Geoderma 114 (2003) 65 – 80

www.elsevier.com/locate/geoderma

Organic and inorganic carbon in soils of semiarid

regions: a case study from the Guadix–Baza basin
(Southeast Spain)
José L. Dı́az-Hernández a,*, Enrique Barahona Fernández b,
José Linares González b
a
Centro de Investigaciones Agrarias, Camino de Purchil s/n, Aptdo. 2027, 18080 Granada, Spain
b
Estación Experimental del Zaidı́n, CSIC, c/Profesor Albareda nj 1, 18080 Granada, Spain
Received 10 October 2001; received in revised form 23 October 2002; accepted 8 November 2002

Abstract

Intramontane sedimentary basins are an important landscape component for the evaluation of soil
carbon stored in semiarid regions with Mediterranean climate. We determined the soil organic and
inorganic carbon (SOC and SIC) stored at various depths in 81 profiles sampled specifically in one such
basin (3317 km2) located in Southeast Spain. Sampling reached down to 2.0 – 4.0 m and the samples
were analysed by conventional methods. The mean SOC content for a 2.0-m depth column was 7.8 kg
m 2, and the mean SIC content (calcite plus dolomite) was 134.4 kg m 2, 23% of total SOC contents
and 51% of total SIC contents in the 2.0-m column were found in the second meter. The figures for SIC
are considerably higher than those reported in other evaluations for semiarid regions.
D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Calcareous soils; Caliches; Deep profiles; Late Pleistocene; Organic and inorganic carbon; Soil carbon
storage

1. Introduction

The quantification of terrestrial carbon pools is essential for the modelling of carbon
fluxes (Eswaran et al., 2000). Recent estimates of soil organic carbon (SOC) give values of
1500 –1600 Pg for the first meter. Some of the amounts reported are: 1576 Pg (Eswaran et
al., 1993), 1462 –1548 Pg (Batjes, 1996) and 1502 Pg (Jobággy and Jackson, 2000). There

* Corresponding author. Agroalimentarya y Pesquera, Tecnologia y Formacion, Apartado de Correos 2027,

18071 Granada, Spain. Tel.: +34-958-267311; fax: +34-958-258510.
E-mail address: josel.diaz@juntadeandalucia.es (J.L. Dı́az-Hernández).

0016-7061/02/$ - see front matter D 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0016-7061(02)00342-7
66 J.L. Dı́az-Hernández et al. / Geoderma 114 (2003) 65–80

is less agreement on the amount of SOC for depths below 1.0 m. Thus, Batjes (1996)
provides SOC values of 2376 –2456 Pg to a depth of 2.0 m, while Jobággy and Jackson
(2000) give a value of 1993 Pg to 2.0 m and 2344 Pg SOC to 3.0 m.
The estimate of soil inorganic carbon (SIC) at global level is as yet tentative. The
reported values range from 695 – 748 Pg (Batjes, 1996) to 1738 Pg (Eswaran et al., 1995).
Other estimations are: 780 – 930 Pg (Schlesinger, 1982) and 720 Pg (Sombroek et al.,
1993). A later report (Eswaran et al., 2000) gives a value of 940 Pg for the global SIC.
According to these authors, most of the SIC stocks are found under arid (77.8%), semiarid
(14.2%) and Mediterranean (5.4%) conditions.
Within the Mediterranean area, SIC is frequently present in soils as primary carbonates
(carbonatic rock fragments < 2 mm, including dolomite) and also as secondary calcium
carbonate in calcic and petrocalcic horizons. The genesis of these soils was discussed in
detail by Ruellan (1971) and Vogt (1984). In our area, this type of horizons is abundant in
piedmont plains occurring in intramontane sedimentary basins, but when petrocalcic
horizons are present, many of the pedons sampled for taxonomic purposes are not suitable
for establishing deep SIC (and SOC) profiles since only a few decimeters of the indurated
layer can be sampled. Thus, an increase in the number of cases studied would be useful in
this respect.
The aims of this study were:

 to gather further data on deep carbonate profiles, and

 to obtain an average value of the SOC and SIC stored in a stretch of Mediterranean
landscape large enough to be considered adequate as a sample case for carbon
evaluation in the Mediterranean area.

2. Materials

2.1. Geological setting

The Guadix – Baza basin is located in the southeast of the Iberian Peninsula (Fig. 1).
The area of this study occupies about 3500 km2, and developed as an endorheic depression
from the Late Neogene to the Late Pleistocene (Vera, 1970; Peña, 1985; Garcı́a Aguilar
and Martı́n, 2000). During this period, the basin was filled with alluvial and lacustrine
materials whose composition varies zonally depending on the nature of source materials.
Those from the Betic ranges (Sierra Nevada, Sierras de Baza and Estancias) are rich in
quartzite, micaschist and dolomite, while those from the Subbetic ranges (Sierras de
Castril, La Sagra, Orce and others) are rich in limestone. Uplifting, tilting and faulting
during the Pleistocene facilitated the capture of the internal drainage network by a tributary
of the Guadalquivir river.

2.2. Geomorphology and soils

Changes in the regional base level, as well as climatic changes during the Pleistocene,
resulted in the modelling of the landscape into five main geomorphological units (Dı́az
 J.L. Dı́az-Hernández et al. / Geoderma 114 (2003) 65–80 67

Fig. 1. Geomorphological map of Guadix – Baza basin. Limits approximately represent the watershed limit.
68 J.L. Dı́az-Hernández et al. / Geoderma 114 (2003) 65–80

Hernández, 1998). These units (see Fig. 1) are, in decreasing order by altitude, the
following.
S1: the top surface, consisting of broad relics of the ancient basin floor and fan-
piedmonts formed along the mountain fronts. This surface, gently sloping towards the
centre of the basin, is capped by caliche soils with thick petrocalcic horizons. The soils are
Petric Calcisols and Chromic Luvisols (FAO –UNESCO, 1988).
S2: a second series of fan-piedmont surfaces encroaching on the previous one. The
petrocalcic horizons are less developed than in S1. The dominant soils are Petric and
Haplic Calcisols (FAO – UNESCO, 1988).
S3: a third planation surface formed by the dissection of S2. Petrocalcic horizons
are less frequent and therefore Haplic Calcisols are more abundant than Petric
Calcisols.
S4: densely gullied land with Gypsic, Calcaric and Eutric Regosols, mostly loamy.
S5: recent fluvial valleys whose soils are Calcaric Fluvisols, mostly sandy.
Some units are difficult to classify in regard to their genesis and relative age, and have
been pooled together and labelled as ‘‘others’’ (S6). The soils in this unit are Petric and
Haplic Calcisols and Chromic and Calcic Luvisols.
The age of surfaces S1 and S2 is still a matter of discussion, but can be
roughly estimated to be between that of ‘‘La Solana del Zamborino’’ (a paleon-
tological and archaeological site, which is about 300 ky BP (Ruiz Bustos, 1997))
and that of the oldest Alicún travertine (in Fardes river valley), dated at 150 ky
BP by U/Th (Dı́az Hernández et al., 2000). The landscape has remained largely
unchanged since the Solutrean –Aurignacian (Casas Morales, 1949), about 20 ky
BP.

2.3. Climate

The climate is semiarid, hot in summer, with frequent frosts in winter. The mean annual
temperature is 15 jC. Mean annual precipitation is about 300 mm in the central part, and
about 400 mm in the higher fans located along the mountain fronts (MAPA, 1989).
Rainfall occurs mainly during the winter months, while in summer, rain is scarce and falls
in a few, short but frequently violent storms.

2.4. Vegetation and use

Two mesomediterranean series were identified in this zone (Sanz Toro, 1995): Quercus
coccifera (Rhamno lycioidi – Querceto cocciferae sigmetum, Rivas Martı́nez, 1987) and
Quercus rotundifolia (Paeonio coriaceae –Querceto rotundifoliae sigmetum, Rivas Martı́-
nez, 1987).
There are only vestiges of the potential communities, due to anthropogenic factors.
Serial shrubs are mainly formed by Stipa tenacissima with Rosmarinus, Thymus, Phlomis,
etc. (25%). Dry farming crops are extensive in this landscape (50%). Other units are
forests of Pinus halepensis and Quercus ilex (7%), irrigated lands in the bottom of
principal valleys (11%), and ‘‘ramblas’’ (wadis) devoid of vegetation (based on MAPA,
1986).
 J.L. Dı́az-Hernández et al. / Geoderma 114 (2003) 65–80 69

3. Methods

To obtain deep profiles, we made use of natural scarps, ravines or deep man made
trenches or pits. Nevertheless, we tried to distribute the sampling points as evenly as
possible to simulate a probabilistic sampling. For this purpose, the area was subdivided
into square cells of 10  10 km in side and one or two sites were selected per cell, in as
impartial a manner as practical. We did not attempt of stratifying the sampling by soil map
units as the soil maps available did not have a suitable scale. Nevertheless, the geo-
morphological units were a good guide as they are very clearly expressed and closely
related to soil distribution.
In total, 81 sites were sampled (Fig. 1). The number of pits taken in each geo-
morphological unit were: 32 (S1), 18 (S2), 3 (S3), 11 (S4), 9 (S5), 8 (S6). The exposures
were cleaned to revel fresh material, and samples were taken at 20-cm depth intervals
down to a depth ranging from 1.20 to 4.0 m. The thickness of the sampled section was
over 2.0 m in most cases. The soil types found were (FAO – UNESCO, 1988) 8 Fluvisols,
17 Regosols, 52 Calcisols and 4 Luvisols. We believe that, given the type of sampling
made, these figures reflect the frequency of soil types within the area.
The samples were air dried, rolled and sieved to separate the fine earth (< 2 mm). The
gravels were weighted and stored separately. Indurated petrocalcic horizons were stored in
bulk and the fine matrix was obtained in the laboratory by drilling between gravel
fragments.
Organic carbon was determined in the fine earth by wet oxidation (Walkley– Black
method). The CaCO3 equivalent was determined by a manometric method. Calcite and
dolomite contents were obtained from the CaCO3 equivalent and the peak height ratios
found in the XRD powder diagrams.
Mass fractions of SOC and SIC determined in the fine earth of individual samples were
converted into total amounts contained in a soil column of unit area by taking into account
layer thickness, bulk densities of cemented caliches and fine earth, and correction to allow
for the presence of coarse fragments (Cm). Bulk densities were determined by coating
clods and caliche fragments with saran resin (SCS –USDA, 1967).
The fine earth fraction (Cm coefficient, SCS –USDA, 1967) was calculated by the
weight of gravel separated by sieving, in non-cemented samples, and by the volume
of gravels embedded in cemented horizons, which was determined by image analysis
of polished cross-sections. Soil texture was determined by the Robinson pipette
method.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. Distribution in depth

4.1.1. Organic carbon

The average organic carbon distribution with depth (Fig. 2) is similar in all
geomorphic units, decreasing rapidly with increasing depth tending to near-zero
values below 0.80 – 1.20 m.
70 J.L. Dı́az-Hernández et al. / Geoderma 114 (2003) 65–80

Fig. 2. Mean value curves for organic carbon distribution in depth per geomorphic unit.
 J.L. Dı́az-Hernández et al. / Geoderma 114 (2003) 65–80 71

A feature common to units S1 and S2 is the presence of individual samples with

relatively high carbon contents down to 0.60– 0.80-m depth or even deeper. This can be
explained by the frequent occurrence of indurated caliches within this depth range. The
impedance of caliches to rooting frequently results in a root enrichment on this contact
causing organic matter enrichment after root decay.
The organic carbon content at the soil surface in unit S4 (badlands) is clearly lower
(0.9%) than in units S1, S2 and S3, and very low values (0.2 – 0.25%) are reached at
shallow depth (0.40 m).
The distribution curve of unit S5 (alluvial land) shows the irregularities and relatively
high carbon contents (around 0.4%) within 1.60 m of the soil surface which are
characteristic of alluvial soils.
The curve habit of unit S6 is uncertain and displays irregularities, which can be
attributed to very high individual values. This feature is common in caliche soils, and
indicates the mixed character of the unit.

4.1.2. Inorganic carbon

Accumulation of carbonates as calcic or petrocalcic horizons is frequent in old
planation surfaces (units S1, S2 and S3), but these horizons are absent in units S4
(badlands) and S5 (alluvial land). The depth to the top limit of petrocalcic horizons is
shown in Table 1.
The petrocalcic horizon mostly occurs within 0.40 m of the soil surface, but it can
sometimes be as deep as 1.20 m. There is not a clear relationship to surface age. On the
other hand, the thickness of petrocalcic horizons (Table 2) seems to be related to surface
age. In the oldest unit (S1), the most frequent thickness is about 1.00 m, whereas in S2, it is
0.60 m and in S3, it is 0.40 m.
Fig. 3 shows the average of inorganic carbon distribution with depth. Units S1, S2 and
S3 show similar patterns of carbon distribution, characterized by:

(a) a relative decarbonatation of near-surface horizons,

(b) a well-defined bulge in carbon content at certain depths which probably results from
the frequent presence of carbonate accumulation horizons at these depths,
(c) a progressive decrease in carbon content from this maximum as depth increases.

Table 1
Depth of the upper limit of caliches
Geomorphological unit S1 S2 S3 S6 Total
Depth (cm) Class interval Number of cases
10 – 29 20 8 4 1 13
30 – 49 40 12 2 2 1 17
50 – 69 60 7 1 1 9
70 – 89 80 4 1 5
90 – 109 100 2 1 3
110 – 129 120 1 1

Mean depth 44.5 50.0 33.3 80.0

72 J.L. Dı́az-Hernández et al. / Geoderma 114 (2003) 65–80

Table 2
Thickness of caliches
Geomorphological unit S1 S2 S3 S6
Thickness (cm) Number of cases
0 – 29 1 1
30 – 49 4 4 2 1
50 – 69 4 5 1 2
70 – 89 4 1
90 – 109 5
110 – 129 6
130 – 149 1
150 – 169
170 – 189 2
190 – 209 1
210 – 229
230 – 249 2
250 – 269 1

Mean thickness 109.7 54.0 53.3 45.0

In unit S1, a second bulge at a depth of 2.20 – 2.40 m is apparent and is the result of at
least three polycyclic profiles showing maxima of carbonate accumulation within this
depth range.
The general impression obtained from the examination of these graphs is coherent with
the data summarized in Table 2. Surface S1 has the strongest and thickest carbonate
accumulation, and this thickness decreases with surface age.
In unit S4 (badlands), two distinct sets of sampling points can be clearly observed,
related to different parent lithologies. The inorganic carbon contents of one set range from
0% to 2% (siltites, lutites, sands), whereas the contents of the other range from 4% to 7%
(marls with or without gypsum). The average carbon content is around 2% and does not
show any clear trend with depth.
The same lack of trend is present in unit S5 (alluvial land).
To sum up, units S1, S2 and S3 depict patterns of inorganic carbon distribution that
evidence the progressive accumulation of CaCO3 in mature soils with age (see Tables 1
and 2). On the other hand, this process of accumulation is absent in badlands and recent
alluvial land.

4.2. Mean organic and inorganic carbon contents by soil units

4.2.1. Organic carbon

Table 3 summarizes mean carbon contents per unit area found in the different FAO –
UNESCO (1988) soil units studied. Depth intervals used to make the calculations were
selected so as to facilitate comparisons with already published data (Sombroek et al., 1993;
Batjes, 1996, among others). The profiles selected to compute total amounts of organic
carbon within a given depth had at least one datum at or below this depth. No
extrapolations were made to complete lacking data to a given depth. Data used below
 J.L. Dı́az-Hernández et al. / Geoderma 114 (2003) 65–80 73

Fig. 3. Mean value curves for inorganic carbon (without dolomite) distribution in depth per geomorphic unit.
74 J.L. Dı́az-Hernández et al. / Geoderma 114 (2003) 65–80

Table 3
Mean organic carbon contents for several depth intervals by FAO – UNESCO (1988) soil units
Soil organic carbon
Soil units 0 – 0.5 m 0 – 1.0 m 0 – 2.0 m 0 – 3.0 m 0 – 4.0 m
2 2 2 2 2
(kg m ) S.D. N (kg m ) S.D. N (kg m ) S.D. N (kg m ) S.D. N (kg m ) N
Calcaric 5.2 1.9 8 7.6 3.5 8 10.0 6.9 3 19.6 1
fluvisols
Regosols 3.5 2.0 17 5.2 2.8 17 8.6 4.6 4
Eutric 2.5 0.6 2 4.1 1.1 2 6.2 1
Gypsic 2.4 1.5 5 3.6 1.9 5
Calcaric 4.2 2.1 10 6.3 3.1 10 9.4 5.4 3
Calcisols 5.2 2.5 52 7.0 3.9 52 9.4 5.0 35 10.4 5.0 7 7.7 1
Petric 5.5 2.5 46 7.5 3.9 46 9.7 5.0 33 10.4 5.0 7 7.7 1
Haplic 2.7 1.2 6 3.3 1.0 6 4.2 1.4 2
Luvisols 2.3 1.2 4 2.9 1.2 4 3.9 2.0 2
Chromic 1.5 0.0 2 2.1 0.1 2 2.5 1
Calcic 3.2 1.1 2 3.7 1.3 2 5.3 1
S.D. = standard deviation; N = number of profiles.

2.0-m depth come from non-indurated deep subsoil materials in Fluvisols, but also from
more or less indurated materials underlying petrocalcic horizons, which were sampled to
obtain a deep carbonate profile.
Regardless of the section thickness considered, the organic carbon stored per unit area
decreases as follows:

Fluvisols > Calcisols > Regosols > Luvisols

SOC seems to be higher in calcaric, petric and calcic soil classes, which could be
accounted for by the stabilizing effect of Ca2 + ions in humic complexes.
The SOC contents agree with those reported by Batjes for equivalent soil units of the
FAO –UNESCO (1974) system.

4.2.2. Inorganic carbon

Table 4 summarizes separately the amounts of inorganic carbon contained in calcite and
dolomite. Calcite and dolomite carbon contents are of broadly similar orders of magnitude,
although dolomite carbon is, in general, less abundant. Calcite– dolomite carbon ratios can
vary within a very wide range as they depend on parent material lithology and degree of
leaching and/or calcification of soils. Both calcite C and dolomite C tend to increase
monotonically with section thickness.
Mean calcite-carbon (0– 1.0 m) ranges from 0.4 kg m 2 (Chromic Luvisols) to 70.7
kg m 2 (Petric Calcisols). The differences between soil units in Regosols and
Fluvisols are to be accounted for by regional differences in soil lithology. However,
the high SIC contents in Petric Calcisols must be a consequence of the added effect of
pedogenesis.
 J.L. Dı́az-Hernández et al. / Geoderma 114 (2003) 65–80 75

Table 4
2
Mean inorganic carbon contents (kg m ) for several depth intervals by FAO – UNESCO (1988) soil units
Calcite SIC
Soil units 0 – 0.5 m 0 – 1.0 m 0 – 2.0 m 0 – 3.0 m 0 – 4.0 m
2 2 2 2 2
(kg m ) S.D. N (kg m ) S.D. N (kg m ) S.D. N (kg m ) S.D. N (kg m ) N
Calcaric 19.4 15.3 8 37.7 29.0 8 67.0 51.0 3 140.9 1
fluvisols
Regosols 18.1 21.3 17 35.8 44.0 17 58.5 80.1 4
Eutric 0.6 0.6 2 1.0 0.8 2 0.6 1
Gypsic 8.6 12.8 5 17.5 29.3 5
Calcaric 26.4 23.3 10 51.9 48.2 10 77.8 85.9 3
Calcisols 32.2 17.1 52 66.8 38.0 52 123.4 76.6 35 234.8 165.7 7 125.8 1
Petric 34.2 17.0 46 70.7 38.3 46 125.3 77.3 33 234.8 165.7 7 125.8 1
Haplic 16.9 8.8 6 36.6 17.0 6 91.7 77.8 2
Luvisols 2.0 3.3 4 4.9 6.9 4 16.0 19.6 2
Chromic 0.2 0.2 2 0.4 0.4 2 2.1 1
Calcic 3.7 4.4 2 9.5 7.9 2 29.8 1

Dolomite SIC
Calcaric 11.6 9.8 8 20.4 11.9 8 47.1 38.5 3 109.3 1
fluvisols
Regosols 11.0 11.6 17 25.7 31.4 17 56.2 95.6 4
Eutric 0.6 0.5 2 1.0 0.7 2 1.4 1
Gypsic 13.6 3.3 5 34.3 13.7 5
Calcaric 11.8 14.3 10 26.3 38.6 10 74.5 108.2 3
Calcisols 6.8 13.9 52 20.0 36.8 52 40.1 48.2 35 64.2 62.2 7 170.4 1
Petric 7.1 14.6 46 21.4 38.8 46 41.9 49.0 33 64.2 62.2 7 170.4 1
Haplic 4.3 6.7 6 8.6 12.6 6 9.9 13.0 2
Luvisols 0.2 0.2 4 0.3 0.2 4 0.6 0.5 2
Chromic 0.1 0.1 2 0.1 0.2 2 0.3 1
Calcic 0.4 0.2 2 0.5 0.1 2 1.0 1
S.D. = standard deviation. N = number of profiles.

4.3. Carbon contents by geomorphic units

Table 5 summarizes the average organic and inorganic carbon contents found for each
geomorphic unit, as well as other values characterizing the unitsUarea and number of
profiles studied.
Although the profiles were sampled to the greatest depth possible, the results are given
(Table 6) for a standard depth of 2.0 m in order to make comparisons easier.

4.3.1. Organic carbon

The highest SOC content is that of unit S5 followed by that of unit S1. As regards unit
S5, this was to be expected since the formation and posterior burial of A horizons are a
common process in alluvial soils (Alonso-Zarza et al., 1998). This could also be the reason
for the relatively high SOC content found in the lower 1.0 – 2.0-m section of unit S1,
mostly formed by indurated CaCO3 caliches, which suggests upward growth of the soils
by alluviation, prior to CaCO3 impregnation, as a frequent process in this unit. We should
76 J.L. Dı́az-Hernández et al. / Geoderma 114 (2003) 65–80

Table 5
2
Organic and inorganic carbon contents (kg m ) in different geomorphic units of the Guadix – Baza basin
Geomorphic units
Depth S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
(m) (piedmont) (piedmont) (piedmont) (badlands) (alluvial) (others)
Area (km2) 921 405 29 791 273 898
Number of profiles 32 18 3 11 9 8
Organic carbon 0 – 1.0 7.6 5.9 4.4 4.1 8.1 5.5
0 – 2.0 9.5 7.1 5.1 6.3 12.1 6.5
Inorganic carbon
Calcite 0 – 1.0 78.5 39.8 51.7 28.3 41.9 41.1
0 – 2.0 133.0 79.0 84.2 53.7 79.8 77.1
Dolomite 0 – 1.0 27.3 18.7 7.4 18.9 18.9 3.8
0 – 2.0 64.1 39.9 46.5 38.8 44.7 39.8

point out the relatively high SOC values found in the 1.0– 2.0-m section of unit S4,
dominated by regosols. This could be accounted for by the high bulk densities of subsoil
materials, which must be used as a multiplier for computing volumetric C contents. The
decrease in organic carbon from unit S1 to S4 suggests that their organic carbon content
could be related to surface age. However, this is not plausible taking into account the fast
oxidation rate of organic carbon in well aerated soils and the fact that we are dealing with
surfaces whose ages span about 200 ky BP, although the rate of weathering of ancient
organic matter is not clear (Hedges, 1993; Torn et al., 1997; Giardina and Ryan, 2000;
Kirschbaum, 2000).

4.3.2. Inorganic carbon

The amounts of equivalent CaCO3 (as determined by gas manometry), calcite and
dolomite (XRD) were the data used for the computation of SIC (Table 5). Dolomite SIC is
clearly inherited from the parent materials and this can also be the case, at least partly, for
calcite SIC. Calcite SIC is, as a rule, approximately twice as abundant as dolomite. Calcite-
carbon is higher in the 0– 1.0-m section while dolomite SIC is enriched in the 1.0 –2.0-m
section. The total SIC (calcite- plus dolomite SIC) down to 2.0-m depth is much higher
than the corresponding SOC, as expected, given the calcareous nature of soil parent
material.

Table 6
2
Carbon contents (kg m )—mean values for the Guadix – Baza basin
Depth intervals (m) Organic carbon Inorganic carbon Total carbon
Calcite Dolomite
0 – 1.0 6.0 48.4 17.0 71.4
1.0 – 2.0 1.8 39.2 29.8 70.8

Total 7.8 87.6 46.8 142.2

 J.L. Dı́az-Hernández et al. / Geoderma 114 (2003) 65–80 77

The highest calcite SIC content is that of surface S1 which is the oldest, but it is difficult
to relate SIC enhancement to surface age given the opposite effect of carbonate trans-
location—which would tend to impoverish CaCO3 in the upper horizons—and soil erosion
which would make the horizons of carbonate accumulation shallower.

4.4. Mean SOC and SIC contents for the whole area

The mean SOC and SIC contents per square meter for the whole area (3317 km2) were
computed by averaging the values for surfaces S1 to S6, weighted by their respective areas.
This weighting criterion was selected because geomorphic units are clearly expressed and
can be easily delimited upon examination of topographic maps and remote sensing images.
These results are given in Table 6, and characterize a semiarid landscape as a whole with
its variety of land units, soil types and vegetation cover.
The average SOC content within a depth of 2.0 m is close to 8 kg m 2 and most of it is,
as expected, contained in the upper 1 m of the soil; it is worth mentioning that the amount
of SOC in the 1.0– 2.0-m section is by no means negligible (1.8 kg m 2), as it represents
23% of the total SOC. Similar results are reported by Jobággy and Jackson (2000) for a
variety of biomes.

Table 7
2
Carbon contents in some similar soil types (kg m ) and number of profiles
Soil types Organic carbon Inorganic carbon Reference
0 – 1.0 m 0 – 2.0 m 0 – 1.0 m 0 – 2.0 m
2 2 2 2
(kg m ) N (kg m ) N (kg m ) N (kg m ) N
Xerosols 6.0 Bohn (1976)
6.2 10 Sombroek et al. (1993)
4.8 73 8.7 8 Batjes (1996)
Xerosols (Calcisols) 7.0 52 9.4 35 66.8a 52 123.4a 35 This paper
Calcic Xerosols 6.0 8 12.8 1 Batjes (1996)
Calcisols 7.0 52 9.4 35 66.8a 52 123.4a 35 This paper
(Petric, Haplic)
Calcaric Fluvisols 6.3 87 12.8 8 Batjes (1996)
7.6 8 10.0 3 37.7a 8 67.0a 3 This paper
Regosols 5.0 Bohn (1976)
5.6 6 Sombroek et al.
5.0 42 7.0 9 (1993)
Batjes (1996)
5.2 17 8.6 4 35.8a 17 58.5a 4 This paper
Calcaric Regosols 4.5 11 8.4 2 Batjes (1996)
6.2 10 9.4 3 51.9a 10 77.8a 3 This paper
Arizona (mean) 4.9 91 26.0 91 Schlesinger (1982)
basalts 4.8 17 25.5 17
mixed alluvium 4.2 53 24.2 53
limestones 6.6 21 31.0 21
Guadix – Baza 6.0 81 7.8 81 48.4a 81 87.6a 81 This paper
area (mean)
a
The inorganic carbon from dolomite is not considered.
78 J.L. Dı́az-Hernández et al. / Geoderma 114 (2003) 65–80

The average SIC content is 134 kg m 2, i.e. 17 times that of SOC. Most of it is
contained in calcite (88 kg m 2). Dolomite SIC is about half that contained in calcite
SIC and would be inherited from parent rocks. Nevertheless, the amount of dolomite SIC
found is circumstantial as it strongly depends on the geological setting. On the basis of
soil morphology, it is clear that in the older surfaces (S1, S2 and S3), there is significant
translocation of carbonates and, therefore, a high proportion of the SIC must be
considered to be pedogenic. We should point out that calcite SIC is more abundant in
the 0 –1.0-m section within which the top part of most illuvial carbonate horizons is
included.
The amounts of SOC found in the Guadix –Baza basin agree quite well with those
found for similar situations or soil types by other authors (Table 7). Post et al. (1982)
give a value for SOC storage of 7.9 kg m 2 for warm temperate dry forest. Also, Adams
et al. (1990) and Prentice and Fung (1990) give a value of 8 kg m 2 for Mediterranean
shrub and woodland. These figures are given for the upper 1 m. The average SOC
storage in the Guadix –Baza basin for this depth section is 6 kg m 2, a value somewhat
lower than those cited. The difference can be explained by the fact that most of the area
studied is covered by xeric shrub and cultivated land. The loss of soil SOC in previously
untilled soils following cultivation has been estimated to be about 30% by Davidson and
Ackerman (1993). This reduction applied to 8 kg m 2 would yield a value close to ours
(6 kg m 2).
On the other hand, our data for SOC in the upper 1 m are somewhat higher than those
reported by Schlesinger (1982) for Arizona soils. This difference could be explained by the
more arid conditions of Arizona.
As regards SIC, the values found in the Guadix – Baza basin are considerably higher
than those reported by Schlesinger (1982) for Arizona soils, even if only calcite SIC is
taken into account. The SIC to SOC ratio is remarkably higher than that reported by
Eswaran et al. (2000) for Mediterranean moisture conditions. Whether this is due to a local
anomaly in parent material composition or is a feature of the Mediterranean area can only
be ascertained by further sampling.

5. Conclusions

The average amounts of SOC (8 kg m 2) and SIC (134 kg m 2) found in the soils of
the Guadix – Baza basin are an example of those that could be expected in a Mediterranean
landscape, modified by man, and could be useful for further evaluations of global soil
carbon contents.
Most of the SOC are found in the upper meter, but that contained in the second meter is
not negligible (1.8 kg m 2). The scarce data obtained from deeper sections indicate a rapid
decrease of SOC below 2.0 m.
The closest approximation to the SIC of pedogenic origin is that contained in calcite of
fine earth (or fine matrix of indurated horizons) and this mounts to 88 kg m 2. Calcite
carbon is abundant in both the first and the second meter sections. The lower limit of
carbonate illuviation horizons could reach as deep as 2.0– 3.0 m. Thus, this depth should
be reached in surveys concerning SIC.
 J.L. Dı́az-Hernández et al. / Geoderma 114 (2003) 65–80 79

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