LIVE SOUND

Tim Price FdSc 2A 15th January 2010

D4: LIVE SOUND ENGINEERING.. THEORY

The role of an audio engineer is no longer exclusive to the recording studio. The skill set of a modern engineer extends
to video, radio, graphics and many more. One of the key growth areas for finding employment opportunities in the
sector, is that of live sound engineering.

The theory of live sound is one which combines the two things present in most
musical engineering, technical ability and intuition. Each one is as important as
the other, a live sound engineer has to be able to be a master of both their
equipment/set up, and of the live sound mix which can differ vastly from an in
studio mix, applying different techniques and principles.

At the core of the live sound set up are 2 things, the mixing desk and the
speaker system/rig. The applications of the mixing desk in a live situation
show many differences compared to its use in a studio, even in the earliest
stages such as choosing the type of desk! For instance, in most instances a
live engineer would lean towards using a digital mixing desk as apposed to the
generally more desired analogue desk in the studio situation. One of the prime
reasons for this is that a digital desk can contain audio processing equipment
within its interface, such as gating and compression. These are available at
the touch of a button, as apposed to the outboard equipment used in a stu- ‘Live in Cotgrave...’
dio. This feature can help save valuable time when mixing a live event, this An image capturing the digital
yamaha desk, courtesy of Merlin
example shows one of many advantages of using a digital desk for live. PA’s live sound engineers.

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 As well as there being 2 types of mixing desks, in the live sound sector
there are 2 main uses for a desk. The most obvious is for bringing all the
signals to the main speakers and creating the mix, this is known as front of EM LIVE LOUNGE
house (FOH). The other is for stage monitoring, creating a mix or separate
mixes for the musicians particular taste(s). At bigger events, often there are 2
desks in play, one for the front of house and one specifically for the on stage
monitoring.

FOH mixers
Front of house mixers usually come with a set number of input channels;
12, 16, 24, 32, 40 and 48 channels are what is usually found, specialized
mixers used for bigger rigs can be sizably larger. The use of this large num-
ber of channels can range from the close micing of a drum kit and guitar
amps, to the music used between acts and pre recorded tracks used in a
set. Another use for having so many channels is if a show with many acts on
the bill is taking place, and bands settings need to be set. However, with the
advancement of digital desks with recall systems and flying fades, needing
to manually save a live mix has almost become a thing of the past.
The features on a mixing console vary with the expense of the desk, but
the regular features include:

- Input sockets (typically XLRs for mic and DI signals)
- Phantom power, phase inversion (important for sorting out phase issues in
a live mix, especially is the mix contains identical signals, e.g. the mix and
line signals from a bass guitar)
- Pad (reduces the signal by a set amount, typically -10db, this is useful for
controlling over loud signals, such as a over eager guitarists amp)
- Gain control (to set each signal at a sensible level before mixing)
- Equalisation (this comes on all desks, both live and studio based, however
in live the tendency is to use an external graphic Eq in order to meticulously
notch out those problem frequencies)
- High and Low pass filters
- Panning
- Auxiliary send (used for effects and vastly used later for the monitor desks

One feature of most, if not all desks, that is utilised greatly in live sound
ELECTRIC MAYHEM:
are the sub group faders. This means that once a sub mix (e.g. the drum kit)
is mixed, the faders can be assigned to a sub group with a singular fader to LIVE LOUNGE
bring the whole mixed up or down as one. This is a great time saving device Pictures from group E1’s
live lounge session
when mixing on your feet! Also on more sophisticated desks, other groups recording ...
such as solo and mute groups are present so certain parts
.1 - Setting up the drums
can be muted together if needs be.
.2 - Crate guitar amp
FOH & Monitor Monitor Mixes.
.3 - Neve VR analogue
mixing desks In a smaller set up, the monitor mixes are usually ! mixing desk
done from using the Aux sends. This will work but
there are not usually enough of these to create a

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“THE MONITOR SET UP IS MORE PRONE TO
FEEDBACK..
...so several types of eq may be used” ‘live sound manual’

comprehensive monitor mix, this is generally because if there

are 4 aux’s on a small desk, 3 and 4 will be dedicated to using
effects, and therefore will be set as ‘post-fader’.

Whilst there are many large scale gigs around, so the majority
Extra out
of mixers manufactured and sold are of a budget and mid board equipment
ranged level. Therefore dedicated monitor desks are quite - a multi-band
compressor in
rare. Because the application of these desks are different, they
action
obviously have difference features. One thing to note is that
they contain many auxiliary sends, enough to house one mix for each
musician, there are also many groups, usually ranging from 8 to 24.
As well as these advanced features, monitor mixes also contain many controls identical so the FOH desks, thought
they can still often be used in a different manner. These features include: Phantom power, PFL/AFL, FX sends and
returns (used for effects such as ‘vanity’ reverb), and of course, Eq. On monitor set ups, Eq are used more because it
is more prone to feedback, being closer to the microphones on stage.

Power amps
These are essential to a live sound set up, they work as power converters as the signals in the PA up to the point of
the power amps are too ‘lightweight’ in current and voltage for the speaker system to recognize and the sound to be
loud enough for a gig. They work the same way as pre-amps in the actual mixing desk.
The way a power amp works is that the currents signal ‘swing’ increased to raise it to the optimum level for the
speakers, and amplifiers voltage swing can be elevated by between 10 and 50 times (compared to the line levels
which can be as low as 2 volts). Power amps have many classes (A through to H) and generally come with balanced
XLR inputs.

Signal & Effects Processing

Processes to effect the live sound signals come both internally in the mixing desk and also as outboard equipment.
This is usually referred as the FX rack. These effects can used to control, clean up, blend and add to a live mix,
including compression, gating, reverbs, equalisation and delay, these processors are connected to the desk using
auxiliary sends or channel inserts...

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 “Gating can clean up the FOH sound,
stopping unnecessary spil . .” ‘live sound manual’
EQ - This comes in different, versatile forms. From the simple
3-band eq’s found on budget mixing desks with hi, mid and
low eq pots, to the more elaborate forms such as graphic and
parametric.
Graphic equalisation is generally found when using monitors,
this is because, due to the fact that monitors are near to, and
have so many mics pointing towards them, the eq needs to be
very advanced in order to notch out those problem frequen-
cies. It is called a graphic eq because the notches used give u
AN EXAMPLE OF MERLIN PA’S an accurate representation of the curve that is formed when
SET-UP IN ACTION! changing the frequencies, they generally have 28 to 31 bands.
GEQs are usually outboard equipment, as they need to be big
enough to give quick access.
Parametric equalisation is the most powerful form of Eq. This is because not only will it allow an engineer to notch out
those pesky problem frequencies, but because it contains a ‘Q’ control, this helps control the spread of a frequency
peak, this means that one is able to precisely effect the narrowest of areas if needs be.
Now that most desks used in live are digital, any engineers now use the built-in equalisation features that come
with the more high end models. These are usually coupled with a digital representation of the Eq. The advantages of
using digital as apposed to G and PEQs are that the eq’s can in theory be perfectly matched channel by channel, and
these settings can be saved in an internal system. Also, in higher end systems, one is
able to see a visual of the sound coming through the channel, therefore seeing
which problem frequencies to notch out and how they are being affected in real
time.
Effects - such as reverb and delay can be found as both internal, and outboard
equipment. These are essential to create a cohesive mix and comes even in most
budget mixers big enough to put on a gig. It can add different kinds of space to a
mix, pushing instruments back and forward in a mix, and generally blending the
sounds together as a whole, especially in outdoor events, where there is nothing for
the sound to bounce off. Reverb is generally coupled with some kind of Eq on an
Aux send channel, this can help to brighten the sound of a room artificially.
Delay, or echo, has been used in different forms in live sound since rock n roll
slap-back in the mid 50s. It has since been used on almost everything to create its
own sense of space and ambience. Most delays, be it outboard or internal, runs
once again through an aux send, and comes with features like delay time, decay
and usually a tap tempo button to adjust the speed.
Gates & compressors - these are essential in a live sound set up. Gates help to
cut out spill on ‘single hit’ channels such as the snare and sometimes backing vo-
cals, this helps cutout spill which could otherwise make a mix seem ‘muddy’. They
work by setting a volume threshold at which the sound will be let through when
reached. Gates can come in outboard or onboard formats, and once again can be
useful as onboard equipment because visual representation can be a feature on
higher end desks. A more advanced feature on some gates is ‘side-chain’, this
means the gate can be control by things such as Eq, so instead of just a volume
threshold, the gate can be worked by a certain frequency (e.g. for feedback).

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Compressors are also very important pieces of equipment in a live sound set up. It is essential for controlling sounds,
tightening them up and making them more ‘punchy’. Compression can also be used to make sounds louder, bringing
up the quieter parts of the sound and raising it as a whole to make it more useable in a mix (this could be useful on
quieter instruments such as flutes). Another example of this type of compression being useful is in vocals, most vo-
calist, however experienced, have unexpected jumps of volume in their singing, so compression is pretty much the
only way to deal with this. Compressors work in a similar way to gates. They have a threshold which sets the level
above which the compression takes effect. The ratio tells the compressor how abruptly it will work (if a compressor is
above around 15:1 it becomes a limiter), and it features attack and release functions, to dictate how fast the
compressor will work and how quickly it will cease to have an
effect. Also, more advanced compressors again feature side-
chain functions.

Microphones
There are many kinds of microphones used in audio engineer-
ing. In live, those mics which are robust and durable are gen-
erally favoured for obvious reasons. The type of microphones
that are used in live work are mostly dynamic mics. The two
main reasons for this is because they posses the durability
previously mentioned (the other main type, condenser mics,
are quite delicate and can be damaged easily if for instance
they are used on a tour) and because they have a very direc-
tional quality, perfect for close micing which is used for the most part in live as the engineer is usually dealing with
micing guitar amps, kick/snare drums and of course vocals. Condenser mics are used, but only when needs be, such
as with drum overhead micing, where a bigger audio spread is needed. Mics with switchable polar patterns are also
desirable in live sound work. An example of this is using a figure of 8 pattern, if two vocalists were using the same
microphone, this pattern is equally sensitive at the front
and back of the mic.

“A mics response pattern

changes as soon as someone
picks it up, even if it’s designed to
be handheld. . ” ‘live sound manual’

Speaker Systems
The speakers are the face of a PA system, they are
final part in puzzle that is live sound. This means they
have to be of a high quality, carefully matched to the
power amps to create the best sound for the audi-
ence. A speaker can be broken down into individual
parts. The cabinet, which encloses the speaker as a
whole, this can be shaped to emit the sound in a cer-
tain ways, usually to put out the best sound of
course! These cabs, like the microphones used in live
are built very solidly. This shows a vast difference to their studio equivalents, which are often catered much more to-
wards being aesthetically pleasing or compact.
Inside this casing lies the heart of the speaker, usually referred to as the drive-unit.

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A drive unit, or driver, is a transducer like that found in a microphone, but with the difference that it works in reverse,
this means it takes electrical currents and transforms it into sound waves. Like in microphones, the most commonly
used transducer using moving coil principles (just like dynamic mics!), this is again because they are the most reliable
and economic. The diaphragm in a speaker is what the coil connects to, it used usually made from a paper pulp and
vibrates when the signal is passed through it. Most speakers contain two of these diaphragms, both held lightly in
place by a metal chassis. One for bass frequencies (which takes its name from this ‘chassis’) and another for the
higher range, referred to as ‘tweeters’, these tweeters require a light but firmer cone. Basically, bass frequencies
equals more vibration, which equals a bigger cone needed to cope with this.
The driver units are the real ‘worker’ parts of the PA system. For most systems, a singular driver unit can cover a
chunk of audible range, around 3 octaves worth. Most high quality sound systems use multiple drivers to cover the
10 to 12 octaves that are present in human hearing, these are divided up by means of a ‘crossover’.

“FOR MANY ARTISTS & AUDIENCE MEMBERS, THE SPEAKER CABS ARE THE PA!”
‘live sound manual’

Common techniques & practices

Voicing the PA - Before the band or act arrives to soundcheck, a common practice is to make sure the PA sound
good on its own, this is known as ‘voicing’ the PA. This is generally done by playing a song (it helps if you know it
well!) and blast it out through the speakers to make sure is sounds correct. This is a good way of sorting out the FOH
sound even before the audio signals are put in place, and can be used to identify problem frequencies in the room.
This way, when the band is in place, any problems that are occurring are more likely to be a problem with the sound
behind the PA, such as mic positions.

Pinking the room - Pinking is the process in which live sound engineers blast ‘pink noise’ through the PA system
at a high volume level. Whilst the well known ‘white noise’ is a concoction of every frequency, its pink equivalent is a
blast of random frequencies. This helps to identify problem frequencies in the pre-sound check.

RT60 management - RT60 is a reference to how long the reverb takes to decay below 60 decibels. For RT60
management in live sound, a loud noise is produced and the RT60 time calculated. This helps the engineers figure
out how much natural reverb is present in the room, and therefore how much artificial reverb to add later.

Inverse square law - Testing this process is much more relevant when mixing at bigger venues. The inverse
square law states that a quantities size is directly proportional to the distance it has travelled. This helps to decipher
how loud the PA should be, depending on how far the sound has to travel.

Mic placement - Mic placement is important as a practice, it helps to improve the mix and save time! Many live
engineers spend ours Eq’ing channels during soundcheck, when the simplest solution could be to spend more time
on getting the best direct sound with placing the mic on the sound source.

Avoiding monitor feedback - As mentioned earlier, because the on stage monitors are very near to, or have mi-
crophones pointing at them regularly, there is a tendency for feedback to occur. Therefore careful Eq using a graphic
or ideally a parametric eq, to identify the problem frequencies in the monitor mix before working on the FOH sound.

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