101 V 3

The
The World
World of
of
Wireless
Wireless Communications
Communications
Section 1
How
How Wireless
Wireless Developed
Developed
MTS,
IMTS
December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 1

How Did We Reach This Point?
Radio has been around

only the last 100 years
(out of ~6000 years of
written human history)
N S Q 1680: Isaac Newton’s
U idea of the spectrum
LF HF VHF UHF MW IR UV XRAY

Q 1830’s: Basic Electricity
Q 1890’s: First demos of
radio by experimenters

Telegraphy
Q Early electronic communication was carried

only by wires and used only crude on-off
signaling to laboriously spell out the message.
Q 1837 Samuel Morse patented his telegraph
Q 1844 First commercial telegraph systems
operational
Q 1857 First trans-atlantic cable put in service
Samuel F. B. Morse
at the peak of his career
Submarine Cable Installation Field Telegraphy

news sketch from the 1850’s during the US Civil War, 1860’s
Telephony
Q In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell patented his telephone, a device
for carrying actual voices over wires.
Q Initial telephone demonstrations sparked intense public interest
and by the late 1890’s, telephone service was available in most
towns and cities across the USA
Alexander Graham Bell and his phone

from 1876 demonstration Telephone Line Installation Crew
1880’s
Radio Milestones
Q 1888: Heinrich Hertz, German physicist, gives lab demo of
existance of electromagnetic waves at radio frequencies
Q 1895: Guglielmo Marconi demonstrates a wireless radio
telegraph over a 3-km path near his home it Italy
Q 1897: the British fund Marconi’s development of reliable
radio telegraphy over ranges of 100 kM
Q 1902: Marconi’s successful trans-Atlantic demonstration
Q 1902: Nathan Stubblefield demonstrates voice over radio
Guglielmo Marconi
Q 1906: Lee De Forest invents “audion”, triode vacuum tube radio pioneer, 1895
• feasible now to make steady carriers, and to amplify signals
Q 1914: Radio became valuable military tool in World War I
Q 1920s: Radio used for commercial broadcasting
Q 1940s: first application of RADAR - English detection of
incoming German planes during WW II
MTS, Q 1950s: first public marriage of radio and telephony - MTS,
IMTS
Mobile Telephone System
Q 1961: transistor developed: portable radio now practical
Q 1961: IMTS - Improved Mobile Telephone Service Lee De Forest
Q 1970s: Integrated circuit progress: MSI, LSI, VLSI, ASICs vacuum tube inventor
Q 1979, 1983: AMPS cellular demo, commercial deployment

Frequencies Used by Wireless Systems
Overview of the Radio Spectrum
AM LORAN Marine
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 3.0 MHz
3,000,000 i.e., 3x106 Hz
Short Wave -- International Broadcast -- Amateur CB

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 MHz
30,000,000 i.e., 3x10 Hz
7
VHF LOW Band VHF TV 2-6 FM VHF VHF TV 7-13

30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 240 300 MHz
300,000,000 i.e., 3x108 Hz
Cellular DCS, PCS
UHF UHF TV 14-69 GPS
0.3 0.4 0.5 0/6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.4 3.0 GHz
3,000,000,000 i.e., 3x109 Hz
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 GHz
30,000,000,000 i.e., 3x10 Hz
10
Broadcasting Land-Mobile Aeronautical Mobile Telephony

Terrestrial Microwave Satellite
Cellular Telephones
Q Early attempts at “mobile telephone”

systems were crude, expensive, and
not reliable or private
• 1950’s: Bell System’s MTS 333 MSAs
(Mobile Telephone Service) 300+ RSAs
• 1960’s: Bell System’s IMTS
(Improved Mobile Telephone
Service)
Q 1970’s: Bell System proposed Metropolitan Service Areas
cellular concept, FCC approved Rural Service Areas
• reserved spectrum for cellular
The US was divided into more
systems than 600 licensing areas. Two
Q 1983: First Cellular systems placed competing cellular companies
in service are licensed in each area.
Q 1992: Every city in the USA had at
least one cellular system licensed

The Frequencies used for Cellular
Uplink Frequencies Downlink Frequencies

(“Reverse Path”) (“Forward Path”)
824 835 845 849

Frequency, MHz 870 880 890 894
A B Paging, ESMR, etc. A B

825 846.5 869 891.5
Frequencies used by “A” Cellular Operator

Ownership and Initial ownership by Non-Wireline companies
Licensing Frequencies used by “B” Cellular Operator
Initial ownership by Wireline companies

More Radio Spectrum for Mobile Telephones
Q By 1994, US cellular systems were seriously

overloaded and looking for more spectrum. The
US government was looking for more revenue.
The result: FCC auctioned 10 year-licenses for
new cellular-like companies
• “PCS” - Personal Communications Services,
implies additional calling features (calling
number display, short message paging
displays, data and computer connections thru
phone, etc.)
Q Not to be outdone, existing Cellular companies
have begun marketing their services as “PCS”,
pointing out that “PCS” means features, not a
specific frequency band
Q Most other countries have also set aside
frequencies in addition to cellular to provide
“PCS”

The PCS Spectrum - First Auctions: A & B
1850 1910 Frequency, MHz 1930 1990
A D B E F C A D B E F C
0 300 400 700 800 900 1200
Q The PCS spectrum was

divided into six “blocks” Major Trading Areas (MTAs)
which were separately
auctioned.
Q The A and B blocks were
auctioned in each of 51
Major Trading Areas
(MTAs)
• Auction completed
3Q95
• Total Revenue:
$7.2B

The PCS Spectrum: Blocks C, D, E, F
1850 1910 Frequency, MHz 1930 1990
A D B E F C A D B E F C
0 300 400 700 800 900 1200
Q In 1996, Blocks C, D, E, and F Basic Trading Areas (BTAs)

were auctioned to companies in
each of 493 Basic Trading
Areas (BTAs)
• Total Revenue:
• C: $10.2B
• D & E: ~$2 B
Q Most of the C-block bidders
have had difficulty getting
construction financing;
several are bankrupt

The Long-Range Picture
Q Commercial telegraphy gave birth to telephony, then died

Q Telephony and Land Mobile Radio married, giving IMTS & Cellular
Q IP networks developed, their usage and bandwidth are increasing
Q 3G is the wedding of IP and Wireless!
Land Mobile Radio Extinction?

HF, VHF, UHF, Trunked
IP Networks
The Internet Voice over IP
Wireless Voice and IP Data

IMTS-Cellular-GSM-GPRS-WCDMA
Commercial Switched Telephony Extinction?

Digital Switching
Commercial Telegraphy Extinction!
50 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 20 30 40 50
1800s 1900s 2000s
Major Wireless Players
The Largest Players, Areas, and Technologies
Q Verizon (CDMA/EV-DO)
Sprint PCS • Combination of GTE, Bell Atlantic, Vodaphone,
CDMA Airtouch, Primeco (1900 & 800 MHz.)
Q Cingular (GSM/UMTS)
• Combination of BellSouth, Southwestern Bell
(1900 & 800 MHz.)
• AT&T Wireless Systems (GSM/UMTS)
AT&T Wireless – Combination of new PCS, McCaw Cellular,
IS-136 Primeco (1900 & 800 MHz.)
Q Sprint PCS (CDMA/EV-DO)
• 1900 MHz. only
• Nextel (IDEN)
– Proprietary TDMA technology at 800 MHz.
Primeco only
CDMA Q T-Mobile (GSM)
• Combination of Western Wireless, OmniPoint,
BellSouth, GTE, Powertel, Pacific Bell
Western Aerial Q US Cellular (CDMA/EV-DO) 800 MHz.
Wireless
OmniPoint Q Alltel (CDMA/EV-DO) 800 MHz.
Pacific Q Leap Wireless/Cricket Communications (CDMA)
Bell
GSM BellSouth
Powertel • Low-cost -- fixed rate, unlimited minutes – limited
roaming, data in 2005/2006 (1900 MHz. Only)

Global and US Wireless Users by Technology
Analog IDEN IDEN

TDMA Analog GSM
3% 5% 8%
9% 3% 24%
TDMA
19%
CDMA
17%
GSM
66%
CDMA
46%
Q GSM is by far the dominant global technology

Q CDMA is dominant in its home country, the USA
Q The TDMA (IS-136) community is rapidly retiring TDMA and
implementing GSM
• primary motivation is to provide GPRS and/or EDGE fast data
Global and US Wireless Snapshot 4Q 2003
Worldwide USA
Total Wireless Users 1,320,000,000 100% 141,000,000 100%
GSM users 870,000,000 65.9% 33,732,506 23.9%
CDMA users 224,000,000 17.0% 64,503,287 45.7%
TDMA users 124,000,000 9.4% 26,375,232 18.6%
IDEN users 68,000,000 5.2% 11,978,382 8.5%
Analog users 34,000,000 2.6% 4,510,594 3.2%
Q Total Worldwide Wireless customers surpassed total worldwide landline

customers at year-end 2002, with 1,00,080,000 of each.
Q 2/3 of worldwide wireless customers use the GSM technology
Q CDMA is second-most-prevalent with 17.0%
Q In the US, CDMA is the most prevalent technology at 45.7%
Q Both CDMA and GSM are growing in the US
• most TDMA systems are phasing out and going to GSM
Section 2
Structure
Structure of
of aa Wireless
Wireless System
System
4 1
7 2
Frequency
6 3 7 Reuse
1 5 6
4 1 5
2 4 1
3 7 2
6 3
1 5

Early Mobile Telephone Systems: MTS, IMTS
One giant base station

covers the entire
service area
Q Advantages:
• Simple system
Q Disadvantages:
• Only one conversation per channel -- limited capacity!
Modern Cellular and PCS Systems
A wireless system utilizes a large

number of low-power
transmitters
to create many cells.
Q Advantages:
• More cells allow the same channels to be reused in multiple
areas, allowing more conversations and more capacity
• Mobiles can be made smaller with lower transmit power
Q Disadvantages:
• more complicated system: handoffs required
Managing Handoffs
Q As a mobile travels through the
service area, it passes from the
coverage zone of one base
station into the coverage of
another
Q Signal strength measurements by
the mobile or the base station
trigger the BSC and switch to
“hand off” the call from base B D
station to base station, avoiding A C
dropped calls and interference
Q Each wireless technology uses its
own methods to implement the
handoffs. CDMA can even
“simulcast” to the mobile from
multiple base stations to reduce
fading effects (this is called “soft
handoff”)
Structure of a Typical Wireless System
HLR Home Location Register

(subscriber database)
HLR SUPPORT
FUNCTIONS
BASE STATIONS
Voice Mail System SWITCH BASE STATION
CONTROLLER
PSTN Mobile Telephone

Local Carriers Switching Office
Long Distance ATM Link
Carriers to other CDMA
Networks
(Future)

The Heirarchy of Transmission Standards
170 OC-192s Q Worldwide telecom rides
on One Fiber Strand!! on the standard signal
formats shown at left
Q Lower speeds are used on
64,512 OC-192 10 Gb/s copper twisted pairs or
coaxial cable
32,256 OC-96 5 Gb/s
Q Higher speeds are carried
16,128 OC-48 2.5 Gb/s on fiber
8,064 OC-24 1.2 Gb/s Q Multiplexers bundle and
unbundle channels
North American Heirarchy OC-12 622 Mb/s
in Copper Media
4,032 Q Channelized and
2,016 OC-3 155 Mb/s unchannelized modes are
~45 Mb/s
DS-0 provided
51.84 Mb/s
DS-3 OC-1
= 28 DS-1 = 28 DS-1
= 672 DS-0 = 672 DS-0 European Heirarchy
in Copper Media
FIBER
1.544 Mb/s 2.036 Mb/s
DS-1/T-1 E-1
= 24 DS-0 = 28+2 DS-0
64 kb/s 64 kb/s
DS-0 DS-0

The Switch
Q Each call involves joining a

circuit leading to one
customer (usually on the
radio side of the system) and
a circuit leading to another
person (usually out in the
Public Switched Telephone
Network (PSTN)
Q The device that makes the
actual physical connection is
called the switch
Q The switch is also responsible
for storing billing records,
interpreting dialed phone
numbers, routing calls, and
implementing all calling
features

Home Location Register (HLR)
Q The HLR (Home Location Register) is

the official database of all customers
on a wireless system
Q It can be part of the switch, or held in
a server at a central location where
multiple switches can interrogate it
Q Information held in the HLR:
• current account status/validity
• phone’s technical parameters
• whether the phone is presently
turned on, and if so, the identity of
switch which is presently serving
the phone
• secret keys for authentication to
avoid fraudulent use/cloning

Voice Mail System (VMS)
Q When a subscriber receives an

incoming call but its phone is
turned off or already on a call
(without a “call waiting”
feature), a voice mail system
can store a message
Q The subscriber is alerted the
next time they turn on their
phone
Q Commercial voicemail systems
offer scalable capacity up into
many hundreds of hours of
random-access private storage

The Base Station Controller (BSC)
Q The Base Station Controller

(BSC) interfaces the Switch
and the base stations
• Compresses speech
signals for more efficient
transmission over the
scarce radio spectrum
• Controls the base stations
and implements the
handoff of calls from one
base station to another as
users drive across the
system

Base Stations
Q Base Stations provide the

radio connection between
mobile users and the switch
• Sometimes called a “cell”
• Sometimes called “BTS”
(short for Base
Transceiver Station)
Q One wireless system in a
large metropolitan area may
require hundreds of base
stations to deliver unbroken
coverage and provide
sufficient capacity to handle
all possible users

What’s A Sector? Why Sectorize
BTS Q A Base station may be set up in various

configurations
• Omni for simplicity and low cost
Omni • 2-sector to cover just a highway or transportation
corridor, with little coverage off to the sides
– Two sectors (in CDMA systems) give more
traffic-handling capability and more antenna
Sector
BTS
Sector gain than an omni base station
α β
• 3-sector to cover an area with population in all
directions
2-Sector! – Three sectors (in CDMA systems) give
almost three-times the traffic-handling
capability of an omni base station
Sector – Sector antennas also give better coverage
α
since they have more gain than omni
BTS antennas
Sector Sector
γ β – The sectors do not have to have equal
widths and can be grown, shrunk, and aimed
to balance the amounts of traffic they get
3-Sector!
What’s A CDMA Carrier?
SPECTRUM USED BY A SINGLE-CARRIER CDMA SYSTEM
1 1
1850 MHZ Phone transmit 1865 MHZ 1930 MHZ BTS transmit 1945 MHZ
f
SPECTRUM USED BY AN ELEVEN-CARRIER CDMA SYSTEM
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011
1850 MHZ Phone transmit 1865 MHZ 1930 MHZ BTS transmit 1945 MHZ
f
Q A “carrier” is one pair of radio signals used to carry calls

• Phones transmit on one frequency, the BTS on another (this allows two-way
‘duplex’ conversation and the ability to interrupt)
Q A new CDMA system starts typically with just one carrier (call it “F1”}
• Each sector, using one carrier, can typically handle 20 to 45 simultaneous
conversations
Q If the system needs more capacity, there are two common solutions:
• Add another carrier (if there is enough spectrum to hold it); call if “F2”
– Less expensive (no real estate) but now intercarrier handoffs get tricky at
the borders; RF engineers & psychologists needed
• Add more base stations between the already-existing ones
– Expensive: needs more equipment AND more real estate
Q The busiest CDMA systems today typically use five or six carriers. Some PCS
operators have enough spectrum to hold eleven!

More Carriers in the Core, Less in the Country
Watch Out! Tricky handoffs
F3 at the boundaries
F2
F1
Q At a BTS, each carrier uses its own set of radio transmitters and receivers
and other equipment
• Transmitter combining and receiver multicoupling equipment can use one
set of antennas for multiple carriers
• Multi-carrier operation is expensive – but adding carriers is still less
expensive than building new sites from the ground up
Q Each BTS is built with only the number of carriers needed to adequately
handle its traffic load
• More carriers for busy core sites, less for sleepy rural sites
Q Special system configuration required to ensure mobiles use the right carrier
• In Idle mode: system messaging tells the mobile what’s available
• During a Call: the system must arrange border handoffs as needed
– Mobiles are “blind” to other carriers; system must play “matchmaker”

Section 3
Multiple
Multiple Access
Access and
and
Wireless
Wireless Technologies
Technologies

What is Multiple Access?
Q Multiple Access is the

simultaneous use of a
communications system by
more than one user
Q Each user’s signal must be kept
uniquely distinguishable from
other users’ signals, to allow
private communications on
demand Transmission
Q Users can be separated many Medium
ways:
• physically: on separate
wires
• by arbitrarily defined
“channels” established in
frequency, time, or any other
variable imaginable

Wireless Multiple Access Methods
FDMA Frequency Division Multiple

Access
Power •A user’s channel is a private frequency
cy
u en
T im eq
e Fr
Time Division Multiple Access

•A user’s channel is a specific frequency, but
TDMA it only belongs to the user during certain time
Power
slots in a repeating sequence
Ti m qu
e nc
y Code Division Multiple Access
e F re
•Each user’s signal is a continuous unique
code pattern buried within a shared signal,
CDMA mingled with other users’ code patterns. If a
DE user’s code pattern is known, the presence
Power CO or absence of their signal can be detected,
nc
y thus conveying information.
Tim ue
e F req

FDMA: Frequency Division Multiple Access
Q FDMA is the oldest and most familiar

FDMA method of radio communication
• used since 1890 in broadcasting, two-
Power way radio, and cellular systems
y
nc
T im eq ue Q Each user has a private frequency for the
Fr
e
duration of their call
Q Distant users are far enough that they
1
cause no interference
4 1 Q When the call is finished, the channel is
7 2 released and available for a new call
6 3 7
1 5 6 Q FDMA is the method used in the original
4 1 5
cellular systems
2 4 1
3 7 2 • “AMPS” Advanced Mobile Phone
6 3
System
1 5

TDMA: Time Division Multiple Access
TDMA
TDMA Each user has a specific frequency but only
during an assigned time slot. The frequency
Power is used by other users during other time slots,
nc
y like a condominium at a beach resort
e
Ti m qu
e F re UNITED STATES VERSIONS:
Q IS-54: The original TDMA format, intended for
use within existing AMPS systems
1
Q IS-136: Enhanced TDMA with special control
4 1
channels to allow short message service,
6
7 2
7
battery life extension, other features
3
1 5 6 Q 6 timeslots, three users occupy in rotation
4 1 5
2 4 1
INTERNATIONAL VERSION
3 7 2
Q GSM: Groupe Special Mobile
6 3
1 5 Q Developed in Europe, used in roughly 50% of

1
all wireless systems worldwide
Q 8 timeslots, 7 or 8 users occupy in rotation

GSM Technology Migration Path to 3G
Generation 1G 2G 2.5G or 3? 3G 3G
UMTS
various
Technology GSM GPRS EDGE UTRA
analog
WCDMA
Signal 200 kHz. 200 kHz. 3.84 MHz.
200 kHz. up to 200+
Bandwidth, various Many fast data voice users
7.5 avg.
#Users Pkt. users many users and data
9-160 Kb/s
Data 384 Kb/s 2Mb/s
various none (conditions mobile user
Capabilities static user
determine)
•Packet IP Integrated
8PSK for voice/data
Features: Europe’s access
3x Faster (Future rates
Incremental various first Digital •Multiple
data rates to 12 MBPS
Progress wireless attached
than GPRS using adv.
users modulation?)

TDMA IS-136 Technology Migration Path to 3G
the familiar GSM path!
Generation 1G 2G 2G 2G 2.5G or 3? 3G 3G
TDMA UMTS
Technology AMPS CDPD IS-54 GSM GPRS EDGE UTRA
IS-136 WCDMA
Signal 30 kHz. 200 kHz. 200 kHz. 3.84 MHz.
30 kHz. 30 kHz. 200 kHz. up to 200+
Bandwidth, Many Many fast data voice users
1 3 users 7.5 avg.
#Users Pkt Usrs Pkt. users many users and data
None, 9-160 Kb/s
Data 19.2 384 Kb/s 2Mb/s
2.4K by none none (conditions mobile user
Capabilities kbps static user
modem determine)
First •Packet IP Integrated

US USA’s Europe’s 8PSK for voice/data
Features: System, access
Packet first first 3x Faster (Future rates
Incremental Capacity •Multiple
Data Digital Digital data rates to 12 MBPS
Progress & attached
Svc. wireless wireless than GPRS using adv.
Handoffs users modulation?)

CDMA: Code Division Multiple Access
Q CDMA
CDMA Q Each user’s signal is a continuous unique
DE code pattern buried within a shared signal,
Power CO mingled with other users’ code patterns. If a
nc
y user’s code pattern is known, the presence or
ue
Tim
e F req absence of their signal can be detected, thus
conveying information.
Q All CDMA users occupy the same frequency
at the same time! Time and frequency are not
CDMA used as discriminators
Q CDMA interference comes mainly from nearby
users
Q CDMA operates by using CODING to
discriminate between users
Q Each user is a small voice in a roaring crowd -
- but with a uniquely recoverable code

Claude Shannon:
The Einstein of Information Theory
Q The core idea that makes CDMA
possible was first explained by
Claude Shannon, a Bell Labs
research mathematician
Q Shannon's work relates amount
of information carried, channel
bandwidth, signal-to-noise-ratio,
and detection error probability
• It shows the theoretical
upper limit attainable SHANNON’S
In 1948 Claude Shannon published his landmark
CAPACITY EQUATION
paper on information theory, A Mathematical
C = Bω log2 [ ]
Theory of Communication. He observed that
S
1+
"the fundamental problem of communication is N
that of reproducing at one point either exactly or
approximately a message selected at another
Bω = bandwidth in Hertz
point." His paper so clearly established the
foundations of information theory that his C = channel capacity in bits/second
framework and terminology are standard today. S = signal power
Shannon died Feb. 24, 2001, at age 84. N = noise power

The CDMA Migration Path to 3G
CDMAone CDMA2000 / IS-2000
Generation 1G 2G 2G 2.5G? 3G 3G 3G
IS-95A/ IS-2000: IS-2000: 1xEV-DO 1xEV-DO 1xEV-DV
Technology AMPS IS-95B Rev. 0 Rev. A
J-Std008 1xRTT 3xRTT IS-856 IS-856 1xTreme
Spectrum RL FL RL FL RL FL RL FL RL FL RL FL RL FL RL FL
Signal 1250 kHz. F: 3x 1250k 1250 kHz. 1250 kHz. 1250 kHz.
30 kHz. 1250 kHz. 1250 kHz. R: 3687k
Bandwidth, 50-80 voice 120-210 per 59 active 59 active Many packet
1 20-35 25-40 users users users
#Users and data 3 carriers
Data None, 153K 2.4 Mb/s 3.1 Mb/s

DL
Capabilities 2.4K by 14.4K 64K 307K 1.0 Mb/s 153DL
Kb/s 1.8 Mb/s 5 Mb/s
modem 230K UL UL
Higher High data

First Faster High data
Features: First •Improve •Enhanced data rates rates on
System, data rates rates on
Incremental CDMA, d Access Access on data- Data-Voice
Capacity on shared data-only
Capacity, •Smarter •Channel only shared
Progress & 3-carrier CDMA
Quality Handoffs Structure CDMA CDMA
Handoffs bundle carrier
carrier carrier

How CDMA Works
Every sector, every base station all

User >> a Walsh Code Short PN Code transmit on the same frequency.
User >> a Walsh Code
User >> a Walsh Code at unique timing offset What’s different about each sector
User >> a Walsh Code
User >> a Walsh Code is its own unique timing delay of the
User >> a Walsh Code PN Short Code. This allows mobiles
to hear just the sector(s) they want.
Inside the signal of any sector, each
of its users is contained in a
different Walsh Code.
All mobiles transmit on their own frequency, Long PN Code

At unique timing offset
45 or 80 MHz. lower than the base station
Long PN Code
transmit frequency. At unique timing offset
What’s different about each mobile is its own Long PN Code

unique timing delay of the PN long code. This
allows a base station to pick out this mobile Long PN Code
from among all the rest.

What a CDMA Base Station Sector Transmits
SWITCH & BASE STATION SHORT MOBILE
PN CODE F1
ACCESS scrambled Different
Special
Offset Receiver
MANAGER by users’ Walsh I Q RF
Section
with packet pipes
Different Codes
Long Codes PILOT +
Σ
RF from everywhere
MESSAGES DATA
SCRAMBLING PAGING + SHORT
PN CODE
traffic DATA
SCRAMBLING TRAFFIC + Filter
Analog Summing Bus

traffic DATA
SCRAMBLING TRAFFIC + this sector only
traffic DATA
SCRAMBLING TRAFFIC + QPSK RF WALSH
traffic DATA
SCRAMBLING TRAFFIC + Modulation CODE
Filter
MESSAGE DATA
SCRAMBLING SYNC +
T1
this user only

traffic DATA
SCRAMBLING TRAFFIC +
traffic DATA
SCRAMBLING TRAFFIC + Decoding,
DeScrambling
traffic DATA
traffic DATA
Q Forward Link CDMA signal includes channels of many users
Q Each user’s signal bits are scrambled for privacy and randomness
Q Each user’s signal is mixed with a unique Walsh code at the BTS
Q The entire signal of the sector is mixed with the Short PN code, but it has a
unique timing delay (‘PN offset’) different from any other nearby sector
Q The mobile decodes in the opposite order to extract its proper channel
1 Sector, 1 Carrier
Actual Live-Air 2G CDMA Signal
SYNC Various People’s

PILOT PAGING Walsh Code 32
Walsh Code 0 Walsh Code 1 TRAFFIC CHANNELS

What A Base Station Sector Receives
SWITCH & BASE STATION MOBILE
ACCESS F1 Xmtr.
RF
MANAGER Different Section
with packet pipes

Long Code Offsets
to match mobiles
ACCESS SHORT
PN 0 I&Q
traffic TRAFFIC
traffic TRAFFIC LONG
Packet Handlers
TRAFFIC PN CODE
BTS RF
Distribution Bus
traffic
TRAFFIC Receiver
traffic WALSH
Symbol
T1
TRAFFIC Encoding
traffic
traffic TRAFFIC Data
TRAFFIC Protection
traffic
traffic TRAFFIC
Q All mobiles transmit on the reverse link

Q Each mobile has its own long code PN offset which keeps its signal unique
Q At the BTS, a channel element recovers the signal from one mobile and
extracts the symbols and bits it is transmitting
Q The bits are transmitted as a packet over the T-1 to the switch, where they
are de-vocoded into DS-0 format and passed through the switch to the user
CDMA 2000: Story of Two Hotels
Q A sector on an IS-95 CDMA BTS
runs like a discount hotel today
IS-95
• There's a Sign outside, a
PILOT
ACCESS covered entranceway, Lobby
SYNC
BTS PAGING
TRAFFIC • Only Two kinds of rooms:
TRAFFIC
one king bed or two doubles
• There are no meeting rooms
or ballrooms
Q New 1xRTT CDMA BTS sectors
1xRTT are like a convention resort!
F-Pilot
F-Sync
• Twice as big in square feet
PAGING
• Sign, Entranceway, Lobby
F-BCH
F-QPCH • Restaurants, Bars, Nightclub
F-CPCCH R-Pilot
BTS F-CACH R-ACH or • Guest rooms: one king bed
F-CCCH R-EACH or two doubles, maybe suites
R-CCCH
F-TRAFFIC
F-FCH R-TRAFFIC
• Meeting Rooms with
F-DCCH R-FCH adjustable walls -- for use as
F-SCH R-DCCH Classrooms, Auditorium,
F-SCH R-SCH Ballrooms, Banquets,
Parties, Meetings

Summing Up Original IS-95 CDMA Channels
FORWARD CHANNELS REVERSE CHANNELS
W0: PILOT
ACCESS
W32: SYNC
BTS W1: PAGING TRAFFIC
Wn: TRAFFIC
Q Existing IS-95A/JStd-008 CDMA uses the channels above for call setup and
traffic channels – all call processing transactions use these channels
• traffic channels are 9600 bps (rate set 1) or 14400 bps (rate set 2)
Q IS-2000 CDMA is backward-compatible with IS-95, but offers additional
radio configurations and additional kinds of possible channels
• These additional modes are called Radio Configurations
• IS-95 Rate Set 1 and 2 are IS-2000 Radio Configurations 1 & 2

The Channels at Phase One 1xRTT Launch
FORWARD CHANNELS REVERSE CHANNELS
Same coding as IS-95B, Includes Power
How many 1 F-Pilot Backward compatible Control Subchannel R-Pilot 1
Possible: Same coding as IS-95B, Access Channel
1 F-Sync Backward compatible (IS-95B compatible) R-ACH or
Enhanced 1
1 to 7 PAGING
Same coding as IS-95B,
Access Channel R-EACH
Backward compatible
Common
0 to 8 F-BCH Broadcast Channel Control Channel R-CCCH 0 or 1
0 to 3 F-QPCH Quick Paging Channel

R-TRAFFIC
Reverse Fundamental
Common Channel (IS95B comp.) R-FCH 1
0 to 4 F-CPCCH Power Control Channel
Dedicated
BTS Common Control Channel R-DCCH 0 or 1
0 to 7 F-CACH Assignment Channel
Reverse
Common Supplemental Channel R-SCH 0 to 2
0 to 7 F-CCCH Control Channels
Users:
0 to many F-TRAFFIC Forward
Traffic Channels
Q CDMA2000 1xRTT has a rich
1 F-FCH Fundamental Channel
variety of traffic channels for
Dedicated
voice and fast date
0 or 1 F-DCCH Control Channel
Q There are also optional
0 to 7
Supplemental
F-SCH IS-95B only Channels IS-95B only additional control channels
0 to 2
Supplemental for more effective operation
F-SCH Channels RC3,4,5
See Course 332 for more details.

Spreading Rates & Radio Configurations
Spreading Radio Data Data Radio
Rate Forward Link Configuration Rates Rates Configuration Reverse Link
Required. IS-95B Compatible Required. IS-95B Compatible
No CDMA2000 coding features RC1 9600 9600 RC1 No CDMA2000 coding features
Compatible with IS-95B RS2 Compatible with IS-95B RS2

SR1 No CDMA2000 coding features RC2 14400 14400 RC2 No CDMA2000 coding features
1xRTT Quarter-rate convolutional or 9600
Turbo Coding, base rate 9600 RC3 153600
9600 Quarter rate convolutional or
1 carrier Turbo coding; Half rate
1.2288 9600
153600 RC3 convolutional or Turbo coding;
Half-rate convolutional or
MCPS Turbo Coding, base rate 9600 RC4 307200 307200 base rate 9600
Quarter-rate convolutional or 14400 14400 Quarter rate convolutional or

Turbo Coding, base rate 14400 RC5 230400 230400
RC4 Turbo Coding, base rate 14400
1/6 rate convolutional 9600

SR3 or Turbo coding, base rate 9600 RC6 9600
307200 Required. ¼ or 1/3 convolutional
3xRTT 9600
307200 RC5 or Turbo coding, base rate 9600
Required. 1/3 rate convolutional
Fwd: or Turbo coding, base rate 9600 RC7 614400 614400
3 carriers
1.2288 ¼ or 1/3 rate convolutional or 14400
MCPS Turbo coding, base rate 14400 RC8 460800
14400
¼ or ½ convolutional or Turbo
Rev:
14400
460800 RC6 encoding, base rate 14400
3.6864 ½ or 1/3 rate convolutional or
MCPS Turbo encoder, base rate 14400 RC9 1036800 1036800

Section 4
Call
Call Processing
Processing Examples
Examples
MTS,
IMTS

Delivering an Incoming Wireless Call
Q Someone dials a mobile subscriber’s Mobile,

are you
number 1 listening?
System checks database for current
location of mobile, and pages this area
Database (HLR)
• database is kept up-to-date by process
called registration
2 Mobile Selects
Mobile recognizes page and sends back Strongest
acknowledgment to the strongest cell
System assigns a voice channel to the
mobile
• System sends voice channel assignment to Cell pilot strength
mobile on control channel
• mobile acknowledges and jumps to the
Ring
assigned voice channel 3,4 Ring Hi Mom!
Phone rings and mobile subscriber Ring
answers call
• conversation begins
CDMA Incoming Call Delivery Scenario
General Page Message
Page Response Message (PROBING)

BTS
Base Station Acknowledgment Order
Paging Channel Assignment Message Access

Channel Channel
Continuous frames of all 000’s
Traffic Channel Preamble: Frames of 000’s

Forward Reverse
Traffic Traffic
Channel Mobile Station Acknowledgment Order Channel
Service Connect Message
Service Connect Complete Message
The Call is now officially Established!

CDMA Handoff Process
The handset pilot searcher notices energy from
another sector or BTS, meeting any of these criteria:
•New Pilot Stronger Ec/Io than T_Add
•Candidate Pilot just got T_Comp better than an ac tive
•Old Pilot stayed below T_Drop for T_Tdrop time
BTS
Pilot Strength Measurement Message

•Selector arranges channel elements/Walsh codes in requested
Forward sectors and begins using them, too. Reverse
Traffic Traffic
Extended Handoff Direction Message
Channel Channel
Mobile Station Acknowledgment Order
•Handset verifies which assigned PNs it can now hear.
Handoff Completion Message
Neighbor List Update Messasge
Mobile Station Acknowledgment Order

The new Handoff condition is now officially Established!
Section 5
Fast
Fast Data:
Data: 1xEV-DO
1xEV-DO
MTS,
IMTS

1xEV-DO
Q 1xEV-DO is “1x Evolution, Data Only”
• Its main purpose is high speed data – up to 2.4 Mb/s fwd.
Q The EV-DO signal carries only packet data, and does not have any circuit-
switched steady channels like regular CDMA phones use
• However, it is possible to do VOIP (voice over IP) as a stream of
packets over EV-DO
Q A 1xEV-DO carrier must have its own frequency, like any CDMA carrier
• The same base station RF amplifiers and antennas can
simultaneously carry CDMA and EV-DO signals
Q The EV-DO signal carries information to users in 1/600 second
installments called “slots”
• Each slot belongs to one user but many users can be receiving their
data simultaneously in streams of intermixed slots
Q Current EV-DO Rev. 0 subscribers typically get 400-600 kb/s fwd., 150
kb/s reverse (limited mainly by backhaul constraints)
Q 1xEV-DO Rev. A (late 2006) promises 3.1 Mb/s fwd., 1.8 Mb/s rev., and
even lower latency for VOIP/PTT/Multimedia applications

1xEV-DO is a “Fat Pipe” with Fast Switching
1xEV-DO compared to regular CDMA
IS-95 AND 1xRTT
Q IS-95 and 1xRTT Many users’ simultaneous forward
• many simultaneous users, each has and reverse traffic channels
steady forward and reverse traffic PILOT
SYNC
W0
W32
channels PAGING W1
F-FCH1 W17
• transmissions arranged, requested, F-FCH2 W25
confirmed by layer-3 messages – with F-FCH3 W41
some delay…… F-SCH W3

Q 1xEV-DO -- Very Different: BTS
F-FCH4 W53
• Forward Link goes to one user at a
time – like TDMA!
• users are rapidly time-multiplexed, in
1/600 second slots -- each receives his ATs 1xEV-DO AP
fair share of available sector time (Access Terminals) (Access Point)
• instant preference is given to a user 1xEV-DO Forward Link

with ideal receiving conditions, to
maximize average throughput
• transmissions are arranged and
requested via steady MAC-layer walsh AP
streams – very immediate!

Power Management of 1xEV-DO vs. 1xRTT
IS-95: VARIABLE POWER

POWER MANAGEMENT TO MAINTAIN USER FER
Maximum Sector Transmit Power
Q IS-95 and 1xRTT:
8
• sectors adjust each user’s 6
7
5
channel power to maintain a 5
5
4
power
preset target FER 2
3
User 1
Q 1xEV-DO IS-856: PAGING
SYNC
• sectors always operate at PILOT

time
maximum power
• sector output is time- 1xEV-DO: MAX POWER ALWAYS,
DATA RATE OPTIMIZED
multiplexed, with only one
user served at any instant
• The transmission data rate is power
set to the maximum speed
the user can receive at that
moment
time

Section 6
Wireless
Wireless System
System Growth
Growth
and
and Performance
Performance Optimization
Optimization
MTS,
IMTS

Keeping Up with User Demand
Daily Total System MOU
MOU
300000
Daily Total System MOU
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
Date
As a wireless system grows, the operator must carefully track the traffic
loading on every element of the network. New equipment must be
ordered and installed before the system is overrun with excessive
demand. In some cases, additional base stations are required.
The figure above shows the traffic growth on a typical PCS system from the
initial commercial launch through the first summer of operation.
A Game of Avoiding Extremes
The traffic engineer must walk a fine line

between two problems:
Q Overdimensioning
• too much cost
• insufficient resources to construct
• traffic revenue is too low to
support costs
• very poor economic efficiency!
Q Underdimensioning
• blocking
• poor technical performance
(interference)
• capacity for billable revenue is low
• revenue is low due to poor quality
• users unhappy, cancel service
• very poor economic efficiency!

Principles of Traffic Engineering
Blocking Probability / Grade of Service
Q Blocking is inability to get a circuit when one is needed
Q Probability of Blocking is the likelihood that blocking will
happen
Q In principle, blocking can occur anywhere in a wireless system:
• not enough radios, the cell is full
• not enough paths between cell site and switch
• not enough paths through the switching complex
• not enough trunks from switch to PSTN
Q Blocking probability is usually Typical Wireless System
expressed as a percentage Design Blocking Probabilities
using a “shorthand” notation: PSTN Office
• P.02 is 2% probability, etc. Cell
• Blocking probability sometimes Cell
is called “Grade Of Service” P.005

Cell
DMS-MTX
Q Most blocking in cellular systems
occurs at the radio level. P.02
• P.02 is a common goal at the P.001 P.005
radio level in a system
Wireless System Performance Optimization
Q Key Performance Indicators and Objectives

• Dropped Calls, Access Failures, system BER, FER
• Handoff Activity Levels
• Capacity and Blocking
Q Success comes from managing resources
• Handoff
– Thresholds properly set
– Neighbor lists well-optimized
• RF Coverage: “holes” vs. excessive overlap
• PN or Frequency Planning
• Hardware defects: watch statistics for clues

Section 7
The
The Role
Role of
of Field
Field Tools
Tools
MTS,
IMTS

The Department Store Chain with a Problem
Q Wireless Systems are large and complex, like a large business

such as a department store chain
Q Assessing performance from the inside is difficult due to the
complexity of the process and the isolation of upper management
and directors from day-to-day street-level customer experiences
Q To find out how things really are going, savvy management will
commission “test shoppers” to find out how customers are treated
and identify the problems which are driving customers away
Q In a wireless system, the “test shoppers” are field data collection
and analysis tools such as those provided by Grayson Wireless,
Agilent, and others

Field Tools to Optimize System Performance
Q Field Tools:
• Mobile Handsets (“debug” modes)
• Grayson’s Wireless Measurement
Instrument and Inspector™
– hardware platform: multiple receivers,
detector/decoders
– data capture, display, and real-time
analysis of call flow data
• Post-processing Tools
– more detailed display, analysis, and
processing
• Spectrum Monitoring Tools
• Service Comparison Tools

Field Tools Provide Insight into Problems
Q When a commercial air flight
crashes, NTSB investigators devote Reconstructing Failed Call Events
superhuman effort to recovering the
flight recorders
• Flight Data Recorder shows the
technical settings during the
event
• Cockpit Voice Recorder reveals
sounds and crew conversation
during the event
Q Wireless field tools provide the same
functions
• Temporal Analyzers provide
signal data during the event
• Message Log Files capture the
messaging between the phone
and the system leading up to the
failure
• These resources usually give BTS
enough solid clues to identify the
cause of the problem

Appendix
Recommended
Recommended References
References
Books
Books -- Websites
Websites

Wireless Bibliography
“3G Wireless Demystified” by Lawrence Harte, Richard Levine, and Roman Kitka
488pp. Paperback, 2001 McGraw Hill, ISSBN 0-07-136301-7 $50. For both non-
technical and technical readers. An excellent starting point for understanding all the
major technologies and the whole 3G movement. Comfortable plain-language
explanations of all the 2G and 3G air interfaces, yet including very succinct,
complete, and rigorously correct technical details. You will still want to read books
at a deeper technical level in your chosen technology, and may sometimes turn to
the applicable standards for finer details, but this book will give you what you won’t
find elsewhere -- how everything relates in the big picture, and probably everything
you care to know about technologies other than your own.
“Wireless Telecom FAQs” by Clint Smith, 2001 McGraw Hill, ISBN 0-07-134102-1.
Succint, lucid explanations of telecom terms in both wireless and landline
technologies. Includes cellular architecture, AMPS, GSM, TDMA, iDEN, CDMA.
Very thorough coverage; an excellent reference for new technical people or anyone
wishing for clear explanations of wireless terms.
"Wireless Network Evolution 2G to 3G" by Vijay K. Garg. 764pp. 2002 Prentice-Hall,

Inc. ISBN 0-13-028077-1. $80. Excellent technical tutorial and reference. The most
complete and comprehensive technical detail seen in a single text on all these
technologies: IS-95 2G CDMA, CDMA2000 3G CDMA, UMTS/WCDMA, Bluetooth,
WLAN standards (802.11a, b, WILAN). Includes good foundation information on
CDMA air interface traffic capacity, CDMA system design and optimization, and
wireless IP operations. Excellent level of operational detail for IS-95 systems
operating today as well as thorough explanations of 2.5G and 3G enhancements.

Web Links and Downloadable Resources
Scott Baxter: http://www.howcdmaworks.com
Latest versions of all courses are downloadable.
Category - Username - Password
Intro - (none required) - (none required)
RF/CDMA/Performance - shannon - hertz
3G - generation - third
Grayson - telecom - allen
Agilent - nitro - viper
Dr. Ernest Simo’s Space2000: http://www.cdmaonline.com/ and http://www.3Gonline.com/
CDG: http://www.cdg.org (check out the digivents multimedia viewable sessions)

The IS-95 and IS-2000 CDMA trade marketing webside, CDMA cheerleaders.
GSM: http://www.gsmworld.com
The GSM Association website. Worldwide GSM marketing cheerleaders but also includes some
excellent GSM and GPRS technical overview whitepapers and documents; latest user figures.
UWCC: http://www.uwcc.com
The IS-136 TDMA trade marketing website, TDMA cheerleaders.
RCR News: http://www.rcrnews.com

Wireless Industry trade publication - regulatory, technical, business, marketing news.
Subscribers can access text archives of past articles; very handy in researching events.
Wireless Week: http://www.wirelessweek.com

Wireless Industry trade publication - regulatory, technical, business, marketing news.

More Web Links
3GPP: http://www.3gpp.org/
The operators’ harmonization group concerned mainly with ETSI-related standards
3GPP2: http://www.3gpp2.org/
The operators’ harmonization group concerned mainly with IS-95-derived CDMA standards
ITU: http://www.itu.int/imt/
ETSI: http://www.etsi.fr/
UMTS forum: http://www.umts-forum.org/
GSM MoU: http://www.gsmworld.com/
TIA: http://www.tiaonline.org/
T1: http://www.t1.org/
ARIB: http://www.arib.or.jp/arib/english/index.html
TTC: http://www.ttc.or.jp/
TTA: http://www.tta.or.kr/
ETRI: http://www.etri.re.kr/
RAST: http://www.rast.etsi.fi/

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The

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 1

Radio has been around

LF HF VHF UHF MW IR UV XRAY

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 2

Q Early electronic communication was carried

Submarine Cable Installation Field Telegraphy

Alexander Graham Bell and his phone

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 5

Short Wave -- International Broadcast -- Amateur CB

VHF LOW Band VHF TV 2-6 FM VHF VHF TV 7-13

Broadcasting Land-Mobile Aeronautical Mobile Telephony

Q Early attempts at “mobile telephone”

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 7

Uplink Frequencies Downlink Frequencies

824 835 845 849

A B Paging, ESMR, etc. A B

Frequencies used by “A” Cellular Operator

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 8

Q By 1994, US cellular systems were seriously

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 9

1850 1910 Frequency, MHz 1930 1990

Q The PCS spectrum was

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 10

1850 1910 Frequency, MHz 1930 1990

Q In 1996, Blocks C, D, E, and F Basic Trading Areas (BTAs)

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 11

Q Commercial telegraphy gave birth to telephony, then died

Land Mobile Radio Extinction?

Wireless Voice and IP Data

Commercial Switched Telephony Extinction?

Commercial Telegraphy Extinction!

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 13

Analog IDEN IDEN

Q GSM is by far the dominant global technology

Q Total Worldwide Wireless customers surpassed total worldwide landline

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 16

One giant base station

A wireless system utilizes a large

HLR Home Location Register

PSTN Mobile Telephone

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 20

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 21

Q Each call involves joining a

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 22

Q The HLR (Home Location Register) is

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 23

Q When a subscriber receives an

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 24

Q The Base Station Controller

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 25

Q Base Stations provide the

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 26

BTS Q A Base station may be set up in various

Q A “carrier” is one pair of radio signals used to carry calls

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 28

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 29

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 30

Q Multiple Access is the

December, 2005 101v3.0 Introduction to Wireless © 2005 Scott Baxter 101 - 31

FDMA Frequency Division Multiple

Time Division Multiple Access