion occur simultaneously at different places some use. Engines that use gases for fuel are called gas
in the engineͶgiving continuous power. Notablyï the engines and those that use liquid hydrocarbons are
called oil enginesï however gasoline engines are also
combustion takes place at constant pressureï rather
than with the Otto cycleï constant often colloquially referred to asï "gas engines" ("petrol
engines" in the UK).

The main limitations on fuels are that it must be easily
The very first internal combustion engines did not transportable through the fuel system to
compress the mixture. The first part of the piston down the combustion chamberï and that the fuel releases
stroke drew in a fuel-air mixtureï then the inlet valve sufficient energy in the form
closed andï in the remainder of the down-strokeï the of heat upon combustion to make practical use of the
fuel-air mixture fired. The exhaust valve opened for the engine.
piston upstroke. These attempts at imitating the
principle of a steam engine were very inefficient. Diesel engines are generally heavierï noisierï and more
powerful at lower speeds than gasoline engines. They
are also more fuel-efficient in most circumstances and

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are used in heavy road vehiclesï some automobiles
ompressed oxygenï as well as some compressed airï
(increasingly so for their increased fuel efficiency over was used in the Kapanese Type 93 torpedo. Some
gasoline engines)ï shipsï railway locomotivesï and submarines are designed to carry pure oxygen. Rockets
light aircraft. =asoline engines are used in most other very often use liquid oxygen.
road vehicles including most carsï motorcyclesï
and mopeds. Note that in Europeï sophisticated diesel- Nitromethane is added to some racing and model fuels
engined cars have taken over about 40% of the market to increase power and control combustion.
since the 1990s. There are also engines that run
Nitrous oxide has been usedͶwith extra gasolineͶin
on hydrogenï methanolï ethanolï liquefied petroleum
tactical aircraft and in specially equipped cars to allow
gas (LÔ=)ï biodieselï wood gasï & charcoal
short bursts of added power from engines that
gas. Ôaraffinand tractor vaporizing oil (TVO) engines are
otherwise run on gasoline and air. It is also used in the
no longer seen.
urt Rutan rocket spacecraft.

Hydrogen peroxide power was under development for
Hydrogen could eventually replace conventional fossil =erman World War II submarines and may have been
fuels in traditional internal combustion engines. used in some non-nuclear submarines and was used on
plternatively fuel cell technology may come to deliver its some rocket engines (notably lack prrow and Me-
promise and the use of the internal combustion engines 163 rocket plane)
could even be phased out.
Other chemicals such as chlorine or fluorine have been
plthough there are multiple ways of producing free used experimentallyï but have not been found to be
hydrogenï those methods require converting practical.
combustible molecules into hydrogen or consuming

electric energy. Unless that electricity is produced from
a renewable sourceͶand is not required for other pn internal combustion engine is not usually self-starting
purposesͶ hydrogen does not solve any energy crisis. In so an auxiliary machine is required to start it. Many
many situations the disadvantage of hydrogenï relative different systems have been used in the past but
to carbon fuelsï is its storage. Liquid hydrogen has modern engines are usually started by an electric motor
extremely low density (14 times lower than water) and in the small and medium sizes or by compressed air in
requires extensive insulationͶwhilst gaseous hydrogen the large sizes.
requires heavy tankage. Even when liquefiedï hydrogen
has a higher specific energy but the volumetric energetic

storage is still roughly five times lower than petrol.
However the energy density of hydrogen is considerably For piston enginesï an engine's capacity is the engine
higher than that of electric batteriesï making it a serious displacementï in other words the volume swept by all
contender as an energy carrier to replace fossil fuels. the pistons of an engine in a single movement. It is
The 'Hydrogen on Demand' process (see direct generally measured in litres (L) or cubic
borohydride fuel cell) creates hydrogen as it is neededï inches (c.i.d. cu in in³) for larger enginesï and cubic
but has other issues such as the high price of the sodium centimeters(abbreviated cc) for smaller engines. Engines
borohydride which is the raw material. with greater capacities are more powerful and provide
greater torque at lower rpm and consumption of fuel
' increases accordingly.
Since air is plentiful at the surface of the earthï the

oxidizer is typically atmospheric oxygen which has the
advantage of not being stored within the vehicleï Engine types vary greatly in a number of different ways:
increasing the power-to-weight and power to volume
energy efficiency
ratios. There are other materials that are used for
fuel/propellant consumption (brake specific fuel
special purposesï often to increase power output or to
consumption for shaft enginesï thrust specific
allow operation under water or in space.
fuel consumption for jet engines) power to
ompressed air has been commonly used in torpedoes. weight ratio

thrust to weight ratio

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Torque curves (for shaft engines) thrust The thermodynamic limits assume that the engine is
lapse (jet engines) operating in ideal conditions: a frictionless worldï ideal

ompression ratio for piston enginesï Overall gasesï perfect insulatorsï and operation at infinite time.
pressure ratio for jet engines and gas turbines The real world is substantially more complex and all the
complexities reduce the efficiency. In additionï real
engines run best at specific loads and rates as described
by their power band. For exampleï a car cruising on a
Once ignited and burntï the combustion productsͶhot
highway is usually operating significantly below its ideal
gasesͶhave more available thermal energy than the
loadï because the engine is designed for the higher loads
original compressed fuel-air mixture (which had
desired for rapid acceleration. The applications of
higher chemical energy). The available energy is
engines are used as contributed drag on the total system
manifested as high temperature and pressure that can
reducing overall efficiencyï such as wind
be translated into work by the engine. In a reciprocating resistance designs for vehicles. These and many other
engineï the high-pressure gases inside the cylinders losses result in an engine's real-world fuel economy that
drive the engine's pistons. is usually measured in the units of miles per gallon (or
Once the available energy has been removedï the fuel consumption in liters per 100 kilometers) for
remaining hot gases are vented (often by opening automobiles. The in miles per gallon represents a
a valve or exposing the exhaust outlet) and this allows meaningful amount of work and the volume of
the piston to return to its previous position (top dead hydrocarbon implies standard energy content.
centerï or TD
). The piston can then proceed to the next
Most steel engines have a thermodynamic limit of 37%.
phase of its cycleï which varies between engines.
Even when aided with turbochargers and stock
pny heat that isn't translated into work is normally
efficiency aidsï most engines retain
considered a waste product and is removed from the
an
efficiency of about 18%-20%. Rocket engine
engine either by an air or liquid cooling system.
efficiencies are better stillï up to 70%ï because they
Engine efficiency can be discussed in a number of ways combust at very high temperatures and pressures and
but it usually involves a comparison of the total chemical are able to have very high expansion ratios.
energy in the fuelsï and the useful energy extracted
There are many inventions concerned with increasing
from the fuels in the form of kinetic energy. The most
the efficiency of I
engines. In generalï practical engines
fundamental and abstract discussion of engine efficiency
are always compromised by trade-offs between
is the thermodynamic limit for extracting energy from
different properties such as efficiencyï weightï powerï
the fuel defined by a thermodynamic cycle. The most
heatï responseï exhaust emissionsï or noise. Sometimes
comprehensive is the empirical fuel efficiency of the
economy also plays a role in not only the cost of
total engine system for accomplishing a desired task; for
manufacturing the engine itselfï but also manufacturing
exampleï the miles per gallon accumulated.
and distributing the fuel. Increasing the engine's
Internal combustion engines are primarily heat efficiency brings better fuel economy but only if the fuel
engines and as such the phenomenon that limits their cost per energy content is the same.
efficiency is described by thermodynamic cycles. None

(

of these cycles exceed the limit defined by the
arnot
cycle which states that the overall efficiency is dictated For stationary and shaft engines including propeller
by the difference between the lower and enginesï fuel consumption is measured by calculating
upper operating temperatures of the engine. p the brake specific fuel consumption which measures the
terrestrial engine is usually and fundamentally limited by mass flow rate of fuel consumption divided by the
the upper thermal stability derived from the material power produced.
used to make up the engine.
pll metals and alloys eventually melt or decompose and For internal combustion engines in the form of jet
there is significant researching into ceramic materials enginesï the power output varies drastically with
that can be made with higher thermal stabilities and airspeed and a less variable measure is used: thrust
desirable structural properties. Higher thermal stability specific fuel consumption (TSF
)ï which is the number of
allows for greater temperature difference between the pounds of propellant that is needed to
lower and upper operating temperaturesͶthus greater generate impulses that measure a pound force-hour. In
thermodynamic efficiency. metric unitsï the number of grams of propellant needed

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to generate an impulse that measures one kilonewton- pollution is ozone (O3). This is not emitted directly but
second. made in the air by the action of sunlight on other
pollutants to form "ground level ozone"ï whichï unlike
For rocketsï TSF
can be usedï but typically other the "ozone layer" in the high atmosphereï is regarded as
equivalent measures are traditionally usedï such a bad thing if the levels are too high. Ozone is broken
as specific impulse and effective exhaust velocity. down by nitrogen oxidesï so one tends to be lower
where the other is higher.
pir and noise pollution
For the pollutants described above (nitrogen oxidesï

carbon monoxideï sulphur dioxideï and ozone)ï there are
Internal combustion engines such as reciprocating accepted levels that are set by legislation to which no
internal combustion engines produce air harmful effects are observed Ͷ even in sensitive
pollution emissionsï due to incomplete combustion population groups. For the other three: benzeneï 1ï3-
of carbonaceous fuel. The main derivatives of the butadieneï and particulatesï there is no way of proving
process are carbon dioxide
O2ï water and some soot Ͷ they are safe at any level so the experts set standards
also called particulate matter (ÔM). The effects of where the risk to health isï "exceedingly small".
inhaling particulate matter have been studied in humans

and animals and include asthmaï lung cancerï
cardiovascular issuesï and premature death. There are Significant contributions to noise pollution are made by
however some additional products of the combustion internal combustion engines. putomobile and truck
process that include nitrogen oxides and sulfur and traffic operating on highways and street systems
some uncombusted hydrocarbonsï depending on the produce noiseï as do aircraft flights due to jet noiseï
operating conditions and the fuel-air ratio. particularly supersonic-capable aircraft. Rocket engines
create the most intense noise.
Not all of the fuel will be completely consumed by the
combustion process; a small amount of fuel will be i
present after combustionï some of which can react to
form oxygenatesï such Internal combustion engines continue to consume fuel
as formaldehyde or acetaldehydeï or hydrocarbons not and emit pollutants when idling so it is desirable to keep
initially present in the fuel mixture. The primary causes periods of idling to a minimum. Many bus companies
of this is the need to operate near now instruct drivers to switch off the engine when the
the stoichiometric ratio for gasoline engines in order to bus is waiting at a terminus. In Englandï the Road Traffic
achieve combustion and the resulting "quench" of the (Vehicle Emissions) (Fixed Ôenalty) (England) Regulations
flame by the relatively cool cylinder wallsï otherwise the 2002 (Statutory Instrument 2002 No. 1808) has
fuel would burn more completely in excess air. When introduced the concept of a "stationary idling offence".
running at lower speedsï quenching is commonly This means that a driver can be subject to a fixed-
observed in diesel (compression ignition) engines that penalty fine if he/she leaves a vehicle engine idling while
run on natural gas. It reduces the efficiency and stationary. So farï only a few local authorities have
increases knockingï sometimes causing the engine to implemented the regulationsï one of them
stall. Increasing the amount of air in the engine reduces being Oxford
ity
ouncil.
the amount of the first two pollutantsï but tends to
encourage the oxygen and nitrogen in the air to
combine to produce nitrogen oxides (NO) that has been ðow Manual
demonstrated to be hazardous to both plant and animal
health. Further chemicals released are benzene and 1ï3-
butadiene that are also particularly harmful; and not all
Transmissions Work
of the fuel burns up completelyï so carbon
monoxide (
O) is also produced. If you drive a stick-shift carï then you may have several
questions floating in your head.
arbon fuels contain sulfur and impurities that

eventually lead to producing sulfur monoxides (SO) How does the funny èè
that I am moving this
and sulfur dioxide (SO2) in the exhaust which shift knob through have any relation to the gears inside
promotes acid rain. One final element in exhaust the transmission? What is moving inside the

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transmission when I move the shifter? that free up the driver from having to shift gears
When I mess up and hear that horrible soundï manually by using the transmission's computer to
what is actually grinding? What would happen if I were change gearï if for example the driver were redlining the
to accidentally shift into while I am speeding engine. Despite superficial similarity to other automated
down the freeway? Would the entire transmission transmissionsï automatic
explode? $

Transmissions differ

In this articleï we'll answer all of these questions and significantly in internal

more as we explore the interior of a manual operation and driver's "feel"

transmission. from semi-automatics and

VTs. pn automatic uses
ars need transmissions because of the physics of

a torque converter instead
the gasoline engine. Firstï any engine has a -- a of clutch to manage the link

maximum rpm value above which the engine cannot go between the transmission and

without exploding. Secondï if you have read How #

the engineï while a
VT uses a
Horsepower Worksï then you know that engines have

belt instead of a fixed number
narrow rpm ranges where horsepower and torque are at of gearsï and a semi-automatic )
their maximum. For exampleï an engine might produce retains the clutch like a manual

its maximum horsepower at 5ï500 rpm. The &

but activates the clutch
transmission allows the gear ratio between the engine through electrohydraulic #

and the drive wheels to change as the car speeds up and means.

slows down. You shift gears so the engine can stay
below the redline and near the rpm band of its best p conventional manual transmission is frequently the
performance. base equipment in a carï with the option being an
automated transmission such as a conventional
Ideallyï the transmission would be so flexible in its ratios automaticï manumaticï semi-automaticï or
VT. The
that the engine could always run at its singleï best- ability to shift gears manuallyï often via paddle shiftersï
performance rpm value. That is the idea behind can also be found on certain automated transmissions
the continuously variable transmission(
VT). (manumatics such as Tiptronic)ï semi-automatics ( MW
SM=)ï and continuous variable transmissions (
VTs)
putomatic (such as Lineartronic).

transmission Most cars sold in North pmerica since the 1950s have
been available with an automatic transmission.
pn

is one type of motor
onverselyï automatic transmission is less popular
vehicle transmission that can automatically change gear in Europeï with 80% of drivers opting for manual
ratios as the vehicle movesï freeing the driver from transmission. In most psian markets and in pustraliaï
having to shift gears manually. Most automatic automatic transmissions have become very popular
transmissions have a defined set of gear rangesï often since the 1990s.
with a parking pawl feature that locks the output shaft
of the transmission. putomatic transmission modes
Similar but larger devices are also used for heavy-duty

onventionallyï in order to select the transmission
commercial and industrial vehicles and equipment. operating 'mode'ï the driver moves a selection lever
Some machines with limited speed ranges or fixed located either on the steering column or on the floor (as
engine speedsï such as some forklifts and lawn mowersï with a manual). In order to select modesï or to manually
select specific gear ratiosï the driver must push a button
only use a torque converter to provide a variable gearing
of the engine to the wheels. in (called the shift lock button) or pull the handle (only
on column mounted shifters) out. Some vehicles
esides automaticsï there are also other types of position selector buttons for each mode on the cockpit
automated transmissions such as continuous variable insteadï freeing up space on the central console.
transmissions (
VTs) and semi-automatic transmissionsï Vehicles conforming to US =overnment standards must

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have the modes ordered Ô-R-N-D-L (left to rightï top to drive vehicles with the parking brake on the front
bottomï or clockwise). Ôrior to thisï quadrant-selected wheelsï which generally have about two-thirds of the
automatic transmissions often utilized a Ô-N-D-L-R vehicle's weight (unloaded) on the front wheels.
layoutï or similar. Such a pattern led to a number of
deaths and injuries owing to unintentional gear p car should be allowed to come to a complete stop
selectionï as well as the danger of having a selector before setting the transmission into park to prevent
(when worn) jump into Reverse from Low gear during damage. Usuallyï Ôark (Ô) is one of only two selections in
engine braking maneuvers. which the car's engine can be startedï the other being
Neutral (N). In many modern cars and trucksï the driver
putomatic transmissions have various modes depending must have the foot brake applied before the
on the model and make of the transmission. Some of the transmission can be taken out of park. The Ôark position
common modes include is omitted on buses/coaches with automatic
transmission (on which a parking pawl is not practical)ï
Ô
!Ô" which must be placed in neutral with the parking brakes
set. pdvice is given in some owner's manuals [example:
This selection mechanically locks the output shaft of
1997 Oldsmobile
utlass Supreme owner's manual] that
transmissionï restricting the vehicle from moving in any
if the vehicle is parked on a steep slope using the park
direction. p parking pawlprevents the transmission from
lock onlyï it may not be possible to release the park lock
rotatingï and therefore the vehicle from movingï
(move the selector lever out of "Ô"). pnother vehicle
although the vehicle's non-driven road wheels may still
may be required to push the stuck vehicle uphill slightly
rotate freely. For this reasonï it is recommended to use
to remove the loading on the park lock pawl.
the hand brake (or parking brake) because this actually
locks (in most cases) the rear wheels and prevents them Most automobiles require Ô or to be set on the
from moving. This also increases the life of the selector lever before the internal combustion engine can
transmission and the park pin mechanismï because be started. This is typically achieved via a normally open
parking on an incline with the transmission in park 'inhibitor' switchï which is wired in series with the
without the parking brake engaged will cause undue starter motor engagement circuitï and is only closed
stress on the parking pin. pn efficiently-adjusted hand when Ô or N is selectedï thus completing the circuit
brake should also prevent the car from moving if a worn (when the key is turned to the start position)
selector accidentally drops into reverse gear during early
morning fast-idle engine warm-ups. It should be noted * !*"
that locking the transmission output shaft does not
positively lock the driving wheels. If one driving wheel This engages reverse gear within the transmissionï giving
slips while the transmission is in "parkï" the other will the ability for the vehicle to drive backwards. In order
roll freely as the slipping wheel rotates in the opposite for the driver to select reverse in modern transmissionsï
direction. Only a (properly adjusted) parking brake can they must come to a complete stopï push the shift lock
be relied upon to positively lock both of the parking- button in (or pull the shift lever forward in the case of a
braked wheels. (This is not the case with certain 1950's column shifter) and select reverse. Not coming to a
hrysler products that carried their parking brake on the complete stop can cause severe damage to the
transmission tail shaftï a defect compounded by the transmission. Many modern automatic transmissions
provision of a bumper jack). It is typical of front-wheel- have a safety mechanism in placeï which does to some
drive vehicles for the parking brake to be on the rear extent prevent (but does not completely avoid)
(non-driving) wheelsï so use of both the parking brake inadvertently putting the car in reverse when the vehicle
and the transmission park lock provides the greatest is moving forwards. This mechanism usually consists of a
security against unintended movement on slopes. solenoid-controlled physical barrier on either side of the
Unfortunatelyï the rear of most front-wheel-drive Reverse positionï which is electronically engaged by a
vehicles has only about half the weight on the rear switch on the brake pedal. Thereforeï the brake pedal
wheel as is on the front wheelsï greatly reducing the needs to be depressed in order to allow the selection of
security provided by the parking brake as compared to reverse. Some electronic transmissions prevent or delay
either rear-wheel-drive vehicles with parking brake on engagement of reverse gear altogether while the car is
the rear wheels (which generally have near half of the moving.
total vehicle weight on the rear wheelsï except for
Some shifters with a shift button allow the driver to
empty pickup and open-bed trucks) or to front-wheel-
freely move the shifter from R to N or Dï or simply

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moving the shifter to N or D without actually depressing This mode limits the transmission to the first three gear
the button. Howeverï the driver cannot put back the ratiosï or sometimes locks the transmission in third gear.
shifter to R without depressing the shift button to This can be used to climb or going downhill. Some
prevent accidental shiftingï especially at high speedsï vehicles will automatically shift up out of third gear in
which could damage the transmission. this mode if a certain RÔM range is reached in order to
prevent engine damage. This gear is also recommended

(
!" while towing a caravan.
This disengages all gear trains within the transmissionï !/"
effectively disconnecting the transmission from the
driven road wheelsï so the vehicle is able to move freely This mode limits the transmission to the first two gear
under its own weight and gain momentum without the ratiosï or locks the transmission in second gear on Fordï
motive force from the engine (engine braking). This is Kiaï and Honda models. This can be used to drive in
the only other selection in which the vehicle's engine adverse conditions such as snow and iceï as well as
can be started. climbing or going down hills in the winter time. Some
vehicles will automatically shift up out of second gear in
#!#" this mode if a certain RÔM range is reached in order to
prevent engine damage.
This position allows the transmission to engage the full
range of available forward gear trainsï and therefore plthough traditionally considered second gearï there are
allows the vehicle to move forward and accelerate other names used.
hrysler models with a three-speed
through its range of gears. The number of gear 'ratios' a automatic since the late 1980s have called this
transmission has depends on the modelï but they gear . while using the traditional names
initially ranged from three (predominant before the for Õ
and .
1990s)ï to four and five speeds (losing popularity to six-
speed autosï though still favored by !01,1-"
hrysler and Honda/pcura). Six-speed automatic

transmissions are now probably the most common This mode locks the transmission in first gear only. It will
offering Toyota
amryV6 modelsï the
hevrolet not change to any other gear range. Thisï like secondï
Malibu LTZï
orvetteï =M trucksï Ôontiac =8ï Ford can be used during the winter seasonï or for towing.
Falcon F 2005-2007 and Falcon F= 2008 - current in
ps well as the above modes there are also other modesï
pustralia with 6 speed ZFï and most newer model
dependent on the manufacturer and model. Some
Ford/Lincoln/Mercury vehicles). Howeverï seven-speed
examples include
autos are becoming available (found in Mercedes 7=
gearbox)ï as are eight-speed autos in the newer models #2
of Lexus and MW cars.
In Hondas and pcuras equipped with five-speed
#!#+ #+
,#-" automatic transmissionsï this mode is used commonly
for highway use (as stated in the manual)ï and uses all
This mode is used in some transmissions to allow early
five forward gears.
computer-controlled transmissions to engage the
putomatic Overdrive. In these transmissionsï Drive (D) #3
locks the putomatic Overdrive offï but is identical
otherwise. OD (Overdrive) in these cars is engaged This mode is also found in Honda and pcura four- or
under steady speeds or low acceleration at five-speed automaticsï and only uses the first four gear
approximately 35ʹ45 mph (56ʹ72 km/h). Under hard ratios. pccording to the manualï it is used for "stop and
acceleration or below 35ʹ45 mph (56ʹ72 km/h)ï the go traffic"ï such as city driving.].
transmission will automatically downshift. Vehicles with
this option should be driven in this mode unless #..
circumstances require a lower gear.
This mode is found in Hondaï pcuraï Volkswagen and
$!." Ôontiac four-speed automatics and only uses the first
three gear ratios. pccording to the manualï it is used for
"stop & go traffic"ï such as city driving.

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can be accessed by moving the gear selector to 2 to
startï then taking your foot off the accelerator while
This is commonly described as 'Sport mode'. It operates selecting D once the car is moving.
in an identical manner as 'D' modeï except that the
upshifts change much higher up the engine's rev range. &
!&"
This has the effect on maximising all the available engine
outputï and therefore enhances the performance of the p mode selectable on some Toyota models. In non-
vehicleï particularly during acceleration. This mode will hybrid carsï this mode lets the engine do compression
also downchange much higher up the rev range brakingï also known as engine brakingï typically when
compared to 'D' modeï maximising the effects of engine encountering a steep downhill. Instead of engaging the
braking. This mode will have a detrimental effect on fuel brakesï the engine in a non-hybrid car switches to a
economy. Hyundai has a Norm/Ôower switch next to the lower gear and slows down the spinning tires. The
gearshift for this purpose on the Tiburon. engine holds the car backï instead of the brakes slowing
it down. For hybrid carsï this mode converts the electric
Some early =M's equipped with Tourqueflite motor into a generator for the battery. It is not the same
transmissions used (S) to indicate Second gearï being the as downshifting in a non-hybrid carï but it has the same
same as the 2 position on a
hryslerï shifting between effect in slowing the car without using the brakes. =M
only first and second gears. This would have been called this HR (hill retarder) and =R (grade retarder) in
recommended for use on steep gradesï or slippery roads the 1950s.
like dirtï or iceï and limited to speeds under 40 mph. (L)
was used in some early =M's to indicate (L)ow gearï
being the same as the 2 position on a
hryslerï locking ð raulic automatic
the transmission into first gear. This would have been
recommended for use on steep gradesï or slippery roads
like dirtï or iceï and limited to speeds under 15 mph.
transmissions
45+
The predominant form of automatic transmission
is hydraulically operated; using a fluid coupling or torque
This is for the 'manual mode' selection of gears in converterï and a set of planetary gear sets to provide a
certain automaticsï such as Ôorsche's Tiptronic. The M range of gear ratios.
feature can also be found in
hrysler and =eneral
Motors products such as the Dodge Magnum and Ô

Ôontiac =6ï as well as Toyota's
amryï
orollaï Fortunerï
Ôrevia and Innova. Mitsubishi and some pudi models p hydraulic automatic transmission consists of the
(TT)ï meanwhile do not have the Mï and instead have following parts:
the + and -ï which is separated from the rest of the shift
m
: p type of fluid couplingï hydraulically
modes; the same is true for some Ôeugeot products
connecting the engine to the transmission. It takes the
like Ôeugeot 206. Meanwhileï the driver can shift up and
place of a mechanical clutchï allowing the transmission
down at will by toggling the (console mounted) shift
to stay 'in gear' and the engine to remain running while
lever like a semi-automatic transmission. This mode may
the vehicle is stationaryï without stalling. p torque
be engaged either through a selector/position or by
converter differs from a fluid couplingï in that it provides
actually changing the gears (e.g.ï tipping the gear-down
a variable amount of torque multiplication at low engine
paddles mounted near the driver's fingers on the
speedsï increasing "breakaway" acceleration. This is
steering wheel).
accomplished with a third member in the "coupling
Ê !Ê" assembly" known as the statorï and by altering the
shapes of the vanes inside the coupling in such a way as
In some Mercedes- enzï MW and =eneral Motors to curve the fluid's path into the stator. The stator
Europe modelsï a 'Winter mode' can be engaged so that captures the kinetic energy of the transmission fluidï in
second gear is selected instead of first when pulling effect using the leftover force of it to enhance torque
away from stationaryï to reduce the likelihood of loss of multiplication.
traction due to wheel spin on snow or ice. On =M carsï
this was D2 in the 1950sï and is Second =ear Start after ï not to be confused with the impeller inside the
1990. On Fordï Kiaï and Honda automaticsï this feature torque converterï is typically a gear pump mounted

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between the torque converter and the planetary gear thereby controlling the operation of the planetary gear
set. It draws transmission fluid from a sump and set to select the optimum gear ratio for the current
pressurizes itï which is needed for transmission operating conditions. Howeverï in many modern
components to operate. The input for the pump is automatic transmissionsï the valves are controlled by
connected to the torque converter housingï which in electro-mechanical servos which are controlled by the
turn is bolted to the engine's flywheelï so the pump electronic engine control unit (E
U) or a
provides pressure whenever the engine is running and separate transmission control unit (T
U). (See History
there is enough transmission fluid. and improvements below.)
: p compound epicyclic planetary gear u : called automatic
setï whose bands and clutches are actuated by transmission fluid (pTF)ï this component of the
hydraulic servos controlled by the valve bodyï providing transmission provides lubricationï corrosion preventionï
two or more gear ratios. and a hydraulic medium to convey mechanical power
(for the operation of the transmission). Ôrimarily made
u u to effect gear changesï one of two from refined petroleumï and processed to provide
types of clutches or bands are used to hold a particular properties that promote smooth power transmission
member of the planetary gear set motionlessï while and increase service lifeï the pTF is one of the few parts
allowing another member to rotateï thereby of the automatic transmission that needs routine service
transmitting torque and producing gear reductions or as the vehicle ages.
overdrive ratios. These clutches are actuated by the
valve body (see below)ï their sequence controlled by the The multitude of partsï along with the complex design of
transmission's internal programming. Ôrincipallyï a type the valve bodyï originally made hydraulic automatic
of device known as a sprag or roller clutch is used for transmissions much more complicated (and expensive)
routine upshifts/downshifts. Operating much as a to build and repair than manual transmissions. In most
ratchetï it transmits torque only in one directionï free- cars (except US familyï luxuryï sport-utility vehicleï and
wheeling or "overrunning" in the other. The advantage minivan models) they have usually been extra-cost
of this type of clutch is that it eliminates the sensitivity options for this reason. Mass manufacturing and
of timing a simultaneous clutch release/apply on two decades of improvement have reduced this cost gap.
planetariesï simply "taking up" the drivetrain load when
actuatedï and releasing automatically when the next
gear's sprag clutch assumes the torque transfer. The
Hydraulic automatic transmissions are almost always
bands come into play for manually selected gearsï such
less energy efficient than manual transmissions due
as low range or reverseï and operate on the planetary
mainly to viscous and pumping losses; both in the
drum's circumference. ands are not applied when
torque converter and the hydraulic actuators. p
drive/overdrive range is selectedï the torque being
relatively small amount of energy is required to
transmitted by the sprag clutches instead. ands are
pressurize the hydraulic control systemï which uses fluid
used for braking; the =M Turbo-Hydramatics
pressure to determine the correct shifting patterns and
incorporated this..
operate the various automatic clutch mechanisms.

u: hydraulic control center that receives
Manual transmissions use a mechanical clutch to
pressurized fluid from the operated by the
transmit torqueï rather than a torque converterï thus
fluid coupling/torque converter. The pressure coming
avoiding the primary source of loss in an automatic
from this pump is regulated and used to run a network
transmission. Manual transmissions also avoid the
of spring-loaded valvesï check balls and servo pistons.
power requirement of the hydraulic control systemï by
The valves use the pump pressure and the pressure from
relying on the human muscle power of the vehicle
a centrifugal governor on the output side (as well as
operator to disengage the clutch and actuate the gear
hydraulic signals from the range selector valves and
leversï and the mental power of the operator to make
the

or u ) to control which ratio is
appropriate gear ratio selections. Thus the manual
selected on the gear set; as the vehicle and engine
transmission requires very little engine power to
change speedï the difference between the pressures
functionï with the main power consumption due to drag
changesï causing different sets of valves to open and
from the gear train being immersed in the lubricating oil
close. The hydraulic pressure controlled by these valves
of the gearbox.
drives the various clutch and brake band actuatorsï

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The energy efficiency of automatic transmission has

increased with the introduction of the torque converter
lock-up clutchï which practically eliminates fluid losses Most automatic transmissions offer the driver a certain
when engaged. Modern automatic transmission also amount of manual control over the transmission's shifts
minimize energy usage and complexityï by minimizing (beyond the obvious selection of forwardï reverseï or
the amount of shifting logic that is done hydraulically. neutral). Those controls take several forms:
Typicallyï control of the transmission has been
$
transferred to computerized control systems which do
not use fluid pressure for shift logic or actuation of Most automatic transmissions include some means of
clutching mechanisms. forcing a downshift into the lowest possible gear ratio if
the throttle pedal is fully depressed. In many older
The on road acceleration of an automatic transmission
designsï kickdown is accomplished by mechanically
can occasionally exceed that of an otherwise identical
actuating a valve inside the transmission. Most modern
vehicle equipped with a manual transmission in
designs use a solenoid-operated valve that is triggered
turbocharged diesel applications. Turbo-boost is
by a switch on the throttle linkage or by the engine
normally lost between gear changes in a manual
control unit (E
M) in response to an abrupt increase in
whereas in an automatic the accelerator pedal can
engine power.
remain fully depressed. This however is still largely
dependent upon the number and optimal spacing of
gear ratios for each unitï and whether or not the
elimination of spooldown/accelerator lift off represent a pllows the driver to choose between preset shifting
significant enough gain to counter the slightly higher programs. For exampleï 'Economy mode' saves fuel by
power consumption of the automatic transmission itself. upshifting at lower engine speedsï while 'Sport mode'
(aka Ôower or Ôerformance) delays shifting for

maximum acceleration. The modes also change how the
computer responds to throttle input.
p fundamentally different type of automatic
transmission is the
1

or mï which can smoothly and steplessly
alter its gear ratio by varying the diameter of a pair
onventionallyï automatic transmissions have selector
of belt or chain-linked pulleysï wheels or cones. Some positions that allow the driver to limit the maximum
continuously variable transmissions use ratio that the transmission may engage. On older
a hydrostatic drive Ͷ consisting of a variable transmissionsï this was accomplished by a mechanical
displacement pump and a hydraulic motor Ͷ to lockout in the transmission valve body preventing an
transmit power without gears.
VT designs are usually upshift until the lockout was disengaged; on computer-
as fuel efficient as manual transmissions in city drivingï controlled transmissionsï the same effect is
but early designs lose efficiency as engine speed accomplished by firmware. The transmission can still
increases. upshift and downshift automatically between the
remaining ratios: for exampleï in the r rangeï a
p slightly different approach to
VT is the concept transmission could shift from first to second to thirdï but
of um or
(IVT). not into fourth or higher ratios. Some transmissions will
These concepts provide zero and reverse gear ratios. still upshift automatically into the higher ratio if the
engine reaches its maximum permissible speed in the
Some current hybrid vehiclesï notably those
selected range.
of Toyotaï Lexus and Ford Motor
ompanyï have an
"electronically-controlled
VT" (E-
VT). In this systemï

the transmission has fixed gearsï but the ratio of wheel-
speed to engine-speed can be continuously varied by Some transmissions have a mode in which the driver has
controlling the speed of the third input to full control of ratio changes (either by moving the
a differential using an electric motor-generator. selectorï or through the use of buttons or paddles)ï
completely overriding the automated function of the
hydraulic controller. Such control is particularly useful in
corneringï to avoid unwanted upshifts or downshifts

that could compromise the vehicle's balance or traction.

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"Manumatic" shiftersï first popularized by Ôorsche in the
1990s under the trade name Tiptronicï have become a
popular option on sports cars and other performance
áuspension (vehicle)
vehicles. With the near-universal prevalence of
electronically controlled transmissionsï they are is the term given to the system
comparatively simple and inexpensiveï requiring only of springsï shock absorbers and linkages that connects
software changesï and the provision of the actual a vehicle to its wheels. Suspension systems serve a dual
manual controls for the driver. The amount of true purpose Ͷ contributing to the car's
manual control provided is highly variable: some roadholding/handling and braking for good active safety
systems will override the driver's selections under and driving pleasureï and keeping vehicle occupants
certain conditionsï generally in the interest of comfortable and reasonably well isolated from road
preventing engine damage. Since these gearboxes also noiseï bumpsï and vibrationsï etc. These goals are
have a throttle kickdown switchï it is impossible to fully generally at oddsï so the tuning of suspensions involves
exploit the engine power at low to medium engine finding the right compromise. It is important for the
speed. suspension to keep the road wheel in contact with the
road surface as much as possibleï because all the forces

acting on the vehicle do so through the contact patches
of the tires. The suspension also protects the vehicle
Some automaticsï particularly those fitted to larger itself and any cargo or luggage from damage and wear.
capacity or high torque enginesï either when '2' is The design of front and rear suspension of a car may be
manually selectedï or by engaging a "winter mode"ï will different.
start off in second gear instead of firstï and then not
shift into a higher gear until returned to D. plso note This article is primarily about four-wheeled (or more)
that as with most pmerican automatic transmissionsï vehicle suspension. For information on two-wheeled
selecting "2" using the selection lever will not tell the vehicles' suspensions see the suspension
transmission to be in only 2nd gearï ratherï it will simply (motorcycle)ï motorcycle forkï bicycle suspensionï
limit the transmission to 2nd gear after prolonging the and bicycle fork articles.
duration of 1st gear through higher speeds than normal
operation. The 2000-2002 Lincoln LS V8 (the five-speed
automatic manumatic capabilities (as opposed internal combustion
to the optional sport package w/ manu-matic 5sp)
started in 2nd gear during most starts both in winter and
summer by selecting the "D5" transmission selection
engine cooling
notch in the shiftgate (For fuel savings)ï whereas "D4"
would always start in 1st gear. This is done to reduce i
refers to the cooling
torque multiplication when proceeding forward from a of an internal combustion engineï typically using either
standstill in conditions where traction was limited Ͷ on air or a liquid.
snow- or ice-covered roadsï for example.
Heat engines generate mechanical power by extracting
Some automatic transmissions modified or designed energy from heat flowsï much as a water wheel extracts
specifically for drag racing may also incorporate a mechanical power from a flow of mass falling through a
transmission brakeï or "trans-brakeï" as part of a manual distance. Engines are inefficientï so more heat energy
valve body. pctivated by electrical solenoid controlï a enters the engine than comes out as mechanical power;
trans-brake simultaneously engages the first and reverse the difference is waste heat which must be removed.
gearsï locking the transmission and preventing the input Internal combustion engines remove waste heat
shaft from turning. This allows the driver of the car to through cool intake airï hot exhaust gasesï and explicit
raise the engine RÔM against the resistance of the engine cooling.
torque converterï then launch the car by simply
Engines with higher efficiency have more energy leave
releasing the trans-brake switch.
as mechanical motion and less as waste heat. Some
waste heat is essential: it guides heat through the
engineï much as a water wheel works only if there is
some exit velocity (energy) in the waste water to carry it

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away and make room for more water. Thusï all heat keep parts at suitably low temperatures. Liquid-
engines need cooling to operate. cooled engines are able to vary the size of their
passageways through the engine block so that coolant
ooling is also needed because high temperatures flow may be tailored to the needs of each area.
damage engine materials and lubricants. Internal- Locations with either high peak temperatures (narrow
combustion engines burn fuel hotter than the melting islands around the combustion chamber) or high heat
temperature of engine materialsï and hot enough to set flow (around exhaust ports) may require generous
fire to lubricants. Engine cooling removes energy fast cooling. This reduces the occurrence of hot spotsï which
enough to keep temperatures low so the engine can are more difficult to avoid with air cooling. pir cooled
survive. engines may also vary their cooling capacity by using
more closely-spaced cooling fins in that areaï but this
Some high-efficiency engines run without explicit
can make their manufacture difficult and expensive.
cooling and with only accidental heat lossï a design
called adiabatic. For exampleï 10ï000 mile-per-gallon Only the fixed parts of the engineï such as the block and
"cars" for the Shell economy challenge are insulatedï headï are cooled directly by the main coolant system.
both to transfer as much energy as possible from hot Moving parts such as the pistonsï and to a lesser extent
gases to mechanical motionï and to reduce reheat losses the crank and rodsï must rely on the lubrication oil as a
when restarting. Such engines can achieve high coolantï or to a very limited amount of conduction into
efficiency but compromise power outputï duty cycleï the block and thence the main coolant. High
engine weightï durabilityï and emissions. performance engines frequently have additional oilï
beyond the amount needed for lubricationï sprayed
c upwards onto the bottom of the piston just for extra
cooling. pir-cooled motorcycles often rely heavily on oil-
Most internal combustion engines are fluid cooled using cooling in addition to air-cooling of the cylinder barrels.
either air (a gaseous fluid) or a liquid coolant run
through a heat exchanger (radiator) cooled by air. Liquid-cooled engines usually have a circulation pump.
Marine engines and some stationary engines have ready The first engines relied on thermo-syphon cooling aloneï
access to a large volume of water at a suitable where hot coolant left the top of the engine block and
temperature. The water may be used directly to cool the passed to the radiatorï where it was cooled before
engineï but often has sedimentï which can clog coolant returning to the bottom of the engine.
irculation was
passagesï or chemicalsï such as saltï that can chemically powered by convection alone.
damage the engine. Thusï engine coolant may be run
Other demands include costï weightï reliabilityï and
through a heat exchanger that is cooled by the body of
durability of the cooling system itself.
water.

onductive heat transfer is proportional to the
Most liquid-cooled engines use a mixture of water and temperature difference between materials. If engine
chemicals such as antifreeze and rust inhibitors. The metal is at 250 °
and the air is at 20°
ï then there is a
industry term for the antifreeze mixture is 230°
temperature difference for cooling. pn air-cooled
. Some antifreezes use no water at allï instead engine uses all of this difference. In contrastï a liquid-
using a liquid with different propertiesï such cooled engine might dump heat from the engine to a
as propylene glycol or a combination of propylene glycol liquidï heating the liquid to 135°
(Water's standard
and ethylene glycol. Most "air-cooled" engines use some boiling point of 100°
can be exceeded as the cooling
liquid oil coolingï to maintain acceptable temperatures
system is both pressurizedï and uses a mixture with
for both critical engine parts and the oil itself. Most
antifreeze) which is then cooled with 20°
air. In each
"liquid-cooled" engines use some air coolingï with the
stepï the liquid-cooled engine has half the temperature
intake stroke of air cooling the combustion chamber. pn
difference and so at first appears to need twice the
exception is Wankel enginesï where some parts of the
cooling area.
combustion chamber are never cooled by intakeï
requiring extra effort for successful operation. Howeverï properties of the coolant (waterï oilï or air)
also affect cooling. ps exampleï comparing water and oil
There are many demands on a cooling system. One key
as coolantsï one gram of oil can absorb about 55% of the
requirement is that an engine fails if just one part heat for the same rise in temperature (called the specific
overheats. Thereforeï it is vital that the cooling system heat capacity). Oil has about 90% the density of waterï

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so a given volume of oil can absorb only about 50% of The temperature of the cooling air may range from well
the energy of the same volume of water. The thermal below freezing to 50°
. Furtherï while engines in long-
conductivity of water is about 4 times that of oilï which haul boat or rail service may operate at a steady loadï
can aid heat transfer. The viscosity of oil can be ten road vehicles often see widely-varying and quickly-
times greater than waterï increasing the energy required varying load. Thusï the cooling system is designed to
to pump oil for coolingï and reducing the net power vary cooling so the engine is neither too hot nor too
output of the engine. cold.
ooling system regulation includes adjustable
baffles in the air flow (sometimes called 'shutters' and
omparing air and waterï air has vastly lower heat commonly run by a pneumatic 'shutterstat); a fan which
capacity per gram and per volume (4000) and less than a operates either independently of the engineï such as an
tenth the conductivityï but also much electric fanï or which has an adjustable clutch; a
lower viscosity (about 200 times lower: 17.4 × 10о6 Ôa·s thermostatic valve or just 'thermostat' that can block
for air vs 8.94 × 10о4 Ôa·s for water).
ontinuing the the coolant flow when too cool. In additionï the motorï
calculation from two paragraphs aboveï air cooling coolantï and heat exchanger have some heat capacity
needs ten times of the surface areaï therefore the finsï which smoothes out temperature increase in short
and air needs 2000 times the flow velocity and thus a sprints. Some engine controls shut down an engine or
recirculating air fan needs ten times the power of a limit it to half throttle if it overheats. Modern electronic
recirculating water pump. Moving heat from the engine controls adjust cooling based on throttle to
cylinder to a large surface area for air cooling can anticipate a temperature riseï and limit engine power
present problems such as difficulties manufacturing the output to compensate for finite cooling.
shapes needed for good heat transfer and the space
needed for free flow of a large volume of air. Water Finallyï other concerns may dominate cooling system
boils at about the same temperature desired for engine design. ps exampleï air is a relatively poor coolantï but
cooling. This has the advantage that it absorbs a great air cooling systems are simpleï and failure rates typically
deal of energy with very little rise in temperature rise as the square of the number of failure points. plsoï
(called heat of vaporization)ï which is good for keeping cooling capacity is reduced only slightly by small air
things coolï especially for passing one stream of coolant coolant leaks. Where reliability is of utmost importanceï
over several hot objects and achieving uniform as in aircraftï it may be a good trade-off to give up
temperature. In contrastï passing air over several hot efficiencyï durability (interval between engine rebuilds)ï
objects in series warms the air at each stepï so the first and quietness in order to achieve slightly higher
may be over-cooled and the last under-cooled. reliability Ͷ the consequences of a broken airplane
Howeverï once water boilsï it is an insulatorï leading to a engine are so severeï even a slight increase in reliability
sudden loss of cooling where steam bubbles form (for is worth giving up other good properties to achieve it.
moreï see heat transfer). Unfortunatelyï steam may
return to water as it mixes with other coolantï so an pir cooled and liquid-cooled engines are both used
engine temperature gauge can indicate an acceptable commonly. Each principle has advantages and
temperature even though local temperatures are high disadvantagesï and particular applications may favor
enough that damage is being done. one over the other. For exampleï most cars and trucks
use liquid-cooled enginesï while many small airplane and
pn engine needs different temperatures. The inlet low-cost engines are air-cooled.
including the compressor of a turbo and in the inlet
trumpets and the inlet valves need to be as cold as =

possible. p countercurrent heat exchange with forced
cooling air does the job. The cylinder-walls should not It is difficult to make generalizations about air-cooled
heat up the air before compressionï but also not cool and liquid-cooled engines. pir-
down the gas at the combustion. p compromise is a wall cooled Volkswagen kombis are known for rapid wear in
temperature of 90°
. The viscosity of the oil is optimized normal use and sometimes sudden failure when driven
for just this temperature. pny cooling of the exhaust and in hot weather. plternatelyï air-cooled Deutz diesel
the turbine of the turbocharger reduces the amount of engines are known for reliability even in extreme heatï
power available to the turbineï so the exhaust system is and are often used in situations where the engine runs
often insulated between engine and turbocharger to unattended for months at a time.
keep the exhaust gases as hot as possible.

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Similarlyï it is usually desirable to minimize the number air-cooled engines. The
zechoslovakia based
of heat transfer stages in order to maximize the company Tatra is known for their big size air cooled V8
temperature difference at each stage. Howeverï Detroit car enginesï Tatra engineer Kulius Mackerle published a
Diesel 2-stroke cycle engines commonly use oil cooled book on it. pir cooled engines are better adapted to
by waterï with the water in turn cooled by air. extremely cold and hot environmental weather
temperaturesï you can see air cooled engines starting
The coolant used in many liquid-cooled engines must be and running in freezing conditions that stuck water
renewed periodicallyï and can freeze at ordinary cooled engines and continue working when water
temperatures thus causing permanent engine damage. cooled ones start producing steam jets.
pir-cooled engines do not require coolant serviceï and
do not suffer engine damage from freezingï two $

commonly-cited advantages for air-cooled engines.
Howeverï coolant based on propylene glycol is liquid to - The change of air cooling to liquid cooling occurred at
55 °
ï colder than is encountered by many engines; the start of World War II when the US military needed
shrinks slightly when it crystallizesï thus avoiding engine reliable vehicles. The subject of boiling engines was
damage; and has a service life over 10ï000 hoursï addressedï researchedï and a solution found.
essentially the lifetime of many engines. Ôrevious radiators and engine blocks were properly
designed and survived durability testsï but used water
It is usually more difficult to achieve either low pumps with a leaky graphite-lubricated "rope" seal
emissions or low noise from an air-cooled engineï two (gland) on the pump shaft. The seal was inherited from
more reasons most road vehicles use liquid-cooled steam enginesï where water loss is acceptedï since
engines. It is also often difficult to build large air-cooled steam engines already expend large volumes of water.
enginesï so nearly all air-cooled engines are under ecause the pump seal leaked mainly when the pump
500 kW (670 hp)ï whereas large liquid-cooled engines was running and the engine was hotï the water loss
exceed 80 MW (107000 hp) (Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTp96- evaporated inconspicuouslyï leaving at best a small rusty
14-cylinder diesel). trace when the engine stopped and cooledï thereby not
revealing significant water loss.
p putomobile radiators (or heat exchangers) have an
outlet that feeds cooled water to the engine and the
ars and trucks using direct air cooling (without an engine has an outlet that feeds heated water to the top
intermediate liquid) were built over a long period of the radiator. Water circulation is aided by a rotary
beginning with the advent of mass produced passenger pump that has only a slight effectï having to work over
cars and ending with a small and generally unrecognized such a wide range of speeds that its impeller has only a
technical change. efore World War IIï water cooled cars minimal effect as a pump. While runningï the leaking
and trucks routinely overheated while climbing pump seal drained cooling water to a level where the
mountain roadsï creating geysers of boiling cooling pump could no longer return water to the top of the
water. This was considered normalï and at the timeï radiatorï so water circulation ceased and water in the
most noted mountain roads had auto repair shops to engine boiled. Howeverï since water loss lead to
minister to overheating engines. overheat and further water loss from boil-overï the
original water loss was hidden.
p
S (puto
lub Suisse) maintains historical monuments
to that era on the Susten Ôass where two radiator refill pfter isolating the pump problemï cars and trucks built
stations remain (See a picture here). These have for the war effort (no civilian cars were built during that
instructions on a cast metal plaque and a spherical time) were equipped with carbon-seal water pumps that
bottom watering can hanging next to a water spigot. The did not leak and caused no more geysers. Meanwhileï
spherical bottom was intended to keep it from being set air cooling advanced in memory of boiling engines...
down andï thereforeï be useless around the houseï in even though boil-over was no longer a common
spite of which it was stolenï as the picture shows. problem. pir-cooled engines became popular
throughout Europe. pfter the warï Volkswagen
During that periodï European firms such as Magirus- advertised in the USp as not boiling overï even though
Deutz built air-cooled diesel trucksï Ôorsche built air- new water-cooled cars no longer boiled overï but these
cooled farm tractors and Volkswagen became famous cars sold wellï and without question. ut as air quality
with air-cooled passenger cars. In the USpï Franklin built awareness rose in the 1960sï and laws governing

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exhaust emissions were passedï unleaded gas replaced Now more than everï your auto mechanic is at the
leaded gas and leaner fuel mixtures became the norm. mercy of this new environmental legislation. Not only is
These reductions in the cooling effects of both the lead he required to be certified to purchase refrigerant and
and the formerly rich fuel mixtureï led to overheating in repair your air conditionerï his shop must also incur the
the air-cooled engines. Valve failures and other engine cost of purchasing expensive dedicated equipment that
damage was the result. Volkswagen responded by insures the capture of these ozone depleting chemicalsï
abandoning their (flat) horizontally opposed air-cooled should the system be opened up for repair. Simply putï if
enginesï while Subaru took a different course and chose your mechanic has to spend more to repair your vehicle
liquid-cooling for their (flat) engines. - he will have to charge you more. asic knowledge of
your air conditioning system is importantï as this will
Today practically no air-cooled automotive engines are allow you to make a more informed decision on your
builtï air cooling being fraught with manufacturing repair options.
expense and maintenance problems. Motorcycles had
an additional problem in that a water leak presented a Should a major problem arise from your air conditionerï
greater threat to reliabilityï their engines having smallyou may encounter new terminology. Words like
cooling water volumeï so they were loath to change; "retrofit" and "alternative refrigerant" are now in your
today larger motorcycles are water cooled with many mechanics glossary. You may be given an option of
relying on convection circulation with no pump. "retrofitting"ï as opposed to merely repairing and
recharging with Freon. Retrofitting involves making the
p p necessary changes to your systemï which will allow it to
use the new industry acceptedï "environmentally
Todayï as we drive our automobilesï a great many of usï friendly" refrigerantï R-134a. This new refrigerant has a
can enjoy the same comfort levels that we are higher operating pressureï thereforeï your systemï
accustomed to at home and at work. With the push of a dependant on ageï may require larger or more robust
button or the slide of a leverï we make the seamless parts to counter its inherent high pressure
transition from heating to cooling and back again characteristics. Thisï in some casesï will add significantly
without ever wondering how this change occurs. That isï to the final cost of the repair. pnd if not performed
unless something goes awry. properlyï may reduce cooling efficiency which equates
to higher operating costs and reduced comfort.
Since the advent of the automotive air conditioning
system in the 1940'sï many things have undergone Vehicles are found to have primarily three different
extensive change. Improvementsï such as computerized types of air conditioning systems. While each of the
automatic temperature control (which allow you to set three types differï the concept and design are very
the desired temperature and have the system adjust similar to one another. The most common components
automatically) and improvements to overall durabilityï which make up these automotive systems are the
have added complexity to today's modern air following:
conditioning system. Unfortunatelyï the days of "do-it-
yourself" repair to these systemsï is almost a thing of
OMÔRESSORï
ONDENSERï EVpÔORpTORï ORIFI
E
the past. TU Eï THERMpL EXÔpNSION VpLVE ï RE
EIVER-
DRIERïp
UMULpTOR. Note: if your car has an Orifice

To add to the complicationsï we now have tough tubeï it will not have a Thermal Expansion Valve as these
environmental regulations that govern the very simplest two devices serve the same purpose. plsoï you will
of tasksï such as recharging the system with refrigerant either have a Receiver-Dryer or an pccumulatorï but not
R12 commonly referred to as Freon® (Freon is the trade both.
name for the refrigerant R-12ï that was manufactured
by DuÔont). Extensive scientific studies have proven the
OMÔRESSOR
damaging effects of this refrigerant to our ozone layerï

ommonly referred to as the heart of the systemï the
and its manufacture has been banned by the U.S. and
compressor is a belt driven pump that is fastened to the
many other countries that have joined together to sign
engine. It is responsible for compressing and
the Montreal Ôrotocolï a landmark agreement that was
transferring refrigerant gas.
introduced in the 1980's to limit the production and use
of chemicals known to deplete the ozone layer. The p/
system is split into two sidesï a high pressure
side and a low pressure side; defined as discharge and

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suction. Since the compressor is basically a pumpï it other components work in conjunction with the
must have an intake side and a discharge side. The evaporator. ps mentioned aboveï the ideal temperature
intakeï or suction sideï draws in refrigerant gas from the for an evaporator coil is 32° F. Temperature and
outlet of the evaporator. In some cases it does this via pressure regulating devices must be used to control its
the accumulator. temperature. While there are many variations of devices
usedï their main functions are the same; keeping
Once the refrigerant is drawn into the suction sideï it is pressure in the evaporator low and keeping the
compressed and sent to the condenserï where it can evaporator from freezing; a frozen evaporator coil will
then transfer the heat that is absorbed from the inside not absorb as much heat.
of the vehicle.
Ô* 7* * 71$i# 6i

# *

ontrolling the evaporator temperature can be
This is the area in which heat dissipation occurs. The accomplished by controlling refrigerant pressure and
condenserï in many casesï will have much the same flow into the evaporator. Many variations of pressure
appearance as the radiator in your car as the two have regulators have been introduced since the 1940's. Listed
very similar functions. The condenser is designed to belowï are the most commonly found.
radiate heat. Its location is usually in front of the
radiatorï but in some casesï due to aerodynamic *ii
$7&
improvements to the body of a vehicleï its location may
differ.
ondensers must have good air flow anytime the The orifice tubeï probably the most commonly usedï can
system is in operation. On rear wheel drive vehiclesï thisbe found in most =M and Ford models. It is located in
is usually accomplished by taking advantage of your the inlet tube of the evaporatorï or in the liquid lineï
existing engine's cooling fan. On front wheel drive somewhere between the outlet of the condenser and
vehiclesï condenser air flow is supplemented with one the inlet of the evaporator. This point can be found in a
or more electric cooling fan(s). properly functioning system by locating the area
between the outlet of the condenser and the inlet of the
ps hot compressed gasses are introduced into the top of evaporator that suddenly makes the change from hot to
the condenserï they are cooled off. ps the gas coolsï it cold. You should then see small dimples placed in the
condenses and exits the bottom of the condenser as a line that keep the orifice tube from moving. Most of the
high pressure liquid. orifice tubes in use today measure approximately three
inches in length and consist of a small brass tubeï
6Ô *$ * surrounded by plasticï and covered with a filter screen
at each end. It is not uncommon for these tubes to
Located inside the vehicleï the evaporator serves as the
become clogged with small debris. While inexpensiveï
heat absorption component. The evaporator provides
usually between three to five dollarsï the labor to
several functions. Its primary duty is to remove heat
replace one involves recovering the refrigerantï opening
from the inside of your vehicle. p secondary benefit is
the system upï replacing the orifice tubeï evacuating and
dehumidification. ps warmer air travels through the
then recharging. With this in mindï it might make sense
aluminum fins of the cooler evaporator coilï the
to install a larger pre filter in front of the orifice tube to
moisture contained in the air condenses on its surface.
minimize the risk of this problem reoccurring. Some
Dust and pollen passing through stick to its wet surfaces
Ford models have a permanently affixed orifice tube in
and drain off to the outside. On humid days you may
the liquid line. These can be cut out and replaced with a
have seen this as water dripping from the bottom of
combination filter/orifice assembly.
your vehicle. Rest assured this is perfectly normal.
$ *1 8Ôi 616
The ideal temperature of the evaporator is 32°
Fahrenheit or 0°
elsius. Refrigerant enters the bottom pnother common refrigerant regulator is the thermal
of the evaporator as a low pressure liquid. The warm air expansion valveï or TXV.
ommonly used on import and
passing through the evaporator fins causes the aftermarket systems. This type of valve can sense both
refrigerant to boil (refrigerants have very low boiling temperature and pressureï and is very efficient at
points). ps the refrigerant begins to boilï it can absorb regulating refrigerant flow to the evaporator. Several
large amounts of heat. This heat is then carried off with variations of this valve are commonly found. pnother
the refrigerant to the outside of the vehicle. Several example of a thermal expansion valve is
hrysler's "H

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block" type. This type of valve is usually located at the for your walletï it is of long term benefit to your air
firewallï between the evaporator inlet and outlet tubes conditioning system.
and the liquid and suction lines. These types of valvesï
although efficientï have some disadvantages over orifice
tube systems. Like orifice tubes these valves can become ðow Brakes Work
clogged with debrisï but also have small moving parts
that may stick and malfunction due to corrosion.
We all know that pushing down on the brake pedal
*
i6 *#*i * slows a car to a stop. ut how does this happen? How
does your car transmit the force from your leg to its
The receiver-drier is used on the high side of systems wheels? How does it multiply the force so that it is
that use a thermal expansion valve. This type of enough to stop something as big as a car?
metering valve requires liquid refrigerant. To ensure
that the valve gets liquid refrigerantï a receiver is used. When you depress your brake pedalï your car transmits
The primary function of the receiver-drier is to separate the force from your foot to its brakes through a fluid.
gas and liquid. The secondary purpose is to remove Since the actual brakes require a much greater force
moisture and filter out dirt. The receiver-drier usually than you could apply with your legï your car must also
has a sight glass in the top. This sight glass is often used multiply the force of your foot. It does this in two ways:
to charge the system. Under normal operating

(leverage)
conditionsï vapor bubbles should not be visible in the
sight glass. The use of the sight glass to charge the

system is not recommended in R-134a systems as
cloudiness and oil that has separated from the The brakes transmit the force to the tires using ï
refrigerant can be mistaken for bubbles. This type of and the tires transmit that force to the road using
mistake can lead to a dangerous overcharged condition. friction also. efore we begin our discussion on the
There are variations of receiver-driers and several components of the brake systemï we'll cover these three
different desiccant materials are in use. Some of the principles:
moisture removing desiccants found within are not
compatible with R-134a. The desiccant type is usually 1

identified on a sticker that is affixed to the receiver-

drier. Newer receiver-driers use desiccant type XH-7 and
are compatible with both R-12 and R-134a refrigerants.
771$ * Õisc brake

pccumulators are used on systems that accommodate
an orifice tube to meter refrigerants into the The
or
is a device for slowing or
evaporator. It is connected directly to the evaporator stopping the rotation of a wheel while it is in motion.
outlet and stores excess liquid refrigerant. Introduction p brake disc (or in U.S. English) is usually made
of liquid refrigerant into a compressor can do serious of cast ironï but may in some cases be made of
damage.
ompressors are designed to compress gas not composites such as reinforced carbon-
liquid. The chief role of the accumulator is to isolate the carbon or ceramic-matrix composites. This is connected
compressor from any damaging liquid refrigerant. to the wheel and/or the axle. To stop the wheelï friction
pccumulatorsï like receiver-driersï also remove debris material in the form of brake (mounted on a device
and moisture from a system. It is a good idea to replace called a

) is forced
the accumulator each time the system is opened up for mechanicallyï hydraulicallyïpneumatically or electromag
major repair and anytime moisture and/or debris is of netically against both sides of the disc. Friction causes
concern. Moisture is enemy number one for your p/
the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop. rakes
system. Moisture in a system mixes with refrigerant and convert motion to heatï and if the brakes get too hotï
forms a corrosive acid. When in doubtï it may be to your they become less effectiveï a phenomenon known
advantage to change the pccumulator or receiver in as brake fade. Howeverï it is rare to heat a disc brake
your system. While this may be a temporary discomfort system enough to result in brake fade.

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vehicle drive. The opposite is true with a push typeï the
lutches release bearing is pushed into the clutch disengaging the

vehicle drive. In this instanceï the release bearing can be
known as a thrust bearing (as per the image above).
p is a mechanical device which provides for the
transmission of power (and therefore usually motion) Ô

from one component (the driving member) to another
(the driven member). The opposite component of the
lutch pads are attached to the frictional padsï part of
clutch is the brake. the clutch. They are most commonly made of rubber but
have been known to be made of asbestos. They are
lutches are used whenever the ability to limit the usually around $120 pounds but different car
transmission of power or motion needs to be controlled manufactures vary.
lutch pads usually last about
either in amount or over time (e.g. electric screwdrivers 100ï000 milesï depending on how vigorously the car is
limit how much torque is transmitted through use of a driven.
clutch; clutches control whether automobiles transmit
engine power to the wheels). #

lutches are usually employed in devices which have In addition to the damped disc centers which reduce
two rotating shafts so we will use this as in the most driveline vibrationï pre-dampers may be used to reduce
basic example. In these devices one shaft is typically gear rattle at idle by changing the natural frequency of
attached to a motor or other power unit (the driving the disc. These weaker springs are compressed solely by
member) while the other shaft (the driven member) the radial vibrations from an idling engine. They are fully
provides output power for work to be done. In a drill for compressed and no longer in use once drive is taken up
instanceï one shaft is driven by a motor and the other by the main damper springs.
drives a drill chuck. The clutch connects the two shafts
1

so that they may be locked together and spin at the
same speed (engaged)ï locked together but spinning at Mercedes truck examples: p clamp load of 33KN
different speeds (slipping)ï or unlocked and spinning at (33ï000N) is normal for a single plate 430. The 400 Twin
different speeds (disengaged). application offers a clamp load of a mere 23KN
(23ï000N). ursts speeds are typically around 5ï000rpm
with the weakest point being the facing rivet.
Friction clutches are by far the most well-known type of

clutches. Modern clutch development focuses its attention on the

simplification of the overall assembly and/or
manufacturing method. For example drive straps are
Various materials have been used for the disc friction now commonly employed to transfer torque as well as
facingsï including asbestos in the past. Modern clutches lift the pressure plate upon disengagement of vehicle
typically use an compound organic resin with copper drive. With regards to the manufacture of diaphragm
wire facing or a ceramic material. p typical coefficient of springsï heat treatment is crucial. Laser welding is
friction used on a friction disc surface is 0.35ų for becoming more common as a method of attaching the
organic and 0.25ų for ceramic.
eramic materials are drive plate to the disc ring with the laser typically being
typically used in heavy applications such as trucks between 2-3KW and a feed rate 1m/minute.
carrying large loads or racingï though the harder ceramic
materials increase flywheel and pressure plate wear.

Ô (Ô This type of clutch has several driving members

interleaved or "stacked" with several driven members. It
Friction disk clutches generally are classified as "Ôush is used in race cars including F1ï Indy carï World rally
Type" or "Ôull Type" depending on the location of the and even most club racingï motorcyclesï and automatic
pressure plate fulcrum points. In a pull type clutchï the transmissions and in some diesel locomotives with
action of pressing the pedal pulls the release bearingï mechanical transmissions. It is also used in some
pulling on the diaphragm spring and disengaging the electronically controlled all-wheel drive systems.

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Ê 9
arefully-designed types disengage (but continue to
transmit torque) in such tools as controlled-torque
p "wet clutch" is immersed in a cooling lubricating screwdrivers.
fluid which also keeps the surfaces clean and gives
smoother performance and longer life. Wet clutchesï Many safety clutches are NOT friction clutchesï but
howeverï tend to lose some energy to the liquid. Since belong to the "interference clutch" family of which
the surfaces of a wet clutch can be slippery (as with a the dog clutch (discussed briefly later) is the most well-
motorcycle clutch bathed in engine oil)ï stacking known.
multiple clutch disks can compensate for the
lower coefficient of friction and so eliminate slippage p
under power when fully engaged.
6
!
"
The Hele-Shaw clutch was a wet clutch that relied
entirely on viscous effectsï rather than on friction. There are different designs of vehicle clutch but most
are based on one or more friction discs pressed tightly
p "dry clutch"ï as the name impliesï is not bathed in fluid together or against a flywheel using springs. The friction
and should beï literallyï dry. material varies in composition depending on many
considerations such as whether the clutch is "dry" or

"wet". Friction discs once contained asbestos but this
has been largely eliminated.
lutches found in heavy
Some vehicles such as mopeds use a centrifugal clutch.
duty applications such as trucks and competition cars
This clutch system employs centrifugal force to
use ceramic clutches that have a greatly increased
automatically engage the clutch when the
friction coefficient. Howeverï these have a "grabby"
engine rpm rises above a threshold and to automatically
disengage the clutch when the engine rpm falls low action generally considered unsuitable for passenger
enough. The system involves a clutch shoe or shoes cars. The spring pressure is released when the clutch
attached to the driven shaftï rotating inside a clutch bell pedal is depressed thus either pushing or pulling the
attached to the output shaft. The shoe(s) are held diaphragm of the pressure plateï depending on type.
Howeverï raising the engine speed too high while
inwards by springs until centrifugal force overcomes the
spring tension and the shoe(s) make contact with the engaging the clutch will cause excessive clutch plate
bellï driving the output. wear. Engaging the clutch abruptly when the engine is
turning at high speed causes a harshï jerky start. This
kind of start is necessary and desirable in drag

racing and other competitionsï where speed is more
Distinguished by conical friction surfaces. The cone's important than comfort.
taper means that a given amount of movement of the
actuator makes the surfaces approach (or recede) much Ô

more slowly than in a disc clutch. ps wellï a given
amount of actuating force created more pressure on the This plastic pilot shaft guide tool is used to align the
mating surfaces. clutch disk as the spring-loaded pressure plate is
installed. The transmission's drive splines and pilot shaft
$ have a complimentary shape. p number of such devices
fit various makes and models of drivetrains
pKp slip clutchï or á
In a modern car with a manual transmission the clutch is
This device allows a rotating shaft to "slip" when higher operated by the left-most pedal using a
than normal resistance is encountered on a machine. pn hydraulic or cable connection from the pedal to the
example of a safety clutch is the one mounted on the clutch mechanism. On older cars the clutch might be
driving shaft of a large grass mower. The clutch will operated by a mechanical linkage. Even though the
"slip" or "give" if the blades hit a rockï stumpï or other clutch may physically be located very close to the pedalï
immobile object. Motor-driven mechanical calculators such remote means of actuation are necessary to
had theseï between the drive motor and gear trainï to eliminate the effect of vibrations and slight engine
limit damage when the mechanism jammed. (Motors movementï engine mountings being flexible by design.
had high stall torque.) With a rigid mechanical linkageï smooth engagement
would be near-impossible because engine movement

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inevitably occurs as the drive is "taken up." No pressure Ôartial engagement under any significant load tends to
on the pedal means that the clutch plates are engaged be destructive.
(driving)ï while pressing the pedal disengages the clutch
platesï allowing the driver to shift gears or coast. Hydraulic clutch: The driving and driven members are
not in physical contact; coupling is hydrodynamic.
Electromagnetic clutch: Typically a clutch that is
engaged by an electromagnet that is an integral part of
Motorcycles typically employ a wet clutch with the the clutch assembly. Howeverï magnetic particle
clutch riding in the same oil as the transmission. These clutches have magnetically influenced particles
clutches are usually made up of a stack of alternating contained in a chamber between driving and driven
plain steel and friction plates. Some of the plates have members which upon application of direct
lugs on its inner diameter locking it to the engine current causes the particles to clump together and
crankshaftï while the other plates have lugs on the outer adhere to the operating surfaces. Engagement and
diameter that lock it to a basket which turns the slippage are notably smooth.
transmission input shaft. The plates are forced together
by a set of coil springs or a diaphragm spring plate when Overrunning clutch or freewheel: If some external force
the clutch is engaged. makes the driven member rotate faster than the driverï
the clutch effectively disengages.
On most motorcycles the clutch is operated by the
clutch lever located on the left handlebar. No pressure Examples include:
on the lever means that the clutch plates are engaged
(driving)ï while pulling the lever back towards the rider This was essential for the operation of org-
will disengage the clutch plates through cable or Warner Overdrive transmissions in cars;
hydraulic actuationï allowing the rider to shift gears or Typical bicycles have these so that the rider can
coast. stop pedaling and coast;
pnother application includes an oscillating
Racing motorcycles often use slipper clutches to member where this clutch can then convert the
eliminate the effects of engine braking whichï being oscillations into intermittent linear or rotational
applied only to the rear wheelï can lead to instability. motion of the complimentary member;
Still others use ratchets with the pawl mounted

on a moving member;
There are other clutches found in a car. For exampleï a The winding knob of a camera employs a (silent)
belt-driven engine cooling fan may have a clutch that is wrap-spring type as a clutch in winding and as a
heat-activated. The driving and driven members are brake in preventing it from being turned
separated by a silicone-based fluid and a valve backwards.
controlled by a bimetallic spring. When the temperature
Wrap-spring clutches: These have a helical spring wound
is lowï the spring winds and closes the valveï which
with square-cross-section wire. In simple form the spring
allows the fan to spin at about 20% to 30% of
is fastened at one end to the driven member; its other
the shaft speed. ps the temperature of the spring risesï
end is unattached. The spring fits closely around a
it unwinds and opens the valveï allowing fluid past the
cylindrical driving member. If the driving member
valve which allows the fan to spin at about 60% to 90%
rotates in the direction that would unwind the spring
of shaft speed.
the spring expands minutely and slips although with
Other clutches such as for an air some drag. Rotating the driving member the other way
conditioning compressor electronically engaged clutches makes the spring wrap itself tightly around the driving
using magnetic force to couple the driving member to surface and the clutch
the driven member.

(

Single-revolution clutch: When inactive it is disengaged
Dog clutches: Utilization in automobile manual and the driven member is stationary. When "tripped"ï it
transmissions mentioned above. Ôositive engagementï locks up solidly (typically in milliseconds or tens of ms)
non-slip. Typically used where slipping is not acceptable. and rotates the driven member just one full turn. If the
trip mechanism is operated when the clutch would

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otherwise disengage the clutch remains engaged. These clutches had long operating lives cycling for tensï
Variants include half-revolution (and other fractional- maybe hundreds of millions of cycles without need of
revolution) types. These were an essential part of maintenance other than occasional lubrication with
printing telegraphs such as the Teletype page printersï recommended oil.
as well as electric typewritersï notably the I M Selectric.
They were also found in motor-driven mechanical "
ascaded-Ôawl" single-revolution clutches: These
calculators; the Marchant had several of them. They are superseded wrap-spring single-revolution clutches in
also used in farm machinery and industry. Typicallyï page printers (such as teleprinters) including the Model
these were a variety of dog clutch. 28 Teletype (and its successors using the same design
principles). ps wellï the I M Selectric typewriter had
Single-revolution clutches in teleprinters were of this several of them.
type. asically the spring was kept expanded (details
below) and mostly out of contact with the driving These were typically disc-shaped assemblies mounted
sleeveï but nevertheless close to it. One end of the on the drive shaft. Inside the hollow disc-shaped housing
spring was attached to a sleeve surrounding the spring. were two or three freely-floating pawls arranged so that
The other end of the spring was attached to the driven when the clutch was trippedï the load torque on the first
member inside whom the drive shaft could rotate freely. pawl to engage created force to keep the second pawl
The sleeve had a projecting toothï like a ratchet tooth. p engagedï which in turn kept the third one engaged. The
spring-loaded pawl pressed against the sleeve and kept clutch did not slip once locked up. This sequence
it from rotating. The wrap spring's torque kept the happened quite fastï on the order of milliseconds.
sleeve's tooth pressing against the pawl.
The first pawl had a projection that engaged a trip lever.
To engage the clutchï an electromagnet attracted the If the lever engaged the pawl the clutch was disengaged.
pawl away from the sleeve. The wrap spring's torque When the trip lever moved out of the way the first pawl
rotated the sleeve which permitted the spring to engagedï creating the cascaded lockup just described. ps
contract and wrap tightly around the driving sleeve. the clutch rotated it would stay locked up if the trip
Load torque tightened the wrap so it did not slip once lever were out of the wayï but if the trip lever engaged
engaged. If the pawl were held away from the sleeve the the clutch would quickly unlock.
clutch would continue to drive the load without slipping.
"Kickback" clutch-brakes:
When the clutch was to disengage power was
These mechanisms were found in some types of
disconnected from the electromagnet and the pawl
synchronous-motor-driven electric clocks. Many
moved close to the sleeve. When the sleeve's tooth
different types of synchronous clock motors were usedï
contacted the pawl the sleeve and the load's inertia
including the pre-World War II Hammond manual-start
unwrapped the spring to disengage the clutch.
clocks. Some types of self-starting synchronous motors
onsidering that the drive motors in some of these (such always started when power was appliedï but in detailï
as teleprinters for news wire services) ran 24 hours a their behavior was chaotic and they were equally likely
day for years the spring could not be allowed to stay in to start rotating in the wrong direction.
close contact with the driving cylinder; wear would be

oupled to the rotor by one (or possibly two) stages of
excessive. The other end of the spring was fastened to a
reduction gearing was a wrap-spring clutch-brake. The
thick disc attached to the driven member. When the
spring did not rotate. One end was fixed; the other was
clutch locked up the driven mechanism coasted and its
free. It rode freely but closely on the rotating memberï
inertia rotated the disc until a tooth on it engaged a
part of the clock's gear train. The clutch-brake locked up
pawl that kept it from reversing. Together with the
when rotated backwardsï but also had some spring
restraint at the other end of the spring created by the
action. The inertia of the rotor going backwards engaged
trip pawl and sleeve toothï this kept the spring
the clutch and "wound" the spring. ps it "unwound"ï it
expanded to minimize contact with the driving cylinder.
re-started the motor in the correct direction. Some
These clutches were lubricated with conventional oil but designs had no explicit spring as such; it was simply a
the wrap was so effective that the lubricant did not compliant mechanism. The mechanism was lubricated;
defeat the grip. wear did not seem to be a problem.

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aterpillar tractorsï propellerï etc.). Sometimes
hassis "powertrain" is used to refer to simply the engine and

transmissionï including the other components only if
they are integral to the transmission. In
p
(plural: "chassis") a carriage or wagonï
designates the wheels
(pronounced / æsi/ï / t æsi/) consists of an and axles in distinction from the body.
internal framework that supports a man-made object. It
is analogous to an animal's skeleton. pn example of a p motor vehicle's consists of the parts of the
chassis is the under part of a motor vehicleï consisting of drivetrain excluding the engine and transmission. It is
the frame (on which the body is mounted) with the the portion of a vehicleï after the transmissionï that
wheels and machinery. changes depending on whether a vehicle is front-wheel
driveï rear-wheel driveï or four-wheel drive.
6
In a wider senseï the power-train includes all of its
In the case of vehiclesï the term chassis means components used to transform stored (chemicalï solarï
the frame plus the "running gear" like engineï nuclearï kineticï potentialï etc.) energy into kinetic
transmissionï driveshaftï differentialï and suspension. p energy for propulsion purposes. This includes the
body (sometimes referred to as "coachwork")ï which is utilization of multiple power sources and nonʹwheel-
usually not necessary for integrity of the structureï is based vehicles.
built on the chassis to complete the vehicle.
For commercial vehicles chassis consists of an assembly pn
is usually tubing used to guide
of all the essential parts of a truck (without the body) to reaction exhaust gases away from a controlled
be ready for operation on the road. The design of a combustion inside an engine or stove. The entire system
pleasure car chassis will be different than one for conveys burnt gases from the engine and includes one
commercial vehicles because of the heavier loads and or more
. Depending on the overall system
constant work use.
ommercial vehicle manufacturers designï the exhaust gas may flow through one or more
sell ͞chassis only͟ï ͞cowl and chassis͟ï as well as "chassis of:
cab" versions that can be outfitted with specialized
bodies. These include motor homesï fire
ylinder head and exhaust manifold
enginesï ambulancesï box trucksï etc. p turbocharger to increase engine power.
p catalytic converter to reduce air pollution.
In particular applicationsï such as school bussesï a p muffler (North pmerica) / silencer (Europe)ï to
government agency like National Highway Traffic Safety reduce noise.
pdministration (NHTSp) in the U.S. defines the design Design criteria
standards of chassis and body conversions.[
pn exhaust pipe must be carefully designed to carry
pn armoured fighting vehicle's chassis comprises the toxic and/or noxious gases away from the users of the
bottom part of the pFV that includes the tracksï engineï machine. Indoor generators and furnaces can quickly fill
driver's seatï and crew compartment. This describes the an enclosed space with carbon monoxide or other
lower hullï although common usage of might include the poisonous exhaust gases if they are not properly vented
upper hull to mean the pFV without the turret. p chassis to the outdoors. plsoï the gases from most types of
serves as basis for platforms on tanksï armored machine are very hot; the pipe must be heat-resistantï
personnel carriersï combat engineering vehiclesï etc. and it must not pass through or near anything which can
burn or can be damaged by heat. p chimney serves as an
Ôowertrain exhaust pipe in a stationary structure. For the internal
combustion engine it is important to have the Exhaust
System "Tuned" (refer to tuned pipe) for optimal
In a motor vehicleï the efficiency.
term
or
refers to the group of

components that generate power and deliver it to the
road surfaceï waterï or air. This includes the engineï In most motorcycles all or most of the exhaust system is
transmissionï driveshaftsï differentialsï and the final visible and may be chrome plated as a display feature.
drive (drive wheelsï continuous track like with tanks or

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pftermarket exhausts may be made from steelï

aluminiumï titaniumï carbon fiber or.
With an onboard diesel engine below-decks on marine
Motorcycle exhausts come in many varieties depending vessels:-
on the type of engine and its intended use. p twin
cylinder may flow its exhaust into separate exhaust Lagging the exhaust pipe stops it from overheating the
sectionsï such as seen in the Kawasaki EX250 (also engine room where people must work to service the
known as the Ninja 250 in the USï or the =ÔX 250). Orï engine.
they may flow into a single exhaust section known as a
Feeding water into the exhaust pipe cools the exhaust
two-into-one (2-1). Larger engines that come with 4
gas and thus lessens the back-pressure at the engine's
cylindersï such as Kapanese supersport or superbikes
cylinders' exhaust ports and thus helps the cylinders to
(such the Kawasaki ZX seriesï Honda's
R
empty quicker.
seriesïYamaha's YZF seriesï also known as R6 and R1ï
and Suzuki's =SX-R series) often come with a twin

exhaust system. p "full system" may be bought as an
aftermarket accessoryï also called a 4-2-1 or 4-1ï In outboard motors the exhaust system is usually a
depending on its layout. In the pastï these bikes would vertical passage through the engine structure and to
come standard with a single exhaustï as seen on the reduce out-of-water noise blows out underwaterï
Kawasaki ZX-6R 2000 and 2001 models. Howeverï EU sometimes through the middle of the propeller.
noise and pollution regulations have generally stopped
this practiceï forcing companies to use other methods to
increase performance of the motorcycle. This has often
$
led to a decrease in fuel economyï because of increased

weight of the exhaust system and manufacturers forcing
more fuel into the engine to gain extra power. In most production enginesï the
is an assembly
designed to collect the exhaust gas from two or more
$
cylinders into one pipe. Manifolds are often made
In many trucks / lorries all or most of the exhaust system of cast iron in stock production carsï and may have
is visible. Often in such trucks the silencer is surrounded material-saving design features such as to use the least
by a perforated metal sheath to avoid people getting metalï to occupy the least space necessaryï or have the
burnt touching the hot silencer. This sheath may lowest production cost. These design restrictions often
be chrome plated as a display feature. Ôart of the pipe result in a design that is cost effective but that does not
between the engine and the silencer is often flexible do the most efficient job of venting the gases from the
metal industrial ductingï as in the image in the section engine. Inefficiencies generally occur due to the nature
"Terminology". Sometimes a large diesel exhaust pipe is of the combustion engine and its cylinders. Since
verticalï to blow the hot noxious gas well away from cylinders fire at different timesï exhaust leaves them at
people; in such cases the end of the exhaust pipe often different timesï and pressure waves from gas emerging
has a hinged metal flap to stop debris and birds and from one cylinder might not be completely vacated
rainwater from falling inside. Sometimes these exhaust through the exhaust system when another comes. This
pipes have a flex connector attached with it. This helps creates a back pressure and restriction in the engine's
in minimizing the vibration from the engine to be exhaust system that can restrict the engine's true
transferred into the exhaust system. performance possibilities.
$ p
(sometimes called
in pustralia) is a
manifold specifically designed for performance. During
In a two-stroke engineï such as that used on dirt bikesï a designï engineers create a manifold without regard to
bulge in the exhaust pipe known as an expansion weight or cost but instead for optimal flow of the
chamber uses the pressure of the exhaust to create exhaust gases. This design results in a header that is
a pump that squeezes more air and fuel into the cylinder more efficient at
the exhaust from the
during the intake stroke. This provides greater power cylinders. Headers are generally circular steel tubing
and fuel efficiency. See Kadenacy effect. with bends and folds calculated to make the paths from
each cylinder's exhaust port to the common outlet all
equal lengthï and joined at narrow angles to encourage

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pressure waves to flow through the outletï and not back Ê

towards other cylinders. In a set of
the
pipe lengths are carefully calculated to enhance exhaust Some systems (including in former time all systems)
flow in a particular engine revolutions per minute range. (sometimes nowadays called
) eliminate the
catalytic converter. This is illegal in some places if the
Headers are generally made by aftermarket automotive vehicle is driven on public roads.
companiesï but sometimes can be bought from the high-
performance parts department at car dealerships.

=enerallyï most car performance enthusiasts buy

(also

and

) refers to the
aftermarket headers made by companies solely focused
portion of the exhaust system from the outlet of
on producing reliableï cost-effective well-designed
the catalytic converter to the final vent to open air. This
headers specifically for their car. Headers can also be
generally includes the pipe from the converter to the
custom designed by a custom shop. Due to the
mufflerï the mufflerï and the final length of pipe to open
advanced materials that some aftermarket headers are
air.
made ofï this can be expensive. Luckilyï an exhaust
system can be custom built for any carï and generally is
at-back exhaust systems generally use larger diameter
not specific to the car's motor or design except for pipe than the stock system. =ood systems will
needing to properly connect solidly to the engine. This is have mandrel-bent turns that allow the exhaust gas to
usually accomplished by correct sizing in the design exit with as little back pressure as possible. The mufflers
stageï and selecting a proper gasket type and size for the included in these kits are often glasspacksï to reduce
engine. back pressure. If the system is engineered more for
show than functionalityï it may be tuned to enhance the

lower sounds that are lacking from high-RÔM low-

(or

) is to the part of the displacement engines.
exhaust system from the outlet of the header to the
$

final vent to open air Ͷ everything from the header
back. Header-back systems are generally produced With trucksï sometimes the silencer is crossways under
as aftermarket performance systems for cars the front of the cab and its tailpipe blows sideways to
without turbochargers. the offside (right side if driving on the leftï left side
if driving on the right). The side of a passenger car on
$

which the exhaust exits beneath the rear bumper
$
(or
) is to the part of the exhaust usually indicates the market for which the vehicle was
system from the outlet of a turbocharger to the final designedï i.e. Kapanese (and some older ritish) vehicles
vent to open air. Turbo-back systems are generally have exhausts on the right so they are furthest from the
produced as aftermarket performance systems for cars curb in countries which drive on the leftï while European
with turbochargers. Some turbo-back (and header-back) vehicles have exhausts on the left.
systems replace stock catalytic converters with others
The end of the final length of exhaust pipe where it
having less flow restriction.
vents to open airï generally the only visible part of the

exhaust system part on a vehicleï often ends with just a
straight or angled cutï but may include a fancy tip. The
To regulate the boost pressure on turbo charged carsï a tip is sometimes chromed. It is often of larger pipe than
custom waste gate is fitted to allow exhaust gases to the rest of the exhaust system. This produces a final
bypass the turbine and pass straight down the exhaust reduction in pressureï and sometimes used to enhance
down pipe. This can cause turbulent airflow around the the appearance of the car.
turbine so to overcome this problem gases can be re-
routed down a separate pipe about thirty centimeters In the late 1950s in the United States manufacturers had
long and vented straight to atmosphere. The reason for a fashion in car styling to form the rear bumper with a
the term screamer pipe is the loud noise they produce. hole at each end through which the exhaust would pass.
These are not for street use. Two outlets symbolized V-8 powerï and only the most
expensive cars (
adillacï Lincolnï Imperialï Ôackard) were
fitted with this design. One justification for this was that

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luxury cars in those days had such a long rear overhang of a ceramic coating applied via thermal spraying. This
that the exhaust pipe scraped the ground when the car not only reduces heat loss and lessens back pressureï
traversed ramps. The fashion disappeared after but provides an effective way to protect the exhaust
customers noted that the rear end of the carï being a system from wear and tearï thermal degradation and
low-pressure areaï collected soot from the exhaust and corrosion.
its acidic content ate into the chrome-plated rear
bumper. How Does a
ar Exhaust System Work?
When a busï truck or tractor or excavator has a vertical p car's exhaust system is responsible for transporting
exhaust pipe (called stacks or pipes behind the cab)ï the burned exhaustï or combustion gasesï from its
sometimes the end is curvedï or has a hinged cover flap engine and out the tail pipe. The exhaust system is
which the gas flow blows out of the wayï to try to basically just a long tube attached to the engine and
prevent foreign objects (including droppings from a bird extending to the rear of the vehicle. Howeverï there are
perching on the exhaust pipe when the vehicle is not certain components that enable the exhaust system to
being used) getting inside the exhaust pipe. function properly.
In some trucksï when the silencer is front-to-back under Exhaust Manifold

the chassisï the end of the tailpipe turns 90° and blows
p vehicle's exhaust manifold is the upper end of the
downwards. That protects anyone near a stationary
exhaust system. The exhaust manifold is attached
truck from getting a direct blast of the exhaust gasï but
directly to the side of the engine and is the first part of
often raises dust when the truck is driving on a dry dusty
the exhaust system to receive the burned exhaust gases
unmade surface such as on a building site.
from the car's engine. The exhaust manifoldï which is

$ extremely hotï further burns any fuel that was
inadequately burned by the engine and funnels it down
pftermarket exhaust system including headers and a into the main exhaust system.
white plasma-sprayed ceramic coating
Exhaust Ôipes
Many automotive companies offer aftermarket exhaust
system upgrades as a subcategory of engine. This is The exhaust pipes make up the brunt of a car's exhaust
often fairly expensive as it usually includes replacing the system. The exhaust pipesï which can be metal or
entire exhaust manifold or other large components. aluminumï are responsible for transporting the burned
These upgrades however can significantly improve exhaust gases from the engine and the exhaust manifold
engine performance and do this through means of two and funneling them towards the car's tailpipe.
main principles:
Muffler/
atalytic
onverter
y reducing the exhaust back pressureï engine power is
ps a car's exhaust gases are transported along the
increased in four-stroke engines
exhaust pipesï they must pass through the mufflerï
y reducing the amount of heat from the exhaust being which is an enclosed metal container responsible for
lost into the underbonnet area. This reduces the "muffling" the sounds of the traveling exhaust gasesï
underbonnet temperature and consequently lowers the and the catalytic converterï which is an "after burner"
intake manifold temperatureï increasing power. This responsible for igniting and burning any leftover exhaust
also has positive side effect of preventing heat-sensitive gases not burned by the engine and exhaust manifold.
components from being damaged. Furthermoreï
The Tail Ôipe
keeping the heat in the exhaust gases speeds these upï
therefore reducing back pressure as well. The final destination for a car's exhaust gases is the
tailpipe. The tailpipe is the end of the entire exhaust
ack pressure is most commonly reduced by replacing
systemï and it funnels the burned car exhaust out into
exhaust manifolds with headersï which have smoother
the outside airï or atmosphere.
bends and normally wider pipe diameters.
Exhaust Heat Management is the term that describes

reducing the amount of exhaust heat loss. One
dominant solution to aftermarket upgraders is the use

Basics To Automobile Engineering by Waqas Ali Tunio

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The internal combustion engine (or I

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  !Ô"

   Diesel engines and H

I type engines will take in both air

I engines are more

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Idealised Ôressure/volume diagram of the Otto cycle

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Four kinds of six-stroke use a regular piston in a regular  

 Most methanol is made from coal.

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Since air is plentiful at the surface of the earthï the 

ompressed air has been commonly used in torpedoes. weight ratio

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arbon fuels contain sulfur and impurities that

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ars need transmissions because of the physics of 

its maximum horsepower at 5ï500 rpm. The &  

Similar but larger devices are also used for heavy-duty

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hrysler and Honda/pcura). Six-speed automatic

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UMULpTOR. Note: if your car has an Orifice

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771$ * Õisc brake

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lutches release bearing is pushed into the clutch disengaging the

Friction clutches are by far the most well-known type of 

Ô (Ô  This type of clutch has several driving members

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   kind of start is necessary and desirable in drag

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hassis "powertrain" is used to refer to simply the engine and

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In some trucksï when the silencer is front-to-back under Exhaust Manifold

Exhaust Heat Management is the term that describes

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