CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

2.1. Review of the Related Theories

2.1.1. The Nature of Speaking

Speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of

verbal and nonverbal symbols, in a variety of context (Chaney, 1998: 13).

According to Zuraidah Ali (2008, March 17), speaking is a productive skill

which requires a lot of back-up factors like knowledge, confidence, self esteem and

enthusiasm.

Speaking a second language, particularly, brings about its own pre-requirement:

exposure, consolidation, motivation as well as acknowledgement. Whether we realize

it or not, these determinant factors can be made to exist in a supportive learning

environment of foreign learners’ classroom.

As much as learners may afraid of speaking in a group or in front of the

class, speaking as a skill is essential for acquisition and participation purposes.

Nowadays, every profession requires some extent of communicative competence and

interpersonal skills. The nature of speaking at the workplace presents itself in various

forms: discussions, presentations, negotiation, and even debates. In other words,

English speaking class in this competitive era will have to do more than pair work

practice by the learners.

Once learners can cope with some extent of discussion, more room should be

given for real-life speaking context. This way, learners can be guided from speaking

as acquisition to speaking as participation.

 Since language plays a pragmatic and functional role in our everyday

communication, the learners can also be perceived as a small community. Each and

every learner is significant as a member and contributes to the social ambience. A

strong and successful community shows cooperation, sharing and caring. There is

also evidence of two-way communication and group interaction which consolidates

relationship and togetherness. This supportive culture will encourage more openness

and acceptance among the members. In such an ideal environment, a learner may not

have to think twice about speaking up, contributing discussions or even offering

constructive criticism.

Shortly, English speaking class nowadays promotes more participation from the

learners in order to prepare a social context that the position learners as players and

the teachers as facilitators. By doing so, learners can be better groomed to adopt to

the demands of the new era since the emphasis is now moving from speaking

acquisition to participation, and hopefully contribution.

2.1.2. Types of Speaking

There are five types of speaking (Rafael Sabio M.S. Ed. TESOL in Speaking

and Listening Assessments) as explained below:

a) Imitative Speaking

Imitative speaking entails an English language learner simply repeating what is

being said. The only core focus in it is pronunciation. For example, word

repetition.

b) Intensive Speaking

Intensive speaking requires language learners to respond in short sentence

productions. Minimal knowledge of the language is required, semantic does play

 a role in this form of speaking. Intensive speaking is meant to test students’

working knowledge in very specific areas of grammar, phrasal verbs, and other

parts of the English language. Interaction with an interlocutor is minimally

required. The example is directed response.

c) Responsive Speaking

Responsive speaking entails students actively participating in short discourse

sessions. The beginning of responsive speaking always starts with a promp in

order to simulate real-world situations.

d) Interactive Speaking

Interactive speaking is extremely similar to responsive speaking, however

varying in that an interactive speaking session is much more involved, may

include multiple interlocutors, and is commonly found in the English speaking

world.

e) Extensive (monologue) Speaking

Extensive speaking is the most difficult form of speaking. It involves

presentations being made, speeches being given, long monologue. Input from the

listeners is rarely given.

2.1.3. Components of Speaking

a) Pronunciation

The way of speaking the language is called pronunciation. Hornby (1984:670)

explains that, “Pronunciation is a way in which a language is spoken, person’s

way of speaking a language or words of a language”. Whereas, Longman

Dictionary of Contemporary English (2001:1130) states “Pronunciation as the

 way in which a particular language is pronounced, a particular person’s way of

pronouncing a language, the way in which a word is usually pronounced”. The

writer concluded that pronunciation refers to the way of person in speaking a

word that is pronounced.

b) Vocabulary

In Oxford Advanced Learners’ Dictionary (Hornby, 1984:461) “Vocabulary is

defined as the total number of words in a language, the words known to a person

and a list of words with their meanings, especially at the back of a book used for

teaching a foreign language”. Vocabulary in this study covers the selection and

the use of varied words that used by students. In short, the writer concluded that

vocabulary is a total number of words which has meaning in a particular

language which is necessary for students to use in speaking and writing.

c) Structure

The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2001:1437) defines

“Grammar as (the study and practice of) the rules by which words change their

forms and combined into sentences”. According to Pooley in Olfah (2004)

adopted from Andi Syakir (2009), grammar describes the way of language work.

English grammar tells how English works in communicating ideas. Ideas are

generally expressed in sentences. Sentences are made by grouping and arranging

words. Therefore, grammar is also the study of words in sentences.

Structure in this study covers the appropriateness of using words correctly in

sentences orally. The writer concluded that grammar is the way of language

works through words in speaking or writing so a language will be understood

clearly.
d) Fluency

Longman Dictionary (2001:541) defines fluency as “Mode expressing thought in

a language, whether oral or written, especially such use of a language in the

expression of thought as exhibits the spirit and faculty of an artist, choice or

arrangement of words in discourse, rhetorical expression”. Further, according to

Bryne in Andriany (2004) adopted from Andi Syakir (2009) the main goal in

teaching the productive skill of speaking will be oral fluency. Fluency as a part of

speaking indicates how well or how smooth a speaker expresses ideas in terms of

sentences. Fluency in speaking is the quality of being fluent and it needs the

intensity or practices, talent, habit and proper speech. Perfect fluency will be

identified by limited pause of utterance. Speaker with imperfect fluency will stop

and start to talk in uttering the sentences. Refers to the typical speaking, the more

pauses subject performs a speech the more indicates that he has poor fluency in

uttering sentences in terms of explaining the information within. In this regard,

when student performs speech, he might think for a while to find the other words

to continue the whole explanation to get the information clear. The writer

concluded that fluency in speaking is the ability of speaker in expressing or

uttering ideas in terms of sentences with limited pause of utterance.

e) Comprehension

Comprehension is the power of understanding an exercised aimed at improving

or testing ones understanding of a language in written or spoken (Hornby, 1984).

Moreover, it defines as the ability to understand completely and be aware of

understanding whatever said by speaker or toward the topics that are discussed

during having conversation.

2.1.4. Cooperative Learning

Cooperative Learning is a method of instruction that has students working

together in groups, usually with the goal of completing a specific task. This method can

help students develop leadership skills and the ability to work with others as a team

(Carol Bainbridge from about.com).

Cooperative Learning has 5 basic elements, they are:

1. Positive Interdependence: It requires that group members feel connected to

each other.

2. Individual Accountability: It means that every group member is responsible

for being able to demonstrate understanding and comprehension of the

learned academic expectations and social goals.

3. Face to Face Interaction: It suggests that the group must participate by

communicating and discussing goal.

4. Social Skills: It is including listening, body language, sharing, accepting

ideas and differences, etc. These re skills needed prior to or being developed

during the group work.

5. Processing: It is when the students assess their efforts as a group and can pin

point areas of improvement in their social skills.

Here are several modern methods of Cooperative Learning:

1. Learning Together and Alone

2. Teams-Games-Tournaments (TGT)

3. Group Investigation (GI)

4. Constructive Controversy

5. Jigsaw

6. Student Teams Achievement Division (STAD)

 7. Complex Instruction

8. Team Accelerate Structure

9. Cooperative Learning Structures

10. Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC)

2.1.5. Group Investigation Method

Group Investigation is one of Cooperative Learning methods in which the

students collaborate to produce a group product for presentation. This is an open-

ended investigation which students may help determine the focus of their

investigation. The activity is structured to emphasize higher-order thinking skills.

The role of teacher here is as a resource person or facilitator.

In GI, students progress through six stages as explained below (Slavin, 1995):

Stage 1: Grouping

Identifying the topic and organizing students into groups

a) Students scan sources, propose topics and categorize suggestions

b) Students join the group studying the topic of their choice

c) Group composition is based on interest and is heterogeneous

d) Teacher assists in information gathering and facilitates organization

Stage 2: Planning

Group planning investigation

Students plan together:

a) What do we study?

b) How do we study? Who does what? (Division of labor)

c) For what purpose or goals do we investigate this topic?

Stage 3: Investigation

Carrying out the investigation

a) Students gather information, analyze the data and reach conclusions

b) Each group member contribute to the group effort

c) Students exchange, discuss, clarify and synthesize ideas

Stage 4: Organizing

Preparing a final report

a) Group members determine the essential message of their project

b) Group members plan what they will report and how they will make their

presentation

c) Group representatives form a steering committee to coordinate plans for the

presentation

Stage 5: Presenting

Presenting the final report

a) The presentation is made to the entire class in a variety of forms

b) Part of the presentation should actively involve the audience

c) The audience evaluates the clarity and appeal of presentation according to

criteria determined in advance by the whole class

Stage 6: Evaluating

a) Students share feedback about the topic, about the work they did and about

their effective experiences

b) Teachers and students collaborate in evaluating student learning

c) Assessment of learning should evaluate higher-level thinking

 In addition to the information above, here are some positive points that make

Group Investigation to be a good method to teach speaking. According to Kagan

(1994) in Cooperative Learning, a research has shown that Cooperative Teaching and

Learning:

1. Promote students’ learning and academic achievement

2. Increase students’ retention

3. Enhance students’ satisfaction with their learning experience

4. Help students develop s in oral communication

5. Develop students’ self-esteem

6. Promote students’ social skills

7. Help to promote positive relation

Specifically, below are about benefits of using GI method in improving speaking

ability according to Slavin (1995):

1. GI method makes students involved in group discussion to solve certain

problem because they discuss the topic they like then it will increase their

opportunity to use communicate by using English.

2. Besides increasing their social ability, GI method has them be more critical

in solving problems.

3. GI method improves their cognitive, affective and psychomotor aspect since

they learn by solving problems directly in real life context.

4. By using GI method, it has them realize that learning can be done better

socially or together since they need others to share knowledge.

2.1.6. Hortatory Exposition Text

A hortatory text is a type of spoken or written text that intended to explain the

listeners or readers that something should or should not happen or be done by

presenting some arguments as the fundamental reasons of the given idea. In other

words, this kind of text can be called as an argumentative text.

We have to always remember that the social function of hortatory exposition

text is driving the readers to act like the writer thought as stated in the text. Then the

purpose of this hortatory is influencing and persuading the readers by presenting the

supporting arguments. In many social activities, hortatory is applied for writing

recommended thought, sales letter, advertising, speech campaign, and news

advertorial.

A hortatory exposition is organized in three stages:

1. Thesis : It introduces the topic and shows speaker or

writer’s position.

2. Arguments : Reasons to support the speaker or writer’s

position.

3. Recommendations : Statement of what should or should not be

done based on the given arguments.

The language features used in a hortatory exposition are:

1. The use of emotive words (e.g. : alarmed, worried)

2. The use of words that qualify statements (e.g. : usual, probably)

3. The use of words that link arguments (e.g. : firstly, however, on the other

hand)

4. The use of present tense

5. The use of compound and complex sentences

6. The use of modal and adverbs (e.g. : can, may, certainly)

 7. The use of subjective opinions using pronouns I and we

Let see the example of a hortatory text below:

Watch your Kids While Watching TV

Television becomes one of the most important devices

which takes place in almost houses. It can unite all members of the

family as well as separate them. However, is it important to know

what your kids are watching? The answer is, of course, absolutely Thesis

"Yes" and that should be done by all parents. Television can

expose things you have tried to protect the children from,

especially violence, pornography, consumerism and so on.

Recently, a study demonstrated that spending too much

time on watching TV during the day or at bedtime often causes Argument

bed-time disruption, stress, and short sleep duration.

Another research found that there is a significant

relationship between the amount of time spent for watching Argument

television during adolescence and early adulthood, and the

possibility of being aggressive.

Meanwhile, many studies have identified a relationship

Argument
between kids who watch TV a lot and being inactive and

overweight.

Considering some facts mentioning above, protect your

children with the following tips: Recommendations

• Limit television viewing to one-two hours each day

• Do not allow your children to have a TV set in their own

bedrooms

• Review the rating of TV shows which your children watch

Recommendations
• Watch television with your children and discuss what is

happening in the show

Notes on the Generic Structure of the Hortatory Exposition example:

1. Thesis: The writer'

s thought is presented as thesis which is proven with several

arguments. In the first paragraph, the writer points his thought about the

importance of accompanying children while they are watching TV show. It is

important to protect the children from the bad influences of TV show.

2. Arguments: The next paragraphs show the writer arguments in supporting his

thesis. It is supported by various researches that there are a great relationship

between watching TV and the watcher'

s personality. One study describes that

much time in watching TV can cause bed-time disruption. The others show the

possibility of becoming an aggressive character because of watching television

too much.

3. Recommendation: After stating the thesis and proving with various arguments,

the text is completed with the writer'

s recommendation on how the parents

should protect the children from the bed effect of watching TV.

Basically, both hortatory and analytical exposition have the similar position. Both

take place as argumentative essays. Both show how important idea of the writer

to be known. However the last paragraph of the essay usually makes the

difference from hortatory and analytical exposition. If it is a hortatory text, it will

be ended with a strong recommendation while for analytical exposition, it will be

closed with restatement of the writer'

s first paragraph.

(Adopted from http://understandingtext.blogspot.com/2009/02/example-of-hortatoryexposition-

in.html)
2.2. Conceptual Framework

According to the theory discussed above, it could be drawn a conceptual framework as

follow: