International Journal of Fatigue 22 (2000) 85–91

www.elsevier.com/locate/ijfatigue

Hot-spot stress evaluation of fatigue in welded structural

connections supported by finite element analysis
a,* b
G. Savaidis , M. Vormwald
a
MAN Nutzfahrzeuge AG, Department for Strength and Testing of Materials and Components (TEB), Dachauerstrasse 667, D-80995 Munich,
Germany
b
Institute of Structural Mechanics, Department of Civil Engineering, Bauhaus-University Weimar, Marienstrasse 15, D-99421 Weimar,
Germany

Received 13 August 1999; received in revised form 1 November 1999; accepted 1 November 1999

Abstract

Various welded joints from the floor structure of city buses have been examined numerically and experimentally under bending
and tensional cyclic constant-amplitude loading. Hot-spot stresses at failure-critical locations were calculated by means of finite
element analysis. The corresponding fatigue lives were determined experimentally. There was good overall agreement between
calculated and experimentally determined critical locations. The recommendations within the IIW guideline concerning the Hot
Spot Stress Approach were found to give accurate approximations for the probability of survival of fatigue-loaded welded joints.
The restriction regarding the applicability of the Hot Spot Stress Approach to welds failing only from their transition zones could
be relaxed, at least at least for welds similar to those investigated here.  2000 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Welded joints; Fatigue; Materials strength; Hot Spot Stress Approach; Finite elements

1. Introduction be a worthwhile method of calculating service life in the

The Hot Spot Stress Approach is typically used for
fatigue-resistant design and/or the durability approval of
welded offshore tubular joints. The size of the compo-
nents involved makes it difficult, or at any event expens-
ive, to determine their fatigue behaviour and strength
experimentally. In the commercial-vehicle sector, by
contrast, adequate fatigue resistance is ensured exper-
imentally. Even in this sector, however, there is still a
need for computer-aided methods, particularly when it
is a matter of assessing very short production runs or
special designs. Moreover, even the development of ser-
ies-production parts gives rise to a number of different
design versions, and it is not possible to investigate the
fatigue behaviour of all of these experimentally because
of the limited amount of development time available.
The Hot Spot Stress Approach would therefore seem to
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +49-89-1580-3586; fax: +49-89-
1580-4037.
E-mail address: georgios savaidis@mn.man.de (G. Savaidis)
commercial-vehicle sector, too.
This paper describes initial experience with this
approach in assessing different types of welded joints
for the floor structure of buses. Comparison of applied
and allowable stress levels and the ability to bear them
are based on the so-called hot-spot stresses: i.e., the
stresses that are obtained by calculation at the failure-
critical point, here the undercut, using bending theory of
engineering mechanics, here the theory of elastic shells.
However, stress concentrations due to weld geometry are
not explicitly taken into consideration. Experimental
determination of hot-spot stresses requires linear extra-
polation of the measured strains from a point ahead of
the undercut to the actual critical point. The crucial point
when using this approach is to prove that stress concen-
trations due to weld geometry always occur in the same
way within a wide range of different component geo-
metries. This ensures that a unique stress–life curve,
expressed in hot-spot stresses, is applicable to that range
of components.
In this study, the hot-spot stresses and fatigue lives of
four different structures under bending and tensional

0142-1123/00/$ - see front matter  2000 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 4 2 - 1 1 2 3 ( 9 9 ) 0 0 1 1 9 - X
86 G. Savaidis, M. Vormwald / International Journal of Fatigue 22 (2000) 85–91
cyclic loading have been determined and correlated by
using a single hot-spot stress–life curve. The results indi-
cate feasibilities and limitations of the approach.
2. Welded joints investigated and finite element
modelling
Fig. 1 shows a typical design of a section of the struc-
ture of newly developed MAN intercity buses. Almost
the whole structure consists of various thin bars, beams
and plates, which are joined together by welds. Within
the framework of the current investigation only the floor
structure, as marked in Fig. 1, had to be re-engineered.
While in the past floor structures were designed using
quite rigid, hollow, rectangularly profiled members,
new-generation buses are mainly equipped with C-pro-
filed members in order to reduce weight and costs. The
members are joined together to form a complete floor
structure by means of various plates welded to and join-
ing the various members.
A series of possible construction details was discussed
for the design of the floor structure of the new buses.
Four of them, at which the fatigue resistance in service
had to be assessed, are shown in Fig. 2. In all cases
the connection between the longitudinal, transverse and
diagonal members was performed via butt and fillet
welds between the flanges and the webs. Furthermore,
the joint was reinforced with joint plates and ‘shoes’.
The joint plates were connected to the flanges of the
members by means of a fillet weld along the periphery
of a slot in the joint plate.
The joints studied were mainly subjected to bending
and normal force applied to the members according to
the scheme shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 1. Frame structure of an intercity bus.
2.1. Finite element mesh
According to the state-of-the-art [1–4], the hot-spot
stress must include all the stress-concentrating effects of
the design detail. To determine these, it is appropriate
to perform finite element analysis. However, the relevant
literature [1,2,4] gives only limited assistance regarding
the application of the finite elements of the mesh in prac-
tice. Accordingly, four-node shell elements are used to
model the structures, and these are modelled at the centre
planes of the plates.
Regarding the modelling of the weld, Niemi [4]
presents a whole series of means by which the joint
between two welded plates could be modelled (Fig. 4),
but does not give a clear recommendation. Variant (a),
i.e., an intermediate shell, should be the simplest to
implement. Since by far the greatest proportion of the
time required for a hot-spot stress calculation is devoted
to setting up the finite element mesh, this variant should
therefore be given preference as long as it does not affect
the quality of the results.
The intermediate shell must be assigned a thickness
and material properties. Among other things, the stiff-
ness properties of the intermediate shell modelled should
replicate those of the real weld. In this study, the thick-
ness of the intermediate shell was made equal to the dis-
tance between the plane sections in the middle of the
plates, although real welds are generally thicker. Pre-
calculations with thicker and therefore more rigid inter-
mediate shells resulted in an excessive rise in the struc-
tural hot-spot stresses. The corresponding deformations
confirm that the intermediate shell works like a rigid
ring, which is certainly not realistic.
According to the international standards [1,2], the
dimensions of the elements in the area of interest should
 G. Savaidis, M. Vormwald / International Journal of Fatigue 22 (2000) 85–91
Fig. 2.
Fig. 3. Scheme of load configurations.
be such that at least the centre of the first element should
be no more than 0.4t (where t is the thickness of the
plate) from the location of the highest hot-spot stress.
Given a plate thickness of 5 mm, this gives a rec-
ommended maximum edge length of 2×0.4×t=4 mm in
the area of the hot spot.
However, the influence of the element length on the
calculated hot-spot stress has been checked here for the
case of variant A under bending. For this, various
element lengths of 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 4.0 mm have been
examined. The results, summarized in Table 1, confirm
that the size of the elements has no significant influence
on the calculated hot-spot stress value. Elements with an
edge length of 4 mm were therefore used throughout in
the area of hot spots.
In addition, useful suggestions regarding modelling of
the connection of the diagonal and transverse members
87
Structures investigated.
are given by Fricke and von Stelle [5]. They examined
a gusset on a flange of a double T beam using (a) volume
elements, (b) shell elements with and (c) without model-
ling the weld. These finite element models resemble vari-
ants (e), (b) and (a) of Niemi’s [4] proposal (see Fig. 4).
The hot-spot stresses calculated in Ref. [5] for tension,
bending and shear loading of the beam using volume and
shell elements differ only slightly. According to Niemi’s
proposal and taking into account the comprehensive
results of Fricke and von Stelle, it seems not to be neces-
sary to model the weld when the dimensions of the finite
elements in the area of the welded joints are in agree-
ment with the suggestions given within the IIW guide-
line [1].
Based on these results and considering that the struc-
tural detail investigated here is (a) of comparable
geometry and (b) meshed similarly to the details reported
88 G. Savaidis, M. Vormwald / International Journal of Fatigue 22 (2000) 85–91

elements belonging to different shells. Such stresses are

of no use from the mechanical point of view. In
determining the stresses, therefore, the elements that
belong to the connecting shells between the flange and
the joint plate were not taken into account. It is also
necessary to exclude the stresses of elements in the area
within the slot. The elements that are to be used in the
hot-spot area to determine the structural hot-spot stresses
are shown in Fig. 5(c).
Under tensional loading two areas have been calcu-
lated to be highly stressed. These are:
앫 the connection of the joint plate to the flanges of the
diagonal members, Fig. 6; and
앫 the connection between the diagonal and longitudinal
member, Fig. 7.
In the case of the connection of the joint plate to the
flanges of the diagonal members, hot-spot stresses were
defined as the stresses acting at the location point of the
weld root. In the case of the connection between diag-
onal and longitudinal members, the hot-spot stresses
were taken as the stresses acting at the location of the
weld toe.
It should be mentioned that the numerical analyses
described above cover those loading cases for which cor-
responding fatigue tests have been performed. These
loading cases resemble the most frequent loading in real
operating service. Combined loading or eccentricities in
the introduction of the load are possible under real ser-
vice conditions and yield additional critical locations.
Fig. 4. Alternatives for modelling of the weld according to Niemi [4]. Therefore, and with respect to final production release,
special attention has been dedicated to this by further
Table 1 numerical analyses [6,7], experimental investigations on
Influence of element length on the calculated hot-spot stress a test rig and the road tests [8] that are customarily used
at the company.
Element length (mm) Hot-spot stress (MPa)

1.0 76
1.5 80
2.0 78
4.0 79
in [5], the fillet weld connecting the diagonal and trans-
verse member was not modelled explicitly in the cur-
rent investigation.
The design detail that has been identified to be the
most critical under bending was the connection of the
joint plate to the flanges of the longitudinal or transverse
members, Fig. 5. For this detail, the finite element mesh
and the stress distribution is plotted in Fig. 5. The corre-
sponding hot-spot stress values were taken from the
finite element calculation as nodal stresses at the location
point of the weld root.
When using nodal stresses, however, it should be
ensured that the post-processor of the program used does
not calculate averages of nodal stresses of adjacent
3. Fatigue test results and analysis
Constant amplitude fatigue tests according to the load
configurations shown in Fig. 3 have been performed to
determine the fatigue life of the variants investigated.
The results can be taken as a basis to check the finite
element analysis with regard to the failure-critical
locations. Furthermore, they can be used to check the
efficiency of the hot-spot stress as a parameter for a uni-
form treatment uniform treatment of fatigue design
and/or durability approval of the welds investigated, fail-
ing from both the weld root and the weld transition zone.
Table 2 gives details about the load values, the exper-
imentally observed failure locations and the correspond-
ing calculated hot-spot stresses (as described in the pre-
vious section) for each test. Fig. 8(a) to (d) show typical
fatigue cracks for some of the cases investigated. Good
agreement between numerical and test results regarding
the failure locations was observed in nearly all the cases.
 G. Savaidis, M. Vormwald / International Journal of Fatigue 22 (2000) 85–91 89

Fig. 5. Design detail of variant A leading to weld root failure under cyclic bending. Finite element mesh and stress distribution.

Fig. 6. Design detail of variant B leading to weld root failure under cyclic tension. Finite element mesh and stress distribution.

Fig. 7. Design detail of variant C leading to weld transition zone failure under cyclic tension. Finite element mesh and stress distribution.

Fig. 9 contains (1) the fatigue lives, (2) the corre-
sponding stress–life curves for various values of prob-
ability of survival determined from the test results using
regression analysis and (3) the hot-spot stress–life curve
which is suggested by the guideline standards of Euroc-
ode [9] and the IIW [1,2]. The latter are to be used for
the design of fillet welds in an as-welded condition if
no experimental results are available. Please note that
this curve is based on several fatigue tests and assigned
with a probability of survival of 90% within a confidence
belt of 75%, which results in an overall probability of
survival of Ps=95%.
Open symbols represent failure within the weld tran-
sition zone while solid ones indicate failure from the
weld root. The failure criterion was defined as the forma-
tion of crack lengths of about 30–40 mm.
An important finding is that all test results are within
a unique scatter band, independent of the failure location
(weld transition zone or weld root).
The regression analysis, and thus the evaluation of the
stress–life curves for various values of probability of sur-
vival, was performed using a unique stress–life slope of
k=2.73. This k value had been determined previously by
linear regression of the test results of variant C under
tensional loading, specimens 9 to 16 in Table 2. Only
within this subset had a sufficient number of tests on —
at least — two different load levels been performed,
which is necessary to yield statistically reliable slope
90 G. Savaidis, M. Vormwald / International Journal of Fatigue 22 (2000) 85–91

Table 2
Details concerning the fatigue tests

Variant
Number of Hot-spot stress
Specimen no. according to Load type Load levels Failure locationa
cycles to failure range (MPa)
Fig. 2

Fmax (kN) Fmin (kN)

1 A Bending 44.5 2.50 257,800 WR 343

2 B Bending 44.5 2.50 210,000 WR 474
3 C Bending 44.5 2.50 411,700 WR 343
601,000 WTZ 220
4 C Bending 44.5 2.50 396,000 WTZ 220
5 A Tension 36.0 ⫺6.25 580,000 WR 208
6 A Tension 36.0 ⫺6.25 282,000 WR 208
7 B Tension 36.0 ⫺6.25 311,250 WR 338
8 B Tension 36.0 ⫺6.25 155,560 WR 338
9 C Tension 36.0 ⫺6.25 350,000 WTZ 386
10 C Tension 36.0 ⫺6.25 400,000 WTZ 386
11 C Tension 36.0 ⫺6.25 240,000 WTZ 386
12 C Tension 25.2 ⫺4.40 1,057,000 WTZ 272
13 C Tension 25.2 ⫺4.40 498,000 WTZ 272
14 C Tension 25.2 ⫺4.40 788,000 WTZ 272
15 C Tension 32.3 ⫺5.60 250,300 WTZ 363
16 C Tension 32.3 ⫺5.60 251,200 WTZ 363
17 D Tension 32.3 ⫺5.60 180,600 WTZ 308
18 D Tension 32.3 ⫺5.60 150,600 WTZ 308
19 D Tension 32.3 ⫺5.60 326,100 WTZ 308
20 D Tension 36.0 ⫺6.25 400,000 WTZ 363
21 D Tension 36.0 ⫺6.25 152,400 WTZ 363
22 D Tension 36.0 ⫺6.25 100,000 WTZ 363

a
WR — weld root; WTZ — weld transition zone.

Fig. 8. Fatigue cracks in specimens of (a) variant A, (b) variant B, (c) variant C and (d) variant D under cyclic tensional loading.

values. Additionally, this slope is in good agreement NP=90% 1

with values reported in the literature for similar welded T N⫽ ⫽
NP=10% 4.5
joints [10–13]. The scatter of the results, expressed by
the ratio of the fatigue lives for 90% to 10% probability and is typical for welds under cyclic normal stresses
of survival, amounts to [1,2,10,12,14].
 G. Savaidis, M. Vormwald / International Journal of Fatigue 22 (2000) 85–91
Fig. 9. Fatigue test results and comparison with the fatigue life curve
according to international standards [1,9].
Taking common scatter into account, the experimental
results here indicate reliability of the Hot Spot Stress
Approach to all the welds investigated, independent of
the failure location. In addition, comparison of the
stress–life curve according to Refs. [1,9] with the exper-
imentally determined curve for Ps=95% shows devi-
ations that do not exceed a factor of 2 in life, and con-
firms the reliability of these international guidelines for
the welds investigated.
4. Conclusions
Various welded joints with complex geometries for
the floor structure of city and intercity buses made from
low alloyed structural steel have been investigated
numerically and experimentally under constant-ampli-
tude cyclic loading. The following remarks are made
in conclusion.
The recommendations given within the IIW standards
with respect to simple finite element meshing of welded
structures have been found to be sufficiently accurate to
yield reliable results. The finite element analyses
unravelled all the locations which later were identified
experimentally as failure-critical.
The current results showed that fatigue design and/or
durability approval of the welded joints investigated,
failing from the weld root or the weld transition zone,
can be performed on the basis of the calculated hot-spot
stresses. For these cases, the restriction regarding the
applicability of the Hot Spot Stress Approach to welds
failing only from their transition zones could be relaxed.
However, this conclusion should not be extended to gen-
eral engineering applications, since the reliability of the
91
Hot Spot Stress Approach depends on how hot-spot
stresses are defined and, in the case of numerical analy-
sis, on the modelling of the structure and the weld
geometry. Further investigations on this topic should try
to clarify whether and how the recommended application
fields of the Hot Spot Stress Approach within the inter-
national standards can be extended to describe weld root
fatigue failure, too.
Additionally, if the comparison of the fatigue resist-
ance of the structures investigated here had been perfor-
med using the recommendations of the IIW guideline,
sufficiently reliable results would have been achieved.
Expensive tests, and therewith costs and time, can thus
be significantly reduced.
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