The Atmosphere

The performance characteristics of an aerospace vehicle depend on the properties of the atmosphere
through which it flies. The variation of air temperature and pressure with altitude are particularly important.
The atmosphere is nominally composed of five layers, with each layer having distinct characteristics. Most
aircraft fly in the troposphere and stratosphere.

Troposphere. Extends from the Earth's surface to an

elliptically shaped Tropopause which resides at altitudes
~23000 feet (~7km) at the poles and ~56,000 ft (~17km) at
the equator. The temperature is warmest close to the earth,
due to energy transfer, and then decreases at a nearly constant
lapse rate of 6.51K per km, (~2°C per 1000 ft) up to the
tropopause at ~ 36000ft (~ 11km) altitude. Air pressure
decreases exponentially with increasing altitude, [~50%
reduction for every 18000ft (5.6km)]. Local weather
conditions also affect atmospheric pressure and temperature
and the air masses are in constant motion, leading to unsteady
gusting winds and turbulence. The tropopause is commonly
associated with the location of the jet stream and possible
clear air turbulence.

Stratosphere. Extends upwards from the tropopause to an altitude of approx. 50km (~164,000 ft). The
temperature remains constant up to an altitude of approximately 25km (82,000 feet) after which it gradually
increases with increased altitude due to absorption of UV rays from the sun by the ozone present in this
layer. Air pressure decreases with increasing altitude. The stratosphere is free of gusts and turbulence, but
is characterised by high steady winds (jet stream).

Mesosphere. Extends from the stratopause (top of stratosphere) to 80–85 km (260,000–280,000 ft) and is
the layer where most meteors burn up upon entering the atmosphere. Temperature decreases with height
reaching around −85 °C at the mesopause (top of mesosphere) and water vapour is frozen into ice clouds.

Ionosphere. (Thermosphere) Extends from the upper edge of the stratosphere to an altitude ~ 500 km.
This region is bombarded by extremely short wave radiation from the sun and populated by ionised atoms
which align with the lines of force of the earth’s magnetic field. This ionisation of oxygen and nitrogen
releases photons which may be visible as aurorae.

Exosphere. The last layer of the atmosphere extending upwards from the exobase into ‘outer space’ is
made up of rarefied gases such as hydrogen and helium.

International Standard Atmosphere

Due to the variation of atmospheric conditions with time and location, agreement has been reached on a
standard atmosphere to define the conditions prevailing for most of the year for aircraft operating up to an
altitude of ~100, 000ft in temperate latitudes (e.g. Europe and North America). Other agreed atmospheres
exist to represent more extreme conditions (e.g. tropical maximum and arctic minimum). The ISA is
defined by pressure and temperature variation with altitude from a fixed mean sea level datum.
In the ISA model, temperature is assumed to vary linearly in the troposphere (0 -11 km) and be constant in
the stratosphere.

Density of Air
The density of the air passing over aircraft surfaces and entering the engine intake has a major effect on the
magnitude of the aerodynamic forces and the thrust/power produced respectively.
According to the Ideal Gas Equation: pV = mRT. Therefore, density = ρ = m/V = p/RT
2
p = static pressure (N/m ), T = static temperature (K), R = Gas constant = 287 J/kg.K
Air density is usually included in the ISA tables in absolute terms and relative terms, as the absolute air
density divided by air density at ISA sea level. The table below shows an extract from the ISA tables.
Aircraft Performance 1.1 Dr. K.J. Hart – University of Hertfordshire 2010
 Height Pressure kN/m2 Temperature Density kg/m3 Relative Speed of Sound
m (feet) K Density m/s (knot)
0 (0) 101.325 288.15 1.2250 1 340.29 (661.7)
1000 (3281) 89.874 281.7 1.1116 0.907 336.43 (654.2)
2000 (6562) 79.496 275.2 1.0065 0.822 332.53 (646.6)
3000 (9843) 70.106 268.6 0.9091 0.742 328.58 (639.0)
4000 (13123) 61.64 262.1 0.8191 0.669 324.58 (631.2)
6000 (19685) 47.178 249.2 0.6597 0.538 316.43 (615.4)
8000 (26247) 35.601 236.2 0.5252 0.429 308.06 (599.2)
10000 (32808) 26.435 223.2 0.4127 0.337 299.46 (582.4)
11000 (36089) 22.628 216.7 0.3639 0.297 295.07 (573.9)
12000 (39370) 19.331 216.7 0.3108 0.254 295.07 (573.9)
15000 (49213) 12.045 216.7 0.1937 0.158 295.07 (573.9)
20000 (65617) 5.475 216.7 0.0880 0.072 295.07 (573.9)

The operating altitude of an aircraft is important for all phases of flight including take-off from high altitude
airfields where take-off ground run is likely to be considerably longer than that for an ISA-SL take-off.

Measurement of Aircraft Altitude

The variation in atmospheric pressure and temperature with altitude according to the standard atmosphere
model are used to measure aircraft altitude. Corrections are made, where necessary, for non-standard
temperature conditions. Modern commercial and military aircraft are also fitted with radio altimeters which
measure altitude by the reflection of radio waves from the ground.
In order to allow for the variation in sea-level atmospheric pressure at any geographical location the
altimeter datum value is set based on a specific ATC control zone (QNH) to facilitate aircraft separation or
to an airfield (QFE) to assist landing.

Aircraft Speed Measurement and Notation

Airspeed is the relative velocity between the aircraft and the air
mass within which it is flying. It is a key aircraft performance
parameter since the aircraft aerodynamic forces are a function
of airspeed.
Aircraft air speed is most commonly obtained by comparing the
total air pressure measured by a total head probe with the static
air pressure measured at a convenient close location on the
fuselage where the local static pressure is close to the ambient
pressure for a full range of aircraft attitudes and speeds.

The dynamic pressure (0.5 u2) is the difference between the total pressure, P and static pressure, p and
hence the aircraft air speed is given by: u = [2(P - p)/ ]
Aircraft airspeed indicators (ASI) assume an ISA sea-level value of air density to display the Indicated Air
Speed (IAS).
The reasoning behind this approach is that the dynamic pressure controls the aerodynamic forces on the
aircraft. For example, since aircraft lift is directly proportional to dynamic pressure, an aircraft of fixed
weight will stall at nominally the same dynamic pressure at all altitudes. If constant density is assumed then
an aircraft will stall at the same Indicated Air Speed at all altitudes.
Calibration of the unit takes care of any instrument errors and position errors associated with the location of
the pressure tappings relative to the aircraft flow fields, which will vary over the flight envelope.
Consideration of compressibility effects (generally at speeds > Mach 0.6) enables this Calibrated Air Speed
to be converted into the Equivalent Air Speed (EAS) of the aircraft.

Aircraft Performance 1.2 Dr. K.J. Hart – University of Hertfordshire 2010

True Air Speed can be derived from Equivalent Air Speed using the local value of relative density .
Modern aircraft use an Air Data Computer to perform this calculation in real time and display the TAS
reading directly on the EFIS.
EAS = [2(P - p)/ ISA-SL]

TAS = EAS/ where = operating point/ ISA-SL

As density reduces with altitude, an aircraft climbing at a constant IAS will be gradually increasing its TAS.
The TAS value at the stall condition will vary with altitude and weather conditions.

Mach Number
The Mach Number (M) is a comparison between the True Air Speed (TAS) and the speed of sound (a) at
that flight altitude. The speed of sound varies with ambient static temperature)

M = TAS/a a = speed of sound for the fluid = ( RT)

The Ground Speed of an aircraft can be calculated from the air speed wind speed and wind direction
relative to the aircraft flight path or by calculations from GPS data.

Units of Speed and Distance

Air and sea travel generally uses the nautical mile as the basis of distance measurement.
1 nautical mile = 1 minute (1/60 of a degree) of arc at the equator of the Earth. = 1852 metre = 1.1508 mile.
1 kilometre = (Distance from the North Pole to the equator via Paris)/10,000. 1 foot = 0.3048 metre
1 knot = 1 nautical mile per hour = 1.852 km/hour = 0.5144 m/s

Effect of Weather on Aircraft Performance

Wind, rain, thunderstorms, fog, ice and extreme temperatures all have the potential to influence all phases
of flight operations and therefore must be considered for safety margins, operating procedures and costs.

Effect of Wind on Aircraft Cruise Performance

The magnitude and direction of any wind will vary with location and altitude and affects both the speed of
the aircraft relative to the ground and also the optimum trim for maximum endurance and range.

Within the troposphere the air at the poles is generally at a higher pressure than that at the equator due to
the temperature difference. However, air flowing between these regions of high and low pressure is
deflected by the coriolis force caused by the rotation of the earth to produce general patterns of circulation.
These circulation patterns are further influenced by seasonal changes and the altitude-dependent, frictional
forces which slow the air down by different amounts as it moves across the varying contours of different
land masses and oceans.

Local updraft and downdraft air circulations may exist due to local convective heating/cooling and will vary
with time of day. Natural or man made ground topography also affects wind conditions. In mountainous
regions smooth updrafts are generally found on the windward faces but increased turbulence and
downdrafts are more prevalent on the leeward faces and can tend to push the aircraft towards the mountain.

Near the tropopause, a combination of planet rotation and atmospheric solar heating produces narrow, fast
flowing, jet stream air currents in the Earths atmosphere. The major jet stream winds flow in a meandering
westerly (West to East) path. In the northern hemisphere the polar jet flows over the middle/northern
latitudes of North America, Europe, and Asia and the oceans that separate them. Aircraft ground speeds,
and hence flight times, can be dramatically affected by either flying with or against the jet stream flow.
Potentially hazardous clear-air turbulence is also often found in the vicinity of a jet stream.

To take account of continual variation of these jet stream flows, aircraft travelling back and forth across the
North Atlantic are routed along specific tracks that are changed on a daily basis. These specific tracks also
ensure safe aircraft separation in areas of low radar coverage. Because of the prevalence for Westerly
winds, westbound transatlantic flights tend to be longer in duration than eastbound flights.

Aircraft Performance 1.3 Dr. K.J. Hart – University of Hertfordshire 2010

Effect of Wind on Aircraft Take-off and Landing Performance
During take-off the aircraft needs to reach a required airspeed to achieve lift-off. A headwind will enable an
acceptable take-off airspeed to be achieved at a lower ground speed and shorter take-off distance
Landing into a headwind can be achieved at a lower ground speed and shorter deceleration ground run.
When landing in cross winds, aircraft tend to adopt a crabbed approach with wings level. During the flair,
with the aircraft longitudinal axis on the runway centreline, the rudder is then used to align the aircraft with
the runway before main gear contact. Any tendency to roll is counteracted by ailerons. All aircraft will be
certificated for landing at maximum acceptable crosswinds (typically ~ 20% of landing configuration stall
speed) based upon the compensatory aerodynamic forces that can be applied and undercarriage wind loads.
Both dry or wet runways and use of reverse thrust will be considered.

Wind Shear
Wind shear is a sudden, drastic change in wind speed and/or direction over
a very small area (such as within 1 mile horizontally and 1000 feet
vertically) which can occur at any altitude. Substantial wind shear
associated with thunderstorm activity may take the form of micro-
downbursts of up to 6000 feet per minute. In a microburst, air approaching
the ground, diverges in multiple directions and an aircraft flying into a
microburst, experiences a headwind and tailwind in close succession with
the associated effects on lift produced. Such conditions occurring close to
the ground give little opportunity for the pilot to effect a recovery. The
clear hazard to flight safety means that wind shear alert systems based on
an array of anemometers are in place at many airfields and commercial
aircraft are fitted with on-board wind shear detection systems.

Rain
Although the extra weight due to any water film that accumulates on the surface of an aircraft is relatively
insignificant the impacting rain drops into the film can effectively alter the roughness of the wing surface
and disrupt its aerodynamic behaviour, resulting in reduced lift and increased drag.

Runway Contamination
Water, slush and loose snow affect aircraft acceleration performance during take-off due to the generation
of additional drag. The displacement of the water and slush increases the rolling drag of the tyres and more
drag is caused by impingement of the water/slush onto the airframe. The total additional drag varies linearly
with water/slush depth and with (ground speed)2. Eventually, a ground speed is reached when aquaplaning
starts to occur and the formation of a stable water film leads to reduced rolling drag, but the reduced
traction creates serious directional control issues.

Any runway surface contamination will also affect aircraft braking performance.

Aircraft Performance 1.4 Dr. K.J. Hart – University of Hertfordshire 2010