Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
6 1 Proof by Induction
Section 1.6
1.6: Proof by Mathematical Induction
Purpose of Section:
Section To introduce the Principle of Mathematical Induction, both
weak and the strong versions, and show how certain types of theorems can be
proven using this technique.
Introduction
The Principle of Mathematical Induction is a method of proof normally
used to prove that a proposition is true for all natural numbers 1,2,3,…
, although there are many variations of the basic method. The method is
particularly important in discrete mathematics, and one often sees theorems
proven by induction in areas like computer science. The technique is so
intuitive and familiar that it sometimes is used without reference to its use.
For example, suppose someone tells you they are going to color the natural
numbers 1,2,3, … with some color and that the number 1 will be colored
blue, and that if a given number is colored blue, then the next number will also
be colored blue. Is there any doubt in your mind that all the numbers will be
colored blue? Of course not. This is the induction axiom. And the good thing
is you don’t have to proof it. It is an axiom1.
1
In 1889 Italian mathematician Guiseppe Peano (1858-1932) published a list of five
axioms which define the natural numbers. Peano’s 5th axiom is called the induction
axiom, which states that “any property which belongs to 1 and also to the successor of
any number which has the property belongs to all numbers.”
Section 1.6 2 Proof by Induction
1 3 5 2n − 1 1
▶ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅⋅ ≤ ⋅ for all natural numbers n .
2 4 6 2n 3n + 1
Mathematical Induction
The Principle of Mathematical Induction is a method of proof for
verifying that a proposition P ( n) is true for all natural numbers n . The
methodology for proving theorems by induction is as follows.
i Base Case:
Case: Prove that P (1) is true.
Note: There are several; modifications of the basic induction proof stated
here. For example, there is no reason the base case starts with P (1) . If the
base case is replaced by the verification of P ( a ) , where " a " is any integer
(positive or negative), one would conclude P ( n) true for all n ≥ a . Also, if the
Section 1.6 3 Proof by Induction
Margin Note:
Note: Induction works like dominos. You tip over the first domino; the
first domino tips over the second one; the second one tips over the third one;
and so on. You get the idea. Eventually, all dominoes are tipped over.
n ( n + 1)
P ( n) : 1 + 2 + + n =
2
Base Case:
Case: Clearly P (1) is true since2
1 ⋅ (2)
P (1) says 1 =
2
Induction Step:
Step: We assume P (n) true for an arbitrary n :
n ( n + 1)
P ( n) : 1 + 2 + + n = (assume true)
2
n ( n + 1)
1 + 2 + + n + (n + 1) = + (n + 1)
2
n(n + 1) + 2(n + 1)
=
2
(n + 1)(n + 2)
=
2
2
The reader can verify that P(2) and P(3) are also true, but that isn’t relevant to proof by induction.
Section 1.6 4 Proof by Induction
The identity
n ( n + 1)
1+ 2 + + n =
2
can also be proven using the idea Gauss had when he was 9 years old and
impressed his teacher by summing 1 + 2 + + 100 = 5050.
d n ( xe x )
P ( n) : = ( x + n) ex
dx n
Base Step:
Step If n = 1 and from the product rule for differentiation, we can write
d ( xe x ) d x x
=x e + e = ( x + 1) e x .
dx dx
d n ( xe x )
P ( n) : n
= ( x + n) ex
dx
d n +1 ( xe x ) d d ( xe )
n x
P(n + 1) : =
dx n +1 dx dx n
d
= ( x + n ) e x (induction assumption)
dx
= ( x + n) ex + ex (product rule)
= x + ( n + 1) e x
n
x n +1 − 1
∑
k =0
k
x ≡ 1+ x + x + + x = 2
x −1
n
Proof:
2 x n +1 − 1 n
P ( n) : 1 + x + x + + x =
x −1
we verify
Base Case:
Case: In this problem the initial step starts at n = 0 due to the way P (n)
is defined. It is not necessary, but we evaluate both P (0) and P (1) .
x 0 +1 − 1 x − 1 x2 − 1
P(0) : 1 = = =1 P(1) : 1 + x = = x +1
x −1 x −1 x −1
Induction Step: Assuming P (n) is true for any natural number n , we have
x n +1 − 1
1 + x + x2 + + xn =
x −1
x n +1 − 1 n +1
1 + x + x 2 + + x n + x n +1 = +x
x −1
x n +1 − 1 + x n +1 ( x − 1)
=
x −1
x − 1 + x n + 2 − x n +1
n +1
=
x −1
n+2
x −1
=
x −1
2n +1 = 2 ⋅ 2n
> 2n 2 (induction hypothesis)
2 2
=n +n
≥ n 2 + 5n (we assume n ≥ 5)
= n 2 + 2n + 3n
> n 2 + 2n + 1
= (n + 1) 2
The Tower of Benares3 puzzle (or tower of Hanoi) consists moving a collection of disks
from one peg onto another, where one is only allowed to move one disk at a time and no
larger disk can ever be above a smaller disk.
The number of steps required to move n disks from one peg to another peg
(either one) is 2 n − 1 .
Proof:
Proof Let
P (1) is true
P ( n ) ⇒ P ( n + 1)
3
According to legend, the Temple at Benares in ancient India marked the center of the world.
Within the temple priests moved golden disks from one diamond needle to another. God placed
64 gold disks on one needle at the time of creation. It was said that when the temple priests
completed their task the universe would come to an end. Since it takes 264 -1 moves to complete
the task and assuming the priest move one disk per second, it would take roughly 585 billion
years to move the disks from one needle to another..
Section 1.6 8 Proof by Induction
Finally, we move the n disks sitting on peg C to the top of the largest disk
resting on peg B (another 2 n − 1 steps) . Hence, we have the n + 1 disks sitting
on pole B in the proper arrangement. We are done. Adding up these steps,
we find
Is Mathematics Based on Logic? In the late 1800s and early 1900s a few
mathematicians and logicians like Dedekind, Frege, Hilbert, Russell, and
Whitehead tried to construct arithmetic from formal logical principles and
axioms. The Italian logician Giuseppe Peano (1858-1932) formulated five
axioms from which one could deduce the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, …. . This
brings up the philosophical question of what exactly should be the “starting
point” of mathematics and arithmetic? To some mathematical intuitionists like
Kronecker and Poincare, felt the natural numbers are as intuitive and basic as
one can get and should act as the starting point, rather than being formulated on
less intuitive logical axioms. Logicians would disagree.
Strong Induction
The Principle of Mathematical Induction stated thus far is sometimes
called weak induction in contrast to a variation of it called “strong” induction.
The two types of induction are actually equivalent but sometimes weak
induction doesn’t fit into the proof in a natural way whereas strong induction
does.
Section 1.6 9 Proof by Induction
Methodology of
of (Strong) Mathematical Induction
To verify a proposition P (n) holds for all natural numbers n , the Principle of
(Strong) Mathematical Induction consists of successfully carrying out the
following steps.
1. Base Case:
Case: Prove that P (1) is true.
2. Induction Step:
Step Show that for all n ∈
Note To prove that a proposition P ( n ) is true for all natural numbers does not
Note:
mean you have to use induction, but generally induction is the most effective
route. Also, if you use some other method in lieu of induction, you are might be
using some fact in your proof that does require induction.
Theorem 6 (Fundamental
(Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic)
Arithmetic) Every natural number n ≥ 2
can be written as the product of prime numbers. For example
2 2
350 = 2 × 5 × 7, 1911 = 3 × 7 × 13 .
Proof: Denoting
we prove:
Base Case:
Case: P (2) holds since 2 is a prime number.
Assume P (2), P (3), P (n) is true. That is, each natural number 2,3,… n can
be written as the product of primes.
p = p1 p2 pm q = q1q2 qn
n + 1 = pq = ( p1 p1 pm )( q1q2 qn ) .
un +1 = 3un − 2un −1 u0 = 2, u1 = 3
Find the sequence un , n = 1, 2,... that satisfies these equations. Doing a few
computations we find u2 = 3u1 − 2u0 = 5, u3 = 7, u4 = 9, u5 = 33 and thus a
reasonable guess would be un = 2 n + 1 . To show P ( n) : un = 2n + 1 satisfies the
Section 1.6 11 Proof by Induction
recurrence relation for all n ≥ 0 , we use strong induction starting with initial
step n = 0. .
Base Case:
Case: P (0) : u0 = 20 + 1 = 3 (check)
un = 2 n + 1, un −1 = 2n −1 + 1
un +1 = 3un − 2un −1
= 3 ( 2n + 1) − 2 ( 2n −1 + 1)
= 3 ⋅ 2n − 2n + 1
= 2n +1 + 1
This next example shows a variation of the base step from previous
examples. Each problem is different and you must adjust the induction proof
accordingly.
Theorem 8 (Modifying the Base Step) You are given two rulers: one is 3
units long, the other 5. Show that you can measure any unit distance greater
than or equal to 8 using only these two rulers.
P(8) = 5 + 3
P(9) = 3 + 3 + 3
P(10) = 5 + 5
P(11) = P(8) + 3 = ( 5 + 3) + 3
P(12) = P(9) + 3 = ( 3 + 3 + 3) + 3
P(13) = P(10) + 3 = ( 5 + 5) + 3
... ... ...
This pattern will serve as an aid in deciding the base and induction steps
which is often the most difficult part in an induction proof.
Base Step: For the base step, we verify the first three propositions:
Double Induction
You can think of double induction as proving P ( m, n ) at all points in the first
quadrant of the xy -plane with integer coordinates.
Section 1.6 14 Proof by Induction
Problems
n ( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
a) 12 + 22 + 32 + + n 2 =
6
b) n3 − n is divisible by 3 for n ≥ 1 .
n
1
c) ∑ ( a + ib ) = 2 ( n + 1)( 2a + nb )
i =0
d) 2n < n ! (n ≥ 4)
n
g) ∑ ( 4k − 3) = n ( 2n − 1)
k =1
i) 2n > n
n
j) ( cos θ + i sin θ ) = cos nθ + i sin nθ (De Moivre’s Theorem)
k) sin nx ≤ n sin x
dn n +1
m) n
ln x = ( −1) ( n − 1) ! x − n
dx
colored the same color. Hint: Define P (n) as the proposition “it is possible to
draw n lines in the desired manner for arbitrary n ∈ ”.
Figure 1
n
n ( n + 1)
∑k =
k =0 2
Mary evaluated the left-hand side of the equation for n = 0,1, 2 getting
n 0 1 2
F(n) 0 1 3
.
She then fit a polynomial to these three points, getting
n ( n + 1)
f ( n) = .
2
4
This problem is based on a problem in the book A = B by Marko Petkovsek, Doron Zeilberger and
Herbert Wilf. (This amazing book, incidentally, can be downloaded free on the internet.)
Section 1.6 16 Proof by Induction
4. (Proofs
Proofs without Words)
Words) They say a good picture is worth a thousand words,
but in mathematics it might be closer to a million. For the figures below,
describe why the figure provides a visual proof of the statement.
n ( n + 1)
a) a 2 + b 2 = c3 b) 1+ 2 + + n =
2
c) 1 + 3 + 5 + + (2n − 1) = n 2 d) x 2 − y 2 = ( x − y )( x + y )
Section 1.6 17 Proof by Induction
a+b
e) x 2 − y 2 = ( x − y )( x + y ) f) ab ≤
2
2 2
a a 1
∫ (t + t q / p ) dt = 1
2 p/q
g) x + ax = x + − h)
2 2 0