l3.

SLOPE STABILITY

3.1 Circular failure mechanisms

When slope failures are investigated it is often found that failure occurs by
a rotational slip along an approximately circular failure surface, as shown
below. This observation provides a basis for several methods used to
assess the stability of slopes.

Shallow failure
Deep-seated failure

3.1.1 Factor of Safety

When performing stability analyses we generally are not interested in

failure as such; failure is a final limiting state that we do not want the soil
to reach. We are usually more interested in the stability of the unfailed
soil, and in determining a factor of safety, F, for the unfailed soil. Factors
of safety need to be considered carefully in soils. For example, in the
design of retaining walls for active conditions, as the factor of safety
increases so will the force that needs to be provided.

To determine the factor of safety we assume that only some part of the
frictional and cohesive forces have been mobilised, so that on the
assumed failure plane the soil is not at a state of failure.

At failure the stresses are given by the Mohr-Coulomb criterion as

τ = c + σ tan φ

At stress states remote from failure the mobilised shear stress, τ mob, is
assumed to be given by

c  tan φ 
τ mob = + σ 
F  F 
or
τ m ob = c m + σ tanφ m

c
where cm (= ) is known as the mobilised cohesion
F
 −1  tan φ 
φm (= tan   ) is known as the mobilised friction angle
 F 

Note that it is assumed that both components of strength are divided by

the same factor F.

3.1.2 Short term stability of soils with φu = 0

For clayey soils that remain undrained in the short term, and that have
strength parameters c = cu, φ = φu = 0, the analysis is straightforward.
Consider the slope shown below and assume that the shear strength has
been reduced by a factor F, so that c = cu/F. Failure will then occur along a
circular arc of radius R as indicated in the figure.

θ
R x

W τ = cu

If the soil is homogeneous, then by considering moment equilibrium about

the centre of the assumed slip circle it can be seen that
R θ cu
2
Wx =
F
where θ is the angle subtended by the failure circle at its centre
W is the weight of the rotating body
x is the centre of mass of the rotating soil body.

rearranging we obtain
R θ cu
2
Resisting Moment
F = =
Wx Disturbing Moment

• The factor of safety of the slope can then be determined by considering

a range of failure surfaces (slip circles) with different centres and radii to
find the slip circle that gives the minimum value of F.

• Because this analysis is an undrained, total stress analysis, the possibility

that tension cracks may form, and that these cracks may fill with water
 must be considered. Water in a tension crack will provide an additional
disturbing moment and can significantly reduce the factor of safety.

• The analysis can be easily modified to account for non-homogeneous soil

deposits.

• To obtain the minimum value of F computer methods are generally used.

These methods require the soil to be split into a series of slices. This
approach is also used for the more general analysis discussed below.

3.1.3 The Method of Slices

For soils which have φ ≠ 0 a more elaborate analysis is required. The same
general method can be used for both undrained (total stress) and effective
stress analysis.

Let us consider the effective stress analysis of the slope shown below

R
Wi

Ti

Ni

The forces acting on the i th slice are as shown below

 R sin θ i

θi

∆ xi

Xi

U ii E ′i E ′i + 1 U ii + 1
Xi + 1
∆ li
Ti

N ′i

Ui

Noting that the internal forces between the slices will cancel when taking
moments we obtain

n
R e s to rinmg o m e n t= R ∑ Ti
i=1

Assuming a Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion the restoring moment can be

written

c′i ∆ li  t a φ n′i 
n
= ∑R [ + N′i   ]
i=1 F  F
 n
O v e rtu rng inm o m e n=t R ∑ Wi s in θ i
i=1
The factor of safety F is then given by

Re sisting Moment ∑ [ c ′ ∆l
i i + N ′i tan φ ′i ]
F = = i =1
n
Overturning Moment
∑ W sin θ
i =1
i i

When an undrained (total stress) analysis is being performed there are

essentially the same forces acting on the slices. However, in a total stress
analysis the forces due to the water pressures U i, Uii are not required and
only the total forces Ei, Ni need to be considered. The shear force on each
slice is given by the total stress failure criterion and the restoring moment
can be written

n
c u i ∆ li  ta nφ u i 
= R∑ [ + Ni   ]
i=1 F  F 

To calculate the factor of safety the normal force must be known. By

considering the force equilibrium of the slice it can be seen that the force N
´i will depend on the interslice forces Xi and E´i. Unfortunately N cannot be
simply determined from consideration of equilibrium (the slice is statically
indeterminate) and it is necessary to make an assumption. There are
several methods of determining the factor of safety, each method involving
different assumptions. The two simplest and most commonly used methods
and their assumptions are considered below.

3.1.3.1 The Swedish method of slices

In this method it is assumed that the resultant of the interslice forces acts
in a direction perpendicular to the normal force N.

Then resolving parallel to N we obtain

N i = N ′i + Ui = Wi cos θ i
where the force Ui = ui ∆li and ui is the pore pressure at the centre of the
slice on the assumed failure circle

Substitution of the expression for Ni into the equation for the factor of
safety gives
n

∑i=1
[ c ′i ∆ l i + ( Wi c o sθ i - Ui ) ta n φ ′i ]
Effective stress analysis F = n

∑
i=1
Wi s inθ i
Undrained analysis
 n

∑
i=1
[ cu i ∆ l i + Wi c o sθ i t a n φ u i ]
F = n

∑
i=1
Wi s inθ i
Example – Swedish method

Determine the short term stability of the slope shown below, given that the
slope was initially submerged with water and that the water level has now
been drawn down to the level of the top of the sand.

Initially the centre and radius of the failure plane must be assumed. The
calculations presented below are for one such assumption. However, to find
the factor of safety of the slope, a number of centres and radii will need to
be considered to find the combination that gives the minimum factor of
safety.

θ
R = 5.83

1m

6 7 8 Clay
φu = 0
cu = 25 kPa
γ sat = 15
kN/m3
1 2 3 4 5
z
∆l Sand
φ´ = 30o
c´ = 0
γ sat = 20
kN/m3
Example calculations for slice 6

1. ∆li = 1.11 m measured from figure

2. xi = 2.5 m measured from figure
3. θi = sin (2.5/5.83) = 25.4o
-1
or measure from figure. Note that
θ is positive for slices giving
positive overturning moments
4. Wi = A γ = 1 × 2 × 15 + 1 × 0.268 × 20 = 35.36 kN/m
5. Ni = Wi cos θi = 35.36 cos (25.4) = 31.94 kN/m
6. Ui = γ w z ∆li = 9.81 × 0.268 × 1.11 = 2.92 kN/m
7. N´i = Ni - Ui = 29.02 kN/m
8. Wi sin θi = 35.36 sin (25.4) = 15.17 kN/m
9. Ti = C´i + N´i tan φ´i = 0 + 29.02 tan (30) = 16.75 kN/m
The results for all the slices can be similarly evaluated and tabulated as
shown below

θ ∆l u U W N N´ C Wsinθ T
( ο) (m) (kPa) (kN/m (kN/m (kN/m (kN/m (kN/m (kN/m) (kN/m
) ) ) ) ) )
1 -25.4 1.10 2.62 2.91 5.35 4.84 1.93 - -2.30 1.11
7 8 0 7 5
2 -14.9 1.03 6.22 6.64 12.7 12.2 5.82 - -3.77 3.36
5 7 6 0 7 2 2
3 -4.93 1.00 7.94 7.97 23.6 23.6 15.6 - -2.03 9.02
4 2 4 9 0 3 4
4 4.93 1.00 7.94 7.97 38.6 38.5 30.5 - 3.317 17.6
4 2 4 9 4 7 5
5 14.8 1.03 6.22 6.64 42.7 41.2 34.8 - 10.98 20.1
9 5 7 6 0 6 1 0
6 25.4 1.11 2.62 2.92 35.3 31.9 29.0 - 15.17 16.7
8 6 4 2 5
7 36.8 1.25 - - 24.9 19.9 - 31.2 14.98 31.2
7 0 6 6 5 5
8 50.5 1.57 - - 10.6 6.75 - 39.3 8.20 39.3
3 2 2 5 0 0

where

U = u ∆l N = W cos θ N´ = N - U

C = c´ ∆l in the sand (Effective stress analysis)

C = cu ∆l in the clay (Undrained, Total stress analysis)

For sand T = C´ + N´ tan φ´ but c´ = 0 therefore T = N´ tan φ´

For clay T = C + N tan φu but φu = 0 therefore T = C

F =
Re sisting Moment
=
∑T =
138 .56
= 311
.
Disturbing Moment ∑W sin θ 44 .54

If a load of 100 kN/m is placed on top of slice 6, only the calculations for
slice 6 are affected and these become

W = 35.36 + 100 × 1 = 135.36 Slice is 1 m wide

N = W cos θ = 122.47

N´ = N - U = 119.36

W sin θ = 58.06
T = N´ tan φ´ = 68.9

F =
∑T =
190 .7
= 2.18
∑W sin θ 87.44
3.1.3.2 Bishop's simplified method of slices

In this method it is assumed that the vertical interslice forces, Xi, Xi+1, are
equal.

R sin θ i

θi

∆ xi

Xi

U ii E ′i E ′i + 1 U ii + 1
Xi + 1
∆ li
Ti

N ′i

Ui

Then resolving vertically we obtain

Wi = Ti sin θ i + N ′i cos θ i + ui ∆ x i
We know that the mobilised strength Ti is given by
c ′i ∆ l i N ′i tan φ ′i
Ti = +
F F
substituting this into the previous expression, noting that ∆xi = ∆li cos θi and
rearranging gives

Wi - ui ∆ x i - ( 1/ F )c ′i ∆ x i t a nθ i
N ′i =
 ta nφ ′ ta nθ i 
c o sθ i  1 + i 
 F 
 tan φ′i
Let M i (θ) = cos θ i [ 1 + tan θ i ]
F
Then substitution of the expression for N´i into the equation for the factor
of safety, F, that is

Re sisting Moment
∑ [ c ′ ∆l
i i + N ′i tan φ ′i ]
F = = i =1
n
Overturning Moment
∑ W sin θ
i =1
i i

gives
n
 1 
∑ ( c ′i ∆ x i + ( Wi - ui ∆ x i ) ta n φ ′i )  
F =
i=1  M i (θ ) 
n

∑i=1
Wi s in θ i

Note that in the Bishop's simplified method the factor of safety appears in
both sides of the equation, as it is included also in the M i (θ) term. Thus to
obtain solutions an iterative approach is needed. This means that you
need to assume a value for the factor of safety before evaluating the
summations to give a new factor of safety. It is found that the factor of
safety converges rapidly.

A chart is shown below (p 183 in Data Sheets) which simplifies hand

calculation by giving values for Mi for a range of values of θ and φ. Note
that the sign of θ is important, as noted above θ is positive for slices
giving positive overturning moments.
 1.6
Note: θ is + when slope of failure arc is
in same quadrant as ground slope
1.0
1.4
0.8
Values of Mi (θ)

1.2
_ 0.6
--------φ
-tan --
F 0.4
1.0
0 0.2
0.2
0.8
0.4 _ 0
tan φ
0.6 -----------
F
0.6
0.8

1.0
0.4
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Values of θ

GRAPH FOR DETERMINATION OF M i (θ)

For undrained (total stress) analysis the procedure is similar and the factor
of safety becomes

n
 1 
∑ ( cu i ∆ x i + Wi ta n φ u i )  
F =
i=1  M i (θ ) 
n

∑i=1
Wi s in θ i
where
tan φ ui
M i (θ ) = cos θ i [ 1 + tan θ i ]
F

When φu = 0, Mi (θ) = cos θi and Bishop’s simplified method gives an

identical answer to the Swedish method. However, in general the methods
give different answers. Both methods tend to underestimate the factor of
safety estimated by more accurate analyses. Bishop’s method is the more
(theoretically) accurate and is more widely used.

3.1.4 Important points

• Numerical analyses are required to determine the most critical slip circle

• Both the Swedish and Bishop’s methods can be used for undrained (total
stress) analysis, and for effective stress (usually drained) analysis. In
many situations the slope analysis requires combinations of drained and
undrained analyses. For instance, the short term stability of a slope
containing layers of clay and sand would require a total stress
(undrained) analysis in the clay and an effective stress (drained) analysis
in the sand.

• In undrained (total stress) analyses the undrained parameters cu, φu must

be used in the expressions for the factor F, and the pore pressure term is
ignored.

• The effect of vertical surface loads can be included in the analysis by

adding the vertical force on a slice to the weight of that slice.

• For submerged slopes, such as shown below, the water must be included
in the analysis

Water
There are two basic options

1. Treat the water as a material with no strength, but having a unit

weight γ w. Effectively the water is providing a vertical load onto the
underlying slices.

2. Use the submerged unit weight γ´ (= γ sat - γ w ) for all the soil below the
surface of the water. This approach can only be used in a total stress
analysis if φu = 0.

• The factor of safety is very sensitive to pore pressures in the ground. The
pore pressures may be determined from

1. A piezometric surface. The pore pressures are determined assuming

that u = γ w z, where z is the distance below the piezometric surface.
This is exact when there is no flow and when the flow is horizontal.

2. A flow net. In numerical analyses a grid of pore pressure values can be

set up.

Example – Bishop’s simplified method

For the same slope and slices as used before the calculations for slice 6
become

∆xi = 1.0 m measured from figure

xi = 2.5 m measured from figure
θi = sin-1 (2.5/5.83) = 25.4o or measure from figure. Note that
θ is positive for slices giving
positive overturning moments
Wi = A γ = 1 × 2 × 15 + 1 × 0.268 × 20 = 35.36 kN/m
Wi sin θi = 35.36 sin (25.4) = 15.17 kN/m
ui = γ w z = 9.81 × 0.268 = 2.628 kN/m
ci∆xi + (Wi – ui∆xi) tan φi = 0 × 1 + (35.36 - 2.628 × 1) tan 30o = 18.9 kN/m Note
that it is φ the friction angle, not θ in this
calculation
Now assume a factor of safety, say F = 3
Mi = cos θi (1 + tan θi tan φi /F) = cos(25.4)× (1+tan(25.4)× tan(30)/3) = 0.986
Or read Mi off the chart for θ = 25.4 and (tan φ)/F = tan(30)/3 = 0.19

The results for all the slices can be similarly evaluated and tabulated as
shown below

θ ∆x u W Wsin c∆x T* = c∆x M T*/M

( ο) (m) (kPa) (kN/m θ (kN/m + (W-
) (kN/m ) u∆x)tan φ
) (kN/m)
1 -25.4 1.0 2.62 5.35 -2.30 - 1.58 0.821 1.92
8 7
2 -14.9 1.0 6.22 12.7 -3.77 - 3.74 0.917 4.08
 7 0
3 -4.93 1.0 7.94 23.6 -2.03 - 9.09 0.980 9.28
2 9
4 4.93 1.0 7.94 38.6 3.31 - 17.75 1.013 17.52
2 9 7
5 14.8 1.0 6.22 42.7 10.9 - 21.06 1.016 20.73
9 7 0 8
6 25.4 1.0 2.62 35.3 15.1 - 18.9 0.986 19.17
8 6 7
7 36.8 1.0 - 24.9 14.9 25.0 25 0.800 31.26
7 6 8
8 50.5 1.0 - 10.6 8.20 25.0 25 0.636 39.30
3 2

F =
∑T*
M =
143 .3
= 3.22 .
∑Wsin θ 44 .54
Then using the updated F=3.22 re-evaluate M and T*/M until the solution
converges. In this problem this gives F = 3.25.
3.2 Multiple wedge failure mechanisms

If the soil profile contains weak, usually clay, layers the failure plane may
coincide with the weak layer, and analysis of circular failure mechanisms
may be inappropriate. In this situation it is often assumed that the failure
mechanism consists of wedges of soil moving relative to one another. For
example, with a weak horizontal layer the 2 wedge mechanism shown
below is a possible failure mechanism:

Weak layer

In some cases more complex mechanisms need to be considered

involving 3 or more wedges, for example

Consider the two wedge mechanism shown below

2
1

When the slope fails the strength mobilised between the two wedges is
given by the failure criterion of the soil. However, when the slope is
remote from failure the mobilised strength between the two wedges is
likely to be different from the mobilised strength on the base of the
wedges. The mobilised strength between the wedges may range from
zero to that given by the parameters cm, φm, giving the mobilised strength
on the base of the wedges.

For practical calculations for soil structures that are remote from failure it
is often assumed that a median value between 0 and cm, φm is
appropriate, so that between the wedges

cm φm
c* = φ* =
2 2

However, in the limit when F = 1, the mobilised strength must be the

same everywhere. It is therefore convenient analytically to assume that
the maximum mobilised strength is the same on all the assumed failure
planes.

Now if a value of F is assumed the forces acting on the two wedges are as
shown below

X1
C2
φ´m
W2
C12
W1
C12
φ´m
C1 φ´m
R2
R1 φ´mc X2

The force polygons can then be constructed

X1
R2

X2
R1
C12
W2
W1
C2

C1 C12
To construct these polygons a factor of safety was assumed. This
assumption affects the magnitude of the cohesion forces C1, C12, C2 and
the mobilized angles of friction.

If the chosen value of the factor of safety is correct the inter-wedge

resultant forces (X1 and X2) will be equal and opposite, as required for
equilibrium. Because the initial value of F was a guess, the inter-wedge
forces are unlikely to be equal. To determine the correct factor of safety
the calculations must be repeated with different values of F and
interpolation used to determine the true factor of safety, for the assumed
mechanism.

X1 - X2

Note:

• the calculated factor of safety is not necessarily the factor of safety

of the slope. To determine this all the possible mechanisms must
be considered to determine the mechanism giving the lowest factor
of safety.

• In any analysis the appropriate parameters must be used for c and

φ. In an undrained analysis (short term in clays) the parameters are
cu, φu with total stresses, and in an effective stress analysis (valid
any time if pore pressures known) the parameters are c′ , φ′ used
with the effective stresses.

• In an effective stress analysis if pore pressures are present the

forces due to the water must be considered and if necessary
included in the inter-wedge forces.

Example – wedge analysis

The figure below shows a slope that has been created by dumping a
clayey sand (γ bulk = 18 kN/m3) onto a soil whose surface has been
softened to create a thin soft clay layer. If the shear strength parameters
of the clayey sand are c´ = 0, φ´ = 30o, and the undrained strength of the
softened clay layer is 40 kPa, determine the short term factor of safety of
the slope. Assume that the failure mechanism is as shown below.
 2
1 15
2 m
1
60o 50o

20
m
1. Calculate areas:

A1 = 86.6 m2 A2 = 115.6 m2

2. Assume Factor of Safety

F=2

3. Calculate c, φ parameters

Weak layer cm = cu/F = 40/2 = 20 kPa, φm = 0

Clayey sand cm = 0, φ’m =

4. Calculate known forces

W1 = 86.6 × 18 = 1558.8 kN/m W2 = 115.6 × 18 = 2080 kN/m

C1 = 20 × 20 = 400 kN/m

5. Draw force diagrams

X1
16.1 W2
16.1
W1
16.1 R2
60 o
X2 60 o
50o
C1
R1
For Block 1: Resolving horizontally gives X1 cos (16.1+30) =
C1
X1 = 576.9 kN/m

For Block 2: Resolving horizontally gives X2 cos (16.1+30) =

R2 cos (16.1+40)
X2 = 0.80 R2

Resolving vertically gives W2 = X2 sin (46.1) + R2 sin

(56.1)
X2 =1186.9 kN/m

Repeat for F = 1.5 (cm = 26.67 kPa, φ´m = 21.05o)

X1 = 848.5 kN/m
X2 = 0.77 R2
X2 = 1086.6 kN/m

Using linear interpolation/extrapolation

F = 1.18

3.3 Infinite Slopes

For long slopes another potential failure mechanism is a failure plane, usually at relatively small
depths, parallel to the soil surface. This situation is demonstrated below.
 b Soil Surface
α
os
b/c Water Table

W
Assumed
d dw failure
surface
T
2
dwcos α
N’
dwcos α
U
α

If the failure surface is very long then the inter-slice forces must cancel out, and then
considering equilibrium we can write (assuming the unit weight is the same above and below
the water table):
N = W cos α = γ b d cos α

and the normal stress, σ is T given

= W bysin α = γ b d sin α
a
The normal and shear stresses on the assumed failure plane are thus given by

N
σ = = γ d cos2 α
b
cosα

T
τ = = γ d sinα cosα
b
cosα

The water pressure can be determined from consideration of the flow (from the flow net)
u = γ w d w cos2 α

and the force due to the water pressure on the failure surface is

U = u  b cosα  = γ w b d w cosα
 
Because a flow net is being used an effective stress analysis is required and therefore the failure
criterion is given by
τ = c ′ + σ′ tan φ′

or in terms of forces by

T = C ′ + N ′ tan φ′

and σ ′ = σ − u = ( γ d − γ w d w ) co s2 α

If we define a factor of safety F by

τf shear stress required for failure
F = =
τ actual shear stress
then
c ′ + ( γ d - γ w d w ) cos2 α tan φ ′
F =
γ d sin α cos α
It is usually appropriate to use the critical state parameters c' = 0, φ' = φ'cs, so that

( γ d - γ w d w ) tan φ′cs  γ d  tan φ′cs

F = = 1 − w w
γ d tan α  γ d  tan α

If the soil is dry above the assumed failure plane then the factor of safety becomes

tan φ′cs
F =
tan α

If the soil is failing F = 1 then

Dry
α = φ ′c s Sand

For dry slopes the friction angle is equal to the angle of repose. φ´cs

If dw = d, that is the soil is saturated and water is flowing parallel to the slope then at failure
(F=1)
 γ 
tan α =  1 − w  tan φ ′cs
 γ 

Typically for sand φ´cs = 35o and γ sat = 20 kN/m3 which gives α = 19.3o at
failure.

Note that water reduces the stable angle by a factor of about 2.

3.4 Graphical solutions

Solutions are available for some common slope geometries and ground
water conditions.

3.4.1 Undrained (total stress) analyses

The stability of homogeneous slopes can be expressed in terms of a

dimensionless group known as the stability number, N.
c
N =
γH

Where c = cohesion
γ = bulk unit weight
H = height of the cut

If two slopes are geometrically similar they will have the same factor of
safety provided the stability numbers are the same, that is
 c1 c2
= i
i γ 1 H1 γ 2 H2

3.4.1.1 Taylors chart – Infinite soil layer

A Chart presented by Taylor is shown below (see also p29 in Data Sheets).
The solutions assume circular failure surfaces, and soil strength given by
the Mohr-Coulomb criterion. They ignore the possibility of tension cracks.

0.35
H (A)

DH=H , D=1 Typical cross section

and failure arc in
Zone A Critical
0.30 nH
Case 1
Case 3
DH (Case 2) circle passes
through toe and
Case 2 (B) stability number
Typical cross section showing various cases represented in chart
considered in Zone B by full lines
Case 1: The most dangerous of the circles passing
through the toe, represented by full lines in chart.
0.25

Zone B
Where full lines do not appear, this case is not

Zone A
appreciably different from Case 2
Stability Number c /γHF

Case 2: Critical circle passing below the toe, represented

by long dashed lines in chart. Where long dashed lines
do not appear, the critical circle passes through the toe
Case 3: Surface of ledge or a strong stratum at the
elevation of the toe (D= 1), represented by short 0°
0.20 dashed lines in chart φ=

φ= 0 , D= ∞ 5

For φ = 0 and 1<D< ∞ 10

see companion Fig.
15
0.15 20
25
1
, D=
0
φ=
0.10
1
D=

0.05
1
,

D=
0°
φ=

,
5°
φ=

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Slope Angle i (degrees)

Example CHART OF STABILITY NUMBERS

A slope has an inclination of 30 o and is 8 m high. The soil properties are cu

= 20 kN/m3, φu = 5o, γ bulk = 15 kN/m3. Determine the short term factor of
safety if the clay deposit is infinitely deep.

8m
30o
From the stability chart above for i = 30o and φ = 5o we obtain

c
= 0.11
γHF
c 20
hence F = = = 15
.
γHN 15 × 8 × 0.11

For the correct solution a factored φ∗ = tan-1[(tan φ)/F] should be used. So having
determined F an iterative procedure is required using the updated φ* to determine the correct
factor of safety.

Regions on the chart indicate the mode of failure; whether it will be shallow
or deep-seated. In this example the failure is in zone B, indicating a deep-
seated failure mechanism The zone on the chart has no influence on the
factor of safety determined provided that the soil layer is sufficiently deep
for the implied mechanism to occur.

3.4.1.2 Taylor’s chart - soil layer of finite depth and φu = 0

The influence of a finite depth below the base of the slope can be
determined from a second chart produced by Taylor shown below (also on
p29 in Data Sheets). This chart is limited to the case of φu = 0.
 0.19
For i > 54 ° use Companion Fig. with Zone A φ= 0
i= 53 °
0.18
°
45

0.17 30
°
n=
3

°
.5
22
0.16
Stability Number c /γHF

2
°
15
0.15

1
0.14

5°
7.
nH
0.13
H
DH
0

0.12 Case A. Use full lines of chart,

short dashed lines give n values

0.11
H
DH

0.10 Case B. Use long dashed lines of chart

0.09
1 2 3 4
Depth Factor D

CHART OF STABILITY NUMBERS FOR

THE CASE OF ZERO FRICTION ANGLE
AND LIMITED DEPTH
Example

A slope has an inclination of 30 o and is 8 m high. The soil properties are cu

= 20 kN/m3, φu = 0o, γ bulk = 15 kN/m3. Determine the short term factor of
safety if the clay deposit overlies rock which lies 2 m below the base of the
slope.

8m
30o

Calculate depth factor D from DH = 10 m, H = 8 m. giving D = 1.25

From chart for D=1.25 and i = 30o we obtain

c
= 0.155
γHF

and hence F = 1.075

Note that if φ = 0 and D = ∞ then N = 0.181 and F = 0.92

This indicates that for a deep seated failure reductions in the depth of soil
below the bottom of the slope result in increases in the factor of safety

3.4.2 Effective stress analyses

A number of charts have been published for effective stress analyses but
they are usually limited to very specific conditions, such as for the
construction of large embankments. One of the more useful charts has
been presented by Hoek and Bray for a range of relatively common
groundwater conditions. These charts are in the Data Sheets p 224 - 229
and some of them are reproduced below. In deriving the solutions it is
assumed that:

• a circular failure occurs passing through the toe of the slope,

• the soil is homogeneous,
• a vertical tension crack occurs either in the upper surface or in the
slope face,
• the soil strength is given by the Mohr-Coulomb criterion.

The approach is very similar to that used by Taylor.

Charted solutions are available for the following groundwater conditions

Groundwater Flow Conditions Chart Number

Fully drained slope

Surface water 8 x slope

height behind toe of slope

Surface water 4 x slope

height behind toe of slope

Surface water 2 x slope

height behind toe of slope

Saturated slope subjected

to heavy surface recharge
For each groundwater condition a separate chart is available. Two are
shown below

.01

.02

.03

.04

.05
2.0

.06
CIRCULAR FAILURE CHART NUMBER 1

.07

.08
.09
.10
1.8

.11

2
.1

3
.1
c/ γH.tanφ

4
1.6

.1
5
.1

.1 6
.1
7
8
.1 9
1.4 .1 0
.2

1.2 .25
tan φ/F

.30
1.0
90
.35
(°)
gle .4 0
0.8
e An
op .45
Sl
.50
0.6 80
.60
70 .70
60 .80
0.4 .90
50 1.0
40
30 1.5
0.2 20 2.0
10 4.0
0 ∞

0.
0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.
30
00

02

04

06

08

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

32

34
c/ γ HF

0
.01

.02

.03

.04

.05

2.0
.06

CIRCULAR FAILURE CHART NUMBER 3

.07

.08
.09
.10

1.8
.11

2
.1

3
.1

c/ γH.tan φ
4

1.6
.1
5
.1

.1 6
.1
7

8
.1 9
1.4 .1 0
.2

1.2 .25
tan φ/F

90 .30
1.0
.35
(°)
gle .40
0.8 An
o pe
Sl .45
.50
80
0.6 .60
70
.70
60 .80
0.4 50 .90
40 1.0
30
20 1.5
0.2 2.0
4.0
0 ∞
0.
0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.

0.
30
00

02

04

06

08

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

26

28

32

34

c/ γHF
Example

To demonstrate the use of the charts consider the case of a slope 10 m

high with a slope of 20 degrees in a clayey soil with properties cu = 20
kN/m3, φu = 5o, c′ = 2 kN/m2, φ′ = 25o, γ sat = 16 kN/m3. In the long term the
water table is at the surface for distances greater than 40 m behind the toe
of the slope.

10
20 o m

When using Hoek and Bray charts it is important that effective strength
parameters c´ and φ´ are used.

• Determine the appropriate chart from the known position of the water
table. In this example it is Chart 3

c 2
• Calculate γ H tan φ = 16 ×10 × tan 25 = 0.027

• For slope angle 20o read off chart

c
either = 0.0139
γHF
tan φ
or = 0.518
F

• Hence F ≈ 0.9 (The slope would fail)

Note that in practice it is likely in any detailed design that a computer slope
stability program will be used. However, the speed and simplicity of using
charts such as these make them suitable for checking the sensitivity of the
factor of safety to a range of values of the soil parameters and slope
geometries.

For instance in the example above if the water table is lowered and chart 2
is appropriate the factor of safety will increase to F ≈ 1.1

Note also that chart 1 which is shown for a fully drained (dry) slope is
equivalent to Taylor’s charts. That is chart 1 can be used for a total stress
(undrained) analysis. This is because in the analysis of a dry slope the total
and effective stresses are the same. The analysis is only concerned with
the values of c, φ, γ . Solutions will be slightly different to those from
Taylor’s chart because slightly different assumptions are made in the two
analyses.
 Tutorial Problems – Slope Stability

1. Use Taylor’s curves to determine the maximum height of a 70 o slope in homogeneous

soil for which γ = 16 kN/m3 and c = 20 kN/m2 if

a) φ = 25 o b) φ = 10 o c) φ=0

What would be the answer in each case using Hoek and Bray’s charts

2. Use Taylor’s curves to determine the factor of safety and depth of critical circle of a
wide cutting 12 m deep of 7.5 o slope in a clay for which φ u = 0, c u = 40 kN/m2 and γ =
16 kN/m3. Assume

a) The clay extends to a great depth

b) There is a hard stratum at 36 m below the top of the cutting

c) A hard stratum at 22 m

d) A hard stratum at 12 m

e) A hard stratum at 6 m

Repeat cases a to e for a narrow cutting where the toes of the two slopes coincide

3 Determine the factor of safety against immediate shear failure along the slip circle
shown in Figure 1 below:

(a) when the tension crack of depth z = 4.32 m is empty of water

(b) when the tension crack is full of water

The soil properties are cu = 40 kN/m2, φu = 0. The weight of the sliding mass of soil, W
= 1325 kN/m, and the horizontal distance of the centroid of this mass from the centre of
the circle, d = 5.9 m. The radius of the slip circle, R = 17.4 m, and the angle θ = 67.4o.
(You do not need to use the method of slices).

Figure 1
4 A wide cutting of slope 45o is excavated in a silt of unit weight γ sat = 19 kN/m3. When
the cut is 12 m deep a rotational slip occurs which is estimated to have a radius of 17 m
and to pass through the toe and a point 5.5 m back from the upper edge of the slope.
Shear tests on undisturbed samples give variable values for cu. Assuming φu = 10o
estimate an average value of cu round the failure surface by using

(a) the Swedish method of slices

(b) Bishop’s simplified method of slices

5 Shown in Figure 2 is the cross-section of a cutting that is to be made in a partially

saturated clayey sand which contains a weak clay seam that will be intersected by the
face of the cut.

Calculate the factor of safety that the slope would have against a wedge type failure by
using the two wedges that are shown in the figure.

Properties of the materials are as follows:

Clayey sand: γ bulk = 18 kN/m3, c′ = 0, φ′ = 26o

Clay seam: cu = 45 kN/m2, φu = 0

Figure 2

6 Determine the factor of safety of a long (infinite) slope as a function of the slope angle,
α, if the water flows horizontally out of the slope. Take c' = 0.

Calculate the limiting value of α if φ' = 30o, and γ sat = 20 kN/m3.

 Tutorial Problems – Slope Stability

1. Use Taylor’s curves to determine the maximum height of a 70 o slope in homogeneous

soil for which γ = 16 kN/m3 and c = 20 kN/m2 if

a) φ = 25 o b) φ = 10 o c) φ=0

What would be the answer in each case using Hoek and Bray’s charts

2. Use Taylor’s curves to determine the factor of safety and depth of critical circle of a wide
cutting 12 m deep of 7.5 o slope in a clay for which φ u = 0, c u = 40 kN/m2 and γ = 16 kN/m3.
Assume

a) The clay extends to a great depth

b) There is a hard stratum at 36 m below the top of the cutting

c) A hard stratum at 22 m

d) A hard stratum at 12 m

e) A hard stratum at 6 m

3 Determine the factor of safety against immediate shear failure along the slip circle
shown in Figure 1 below:

(a) when there is a the tension crack of depth z = 4.32 m that is empty of water

(b) when the tension crack is full of water

The soil properties are cu = 40 kN/m2, φu = 0. The weight of the sliding mass of soil, W
= 1325 kN/m, and the horizontal distance of the centroid of this mass from the centre of
the circle = 5.9 m. The radius of the slip circle, R = 17.4 m, and the angle θ = 67.4o.
(You do not need to use the method of slices).

4 A wide cutting of slope 45o is excavated in a silt of unit weight γ sat = 19 kN/m3. When
the cut is 12 m deep, a rotational slip occurs which is estimated to have a radius of 17
m and to pass through the toe and a point 5.5 m back from the upper edge of the slope.
Shear tests on undisturbed samples give variable values for cu. Assuming φu = 10o
estimate an average value of cu round the failure surface by using the

(a) Fellinius method

(b) Swedish method of slices

5 Determine the factor of safety of a long (infinite) slope as a function of the slope angle,
α, if the water flows horizontally out of the slope. Take c' = 0.
Calculate the limiting value of α if φ' = 30o, and γ sat = 20 kN/m3.
 θ
R x

W τ = cu

Figure 1

Compressibility and Settlement

1. Discuss the compressibility of soils. Describe briefly the oedometer test for
determining the consolidation properties of a saturated clay soil.

2. Explain the following terms: (a) coefficient of compressibility; (b) coefficient

of volume compressibility; (c) underconsolidated soil; (d) normally consolidated
soil; (e) overconsolidated soil. Discuss the effect of sample disturbance on the
results of a laboratory consolidation test.

3. Explain what is meant by preconsolidation pressure. Explain how to

determine the preconsolidation pressure of a clay soil using the Casagrande
construction.

4. Define compression index. What effect does sample disturbance have on the
compression index?

5. The results of a laboratory consolidation test are as follows:

Pressure (Kg/cm2) 0.0 0.13 0.260 0.52 1.04 2.08 4.16 8.32
Dial
Reading (mmx10-2) 0.0 28 55 98 186 338 508 669

Initial thickness of sample = 3.8Km

Specific gravity of solids = 2.72;
Diameter of sample = 10.7cm
Initial weight of specimen = 650gm
Oven-dry weight of specimen after test = 480gm
Liquid Limit (LL) = 45%

(a) Plot the e-logσ curve for the specimen.

(b) Determine the preconsolidation pressure.
(c) Determine the compression index (i) using the e-log curve
and (ii) using an empirical relationship.
(d) Determine the field compression index.
(e) Determine coefficient of compressibility and coefficient of
volume compressibility when the pressure is (i) 2.00 kg/cm2;
(ii) 1.50 kg/cm2.
(f) Determine the coefficient of permeability of the soil.

6. Drive an expression for estimating the settlement/compression of a clay

stratum due to an increase in the effective stress. A normally consolidated clay
soil is 6m thick. Its overburden pressure is 55kN/m2, the void ratio is 0.65 and
the compression index is 0.250. The effective stress due to the weight of a
building on the site is to be increased by 45 kN/m 2. Estimate the settlement of
the building due to compression of the clay layer.

7. The following results were obtained in a fixed ring oedometer test on a

saturated clay specimen. The initial thickness of the sample was 2.54cm. The
thickness of the sample at the end of 24 hours was 2.40cm.

Time (minutes) 1 4 9 16 25 100 225 400

Compression (mm) 0.076 0.127 0.200 0.267 0.343 0.646 0.890 1.040

Determine the coefficient of consolidation by (a) square root-of-time fitting

method; (b) logarithm-of-time fitting method.

8. The sample of Problem 7 was taken from a clay layer which is 4m thick.
How long will it take the clay layer to experience 50% of its final primary
consolidation? Assume similar drainage and loading conditions for both the
laboratory specimen and the field stratum.

9. In the clay of problem 8, the vertical pressure was increased from 150kN/m2
to 200kN/m2. Calculate the pore-water pressure and the vertical effective stress
at the middle of the layer when it is (a) 40% consolidated; (b) 75% consolidated.

10. A deposit of soft clay is 8.0m thick. It is overlain by a layer of sand 10.0m
thick and underlain by an impervious bedrock. The water table at the site is
3.5m below the ground surface. The unit weight of the sand above the water
table is 17.27 kN/m3 while the saturated unit weight is 20 kN/m 3. The clay soil is
normally consolidated with a Liquid Limit of 50% and water content of 40%. The
specific gravity of solids of the clay soil is 2.70. Determine the settlement of the
clay layer due to an increase of 65 kN/m2 in vertical stress at the middle of the
clay layer.

11. An oedometer test is performed on a 2.5cm thick clay specimen. 40%

consolidation was achieved in 5 minutes. Determine how long it will take the
specimen to reach 50% and 90% consolidation.

12. For the clay of problem 11, how long will it take the same clay in the field to
achieve (a) 40% and (b) 60% consolidation if the thickness of the layer is 5m
and the boundary drainage conditions are the same?

13. A soil has a compression index cc of 0.25. Its void ratio at a stress level of
1.25kg/cm2 is 1.04 while its permeability is 3.5x10-8cm/sec. Determine the
following: (a) The change in void ratio if the pressure on the soil is increased to
2.00kg/cm2; (b) the settlement in (a) if the soil is 5m thick; and (c) the
coefficient of consolidation.
 14. A laboratory consolidation test was performed on a specimen of clay
2.54cm thick. The sample was drained at both top and bottom. The time
required for 50% consolidation of the sample was 15 minutes. (a) Determine the
coefficient of consolidation of the sample; (b) Compute the time required for
50% and 90% consolidation of the clay deposit 5m thick with the same drainage
conditions.

15. A normally loaded clay soil has a compression index of 0.20. If the
overburden pressure is 1kg/cm2 and the stratum is 3m thick, how high can the
pressure on the clay become before the ultimate settlement is 2.0cm? The
average initial void ratio of the soil stratum is 0.90.

16. The coefficient of consolidation of a clay soil is 60x10 -4cm2/sec. If the clay
layer is 4m thick with double drainage, determine the time required for the layer
to reach 50% consolidation.

Bearing Capacity

1. Explain and discuss the possible modes of failure of a foundation soil.

2. State and discuss the assumptions in deriving Terzaghi's equation for the
bearing capacity of a shallow strip foundation. Determine the allowable load of a
rigid foundation in a coheionless soil at a depth of 2m if the foundation is (a)
3mx3m; (b) 3mx5m; (c) 4m in diameter. The unit weight of the soil is 19.5 kN/m 3
while the angle of internal friction is 30o. Assume a factor of safety of 3.

3. What is meant by ultimate bearing capacity? Give the expressions for

estimating the bearing capacity of a soil based on (a) general shear; (b) local
shear.

4. A 1.5m strip footing is to be placed at a depth of 1m in a soil with c = 15

kN/m2, ϕ = 25o and γ = 19.2 kN/m3. Determine the safe bearing capacity of the
soil (FS=3.0).

5. Determine the net allowable bearing capacity of a 3mx3m footing at a depth

of 1.5m on a foundation soil with the following properties: c = 0, γ = 20.5 kN/m2
and ϕ = 35o.

6. Solve Problem 5 for a circular footing of radius 5m.

7. A strip footing is 2.0m wide and founded at a depth of 2.5m below the
ground surface. Find the bearing capacity of the footing using a factor of safety
of 3. The cohesion of the foundation soil c = 70kN/m 2, the density γ = 18kN/m3
and ϕ = 0.

8 Rework Problem 7 if the foundation is 18m deep.

9. A square footing is designed to support a column load of 800kN at a depth of

3m below the ground surface. The foundation material has a unit weight γ =
19.5kN/m3, cohesion c = 0 and angle of internal friction ϕ = 35o. Calculate the
dimension of the footing if the factor of safety is 3.
 Tutorial Problems – Slope Stability

1. Use Taylor’s curves to determine the maximum height of a 70 o slope in homogeneous

soil for which γ = 16 kN/m3 and c = 20 kN/m2 if

a) φ = 25 o b) φ = 10 o c) φ=0

What would be the answer in each case using Hoek and Bray’s charts

2. Use Taylor’s curves to determine the factor of safety and depth of critical circle of a wide
cutting 12 m deep of 7.5 o slope in a clay for which φ u = 0, c u = 40 kN/m2 and γ = 16 kN/m3.
Assume

a) The clay extends to a great depth

b) There is a hard stratum at 36 m below the top of the cutting

c) A hard stratum at 22 m

d) A hard stratum at 12 m

e) A hard stratum at 6 m

3 Determine the factor of safety against immediate shear failure along the slip circle
shown in Figure 1 below:

(a) when there is a the tension crack of depth z = 4.32 m that is empty of water

(b) when the tension crack is full of water

The soil properties are cu = 40 kN/m2, φu = 0. The weight of the sliding mass of soil, W
= 1325 kN/m, and the horizontal distance of the centroid of this mass from the centre of
the circle = 5.9 m. The radius of the slip circle, R = 17.4 m, and the angle θ = 67.4o.
(You do not need to use the method of slices).

4 A wide cutting of slope 45o is excavated in a silt of unit weight γ sat = 19 kN/m3. When
the cut is 12 m deep, a rotational slip occurs which is estimated to have a radius of 17
m and to pass through the toe and a point 5.5 m back from the upper edge of the slope.
Shear tests on undisturbed samples give variable values for cu. Assuming φu = 10o
estimate an average value of cu round the failure surface by using the

(a) Fellinius method

(b) Swedish method of slices

5 Determine the factor of safety of a long (infinite) slope as a function of the slope angle,
α, if the water flows horizontally out of the slope. Take c' = 0.
Calculate the limiting value of α if φ' = 30o, and γ sat = 20 kN/m3.
 θ
R x

W τ = cu

Figure 1

Compressibility and Settlement

1. Discuss the compressibility of soils. Describe briefly the oedometer test for
determining the consolidation properties of a saturated clay soil.

2. Explain the following terms: (a) coefficient of compressibility; (b) coefficient

of volume compressibility; (c) underconsolidated soil; (d) normally consolidated
soil; (e) overconsolidated soil. Discuss the effect of sample disturbance on the
results of a laboratory consolidation test.

3. Explain what is meant by preconsolidation pressure. Explain how to

determine the preconsolidation pressure of a clay soil using the Casagrande
construction.

4. Define compression index. What effect does sample disturbance have on the
compression index?

5. The results of a laboratory consolidation test are as follows:

Pressure (Kg/cm2) 0.0 0.13 0.260 0.52 1.04 2.08 4.16 8.32
Dial
Reading (mmx10-2) 0.0 28 55 98 186 338 508 669

Initial thickness of sample = 3.8Km

Specific gravity of solids = 2.72;
Diameter of sample = 10.7cm
Initial weight of specimen = 650gm
Oven-dry weight of specimen after test = 480gm
Liquid Limit (LL) = 45%

(a) Plot the e-logσ curve for the specimen.

(b) Determine the preconsolidation pressure.
(c) Determine the compression index (i) using the e-log curve
and (ii) using an empirical relationship.
(d) Determine the field compression index.
(e) Determine coefficient of compressibility and coefficient of
volume compressibility when the pressure is (i) 2.00 kg/cm2;
(ii) 1.50 kg/cm2.
(f) Determine the coefficient of permeability of the soil.

6. Drive an expression for estimating the settlement/compression of a clay

stratum due to an increase in the effective stress. A normally consolidated clay
soil is 6m thick. Its overburden pressure is 55kN/m2, the void ratio is 0.65 and
the compression index is 0.250. The effective stress due to the weight of a
building on the site is to be increased by 45 kN/m 2. Estimate the settlement of
the building due to compression of the clay layer.

7. The following results were obtained in a fixed ring oedometer test on a

saturated clay specimen. The initial thickness of the sample was 2.54cm. The
thickness of the sample at the end of 24 hours was 2.40cm.

Time (minutes) 1 4 9 16 25 100 225 400

Compression (mm) 0.076 0.127 0.200 0.267 0.343 0.646 0.890 1.040

Determine the coefficient of consolidation by (a) square root-of-time fitting

method; (b) logarithm-of-time fitting method.

8. The sample of Problem 7 was taken from a clay layer which is 4m thick.
How long will it take the clay layer to experience 50% of its final primary
consolidation? Assume similar drainage and loading conditions for both the
laboratory specimen and the field stratum.

9. In the clay of problem 8, the vertical pressure was increased from 150kN/m2
to 200kN/m2. Calculate the pore-water pressure and the vertical effective stress
at the middle of the layer when it is (a) 40% consolidated; (b) 75% consolidated.

10. A deposit of soft clay is 8.0m thick. It is overlain by a layer of sand 10.0m
thick and underlain by an impervious bedrock. The water table at the site is
3.5m below the ground surface. The unit weight of the sand above the water
table is 17.27 kN/m3 while the saturated unit weight is 20 kN/m 3. The clay soil is
normally consolidated with a Liquid Limit of 50% and water content of 40%. The
specific gravity of solids of the clay soil is 2.70. Determine the settlement of the
clay layer due to an increase of 65 kN/m2 in vertical stress at the middle of the
clay layer.

11. An oedometer test is performed on a 2.5cm thick clay specimen. 40%

consolidation was achieved in 5 minutes. Determine how long it will take the
specimen to reach 50% and 90% consolidation.

12. For the clay of problem 11, how long will it take the same clay in the field to
achieve (a) 40% and (b) 60% consolidation if the thickness of the layer is 5m
and the boundary drainage conditions are the same?

13. A soil has a compression index cc of 0.25. Its void ratio at a stress level of
1.25kg/cm2 is 1.04 while its permeability is 3.5x10-8cm/sec. Determine the
following: (a) The change in void ratio if the pressure on the soil is increased to
2.00kg/cm2; (b) the settlement in (a) if the soil is 5m thick; and (c) the
coefficient of consolidation.

14. A laboratory consolidation test was performed on a specimen of clay

2.54cm thick. The sample was drained at both top and bottom. The time
required for 50% consolidation of the sample was 15 minutes. (a) Determine the
coefficient of consolidation of the sample; (b) Compute the time required for
50% and 90% consolidation of the clay deposit 5m thick with the same drainage
conditions.

15. A normally loaded clay soil has a compression index of 0.20. If the
overburden pressure is 1kg/cm2 and the stratum is 3m thick, how high can the
pressure on the clay become before the ultimate settlement is 2.0cm? The
average initial void ratio of the soil stratum is 0.90.

16. The coefficient of consolidation of a clay soil is 60x10 -4cm2/sec. If the clay
layer is 4m thick with double drainage, determine the time required for the layer
to reach 50% consolidation.

Bearing Capacity

1. Explain and discuss the possible modes of failure of a foundation soil.

2. State and discuss the assumptions in deriving Terzaghi's equation for the
bearing capacity of a shallow strip foundation. Determine the allowable load of a
rigid foundation in a coheionless soil at a depth of 2m if the foundation is (a)
3mx3m; (b) 3mx5m; (c) 4m in diameter. The unit weight of the soil is 19.5 kN/m 3
while the angle of internal friction is 30o. Assume a factor of safety of 3.

3. What is meant by ultimate bearing capacity? Give the expressions for

estimating the bearing capacity of a soil based on (a) general shear; (b) local
shear.

4. A 1.5m strip footing is to be placed at a depth of 1m in a soil with c = 15

kN/m2, ϕ = 25o and γ = 19.2 kN/m3. Determine the safe bearing capacity of the
soil (FS=3.0).

5. Determine the net allowable bearing capacity of a 3mx3m footing at a depth

of 1.5m on a foundation soil with the following properties: c = 0, γ = 20.5 kN/m2
and ϕ = 35o.

6. Solve Problem 5 for a circular footing of radius 5m.

7. A strip footing is 2.0m wide and founded at a depth of 2.5m below the
ground surface. Find the bearing capacity of the footing using a factor of safety
of 3. The cohesion of the foundation soil c = 70kN/m 2, the density γ = 18kN/m3
and ϕ = 0.

8 Rework Problem 7 if the foundation is 18m deep.

9. A square footing is designed to support a column load of 800kN at a depth of

3m below the ground surface. The foundation material has a unit weight γ =
19.5kN/m3, cohesion c = 0 and angle of internal friction ϕ = 35o. Calculate the
dimension of the footing if the factor of safety is 3.