Wireless energy transfer or wireless power is the transmission of electrical energy from

a power source to an electrical load without interconnecting wires. Wireless transmission

is useful in cases where interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible.
The problem of wireless power transmission differs from that of wireless
telecommunications, such as radio. In the latter, the proportion of energy received
becomes critical only if it is too low for the signal to be distinguished from the
background noise.[1] With wireless power, efficiency is the more significant parameter. A
large part of the energy sent out by the generating plant must arrive at the receiver or
receivers to make the system economical.

The most common form of wireless power transmission is carried out using direct
induction followed by resonant magnetic induction. Other methods under consideration
include electromagnetic radiation in the form of microwaves or lasers.[2]

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Electric energy transfer

o 1.1 Electromagnetic induction
 1.1.1 Electrodynamic induction method
 1.1.2 Electrostatic induction method
o 1.2 Electromagnetic radiation
 1.2.1 Beamed power, size, distance, and efficiency
 1.2.2 Microwave method
 1.2.3 Laser method
o 1.3 Electrical conduction
 1.3.1 Disturbed charge of ground and air method
 1.3.1.1 Terrestrial transmission line with atmospheric return
 1.3.1.2 Terrestrial single-conductor surface wave
transmission line
• 2 Timeline of wireless power
• 3 See also
• 4 Further reading
• 5 References

• 6 External links

[edit] Electric energy transfer

Main article: Coupling (electronics)

An electric current flowing through a conductor carries electrical energy. When an

electric current passes through a circuit there is an electric field in the dielectric
surrounding the conductor; magnetic field lines around the conductor and lines of electric
force radially about the conductor.[3]

In a direct current circuit, if the current is continuous, the fields are constant; there is a
condition of stress in the space surrounding the conductor, which represents stored
electric and magnetic energy, just as a compressed spring or a moving mass represents
stored energy. In an alternating current circuit, the fields also alternate; that is, with every
half wave of current and of voltage, the magnetic and the electric field start at the
conductor and run outwards into space with the velocity of light.[4] Where these
alternating fields impinge on another conductor a voltage and a current are induced.[3]

Any change in the electrical conditions of the circuit, whether internal[5] or external[6]
involves a readjustment of the stored magnetic and electric field energy of the circuit, that
is, a so-called transient. A transient is of the general character of a condenser discharge
through an inductive circuit. The phenomenon of the condenser discharge through an
inductive circuit therefore is of the greatest importance to the engineer, as the foremost
cause of high-voltage and high-frequency troubles in electric circuits.[7]

Electromagnetic induction is proportional to the intensity of the current and voltage in the
conductor which produces the fields and to the frequency. The higher the frequency the
more intense the induction effect. Energy is transferred from a conductor that produces
the fields (the primary) to any conductor on which the fields impinge (the secondary).
Part of the energy of the primary conductor passes inductively across space into
secondary conductor and the energy decreases rapidly along the primary conductor. A
high frequency current does not pass for long distances along a conductor but rapidly
transfers its energy by induction to adjacent conductors. Higher induction resulting from
the higher frequency is the explanation of the apparent difference in the propagation of
high frequency disturbances from the propagation of the low frequency power of
alternating current systems. The higher the frequency the more preponderant become the
inductive effects that transfer energy from circuit to circuit across space. The more
rapidly the energy decreases and the current dies out along the circuit, the more local is
the phenomenon.[3]

The flow of electric energy thus comprises phenomena inside of the conductor[8] and
phenomena in the space outside of the conductor—the electric field—which, in a
continuous current circuit, is a condition of steady magnetic and dielectric stress, and in
an alternating current circuit is alternating, that is, an electric wave launched by the
conductor[3] to become far-field electromagnetic radiation traveling through space with
the velocity of light.

In electric power transmission and distribution, the phenomena inside of the conductor
are of main importance, and the electric field of the conductor is usually observed only
incidentally.[9] Inversely, in the use of electric power for radio telecommunications it is
only the electric and magnetic fields outside of the conductor, that is electromagnetic
radiation, which is of importance in transmitting the message. The phenomenon in the
conductor, the current in the launching structure, is not used.[3]
The electric charge displacement in the conductor produces a magnetic field and resultant
lines of electric force. The magnetic field is a maximum in the direction concentric, or
approximately so, to the conductor. That is, a ferromagnetic body[10] tends to set itself in a
direction at right angles to the conductor. The electric field has a maximum in a direction
radial, or approximately so, to the conductor. The electric field component tends in a
direction radial to the conductor and dielectric bodies may be attracted or repelled
radially to the conductor.[11]

The electric field of a circuit over which energy flows has three main axes at right angles
with each other:

1. The magnetic field, concentric with the conductor.

2. The lines of electric force, radial to the conductor.
3. The power gradient, parallel to the conductor.

Where the electric circuit consists of several conductors, the electric fields of the
conductors superimpose upon each other, and the resultant magnetic field lines and lines
of electric force are not concentric and radial respectively, except approximately in the
immediate neighborhood of the conductor. Between parallel conductors they are
conjugate of circles. Neither the power consumption in the conductor, nor the magnetic
field, nor the electric field, are proportional to the flow of energy through the circuit.
However, the product of the intensity of the magnetic field and the intensity of the
electric field is proportional to the flow of energy or the power, and the power is
therefore resolved into a product of the two components i and e, which are chosen
proportional respectively to the intensity of the magnetic field and of the electric field.
The component called the current is defined as that factor of the electric power which is
proportional to the magnetic field, and the other component, called the voltage, is defined
as that factor of the electric power which is proportional to the electric field.[11]

In radio telecommunications the electric field of the transmit antenna propagates through
space as a radio wave and impinges upon the receive antenna where it is observed by its
magnetic and electric effect.[11] Radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light,
ultraviolet radiation, X rays and gamma rays are shown to be the same electromagnetic
radiation phenomenon, differing one from the other only in frequency of vibration.[3][12]

[edit] Electromagnetic induction

Energy transfer by electromagnetic induction is typically magnetic but capacitive

coupling can also be achieved.

[edit] Electrodynamic induction method

Main articles: Inductive coupling and Electrodynamic induction

The electrodynamic induction wireless transmission technique is near field over distances
up to about one-sixth of the wavelength used. Near field energy itself is non-radiative but
some radiative losses do occur. In addition there are usually resistive losses. With
electrodynamic induction, electric current flowing through a primary coil creates a
magnetic field that acts on a secondary coil producing a current within it. Coupling must
be tight in order to achieve high efficiency. As the distance from the primary is increased,
more and more of the magnetic field misses the secondary. Even over a relatively short
range the inductive coupling is grossly inefficient, wasting much of the transmitted
energy.[13]

This action of an electrical transformer is the simplest form of wireless power

transmission. The primary and secondary circuits of a transformer are not directly
connected. Energy transfer takes place through a process known as mutual induction.
Principal functions are stepping the primary voltage either up or down and electrical
isolation. Mobile phone and electric toothbrush battery chargers, and electrical power
distribution transformers are examples of how this principle is used. Induction cookers
use this method. The main drawback to this basic form of wireless transmission is short
range. The receiver must be directly adjacent to the transmitter or induction unit in order
to efficiently couple with it.

The application of resonance improves the situation somewhat. When resonant coupling
is used the transmitter and receiver inductors are tuned to a mutual frequency and the
drive current is modified from a sinusoidal to a nonsinusoidal transient waveform.[14]
Pulse power transfer occurs over multiple cycles. In this way significant power may be
transmitted over a distance of up to a few times the size of the primary coil. Transmitting
and receiving coils are usually single layer solenoids or flat spirals with series capacitors,
which, in combination, allow the receiving element to be tuned to the transmitter
frequency.

Common uses of resonance-enhanced electrodynamic induction are charging the batteries

of portable devices such as laptop computers and cell phones, medical implants and
electric vehicles.[15][16][17] A localized charging technique [18] selects the appropriate
transmitting coil in a multilayer winding array structure.[19] Resonance is used in both the
wireless charging pad (the transmitter circuit) and the receiver module (embedded in the
load) to maximize energy transfer efficiency. This approach is suitable for universal
wireless charging pads for portable electronics such as mobile phones. It has been
adopted as part of the Qi wireless charging standard.

It is also used for powering devices having no batteries, such as RFID patches and
contactless smartcards, and to couple electrical energy from the primary inductor to the
helical resonator of Tesla coil wireless power transmitters.

[edit] Electrostatic induction method

Main article: Capacitive coupling

The Tesla effect.[20][21][22] is the illumination of two exhausted tubes by means of a
powerful, rapidly alternating electrostatic field created between two vertical metal sheets
suspended from the ceiling on insulating cords. It exploits the physics of electrostatic
induction.

Electrostatic or capacitive coupling is the passage of electrical energy through a

dielectric. In practice it is an electric field gradient or differential capacitance between
two or more insulated terminals, plates, electrodes, or nodes that are elevated over a
conducting ground plane. The electric field is created by an alternating current of high
potential and high frequency. The capacitance between fixed plates and the powered
device form a voltage divider.

The electric energy transmitted through the atmosphere can be utilized by receiving
devices.[23][24][25][26] Tesla demonstrated the illumination of wireless lamps by energy that
was coupled to them through an alternating electric field.[27][28][20]

"Instead of depending on electrodynamic induction at a distance to light the tube . . . [the]

ideal way of lighting a hall or room would . . . be to produce such a condition in it that an
illuminating device could be moved and put anywhere, and that it is lighted, no matter
where it is put and without being electrically connected to anything. I have been able to
produce such a condition by creating in the room a powerful, rapidly alternating
electrostatic field. For this purpose I suspend a sheet of metal a distance from the ceiling
on insulating cords and connect it to one terminal of the induction coil, the other terminal
being preferably connected to the ground. Or else I suspend two sheets . . . each sheet
being connected with one of the terminals of the coil, and their size being carefully
determined. An exhausted tube may then be carried in the hand anywhere between the
sheets or placed anywhere, even a certain distance beyond them; it remains always
luminous."[29]

The principle of electrostatic induction is applicable to the electrical conduction wireless

transmission method.[30]

[edit] Electromagnetic radiation

Far field methods achieve longer ranges, often multiple kilometer ranges, where the
distance is much greater than the diameter of the device(s). The main reason for longer
ranges with radio wave and optical devices is the fact that electromagnetic radiation in
the far-field can be made to match the shape of the receiving area (using high directivity
antennas or well-collimated Laser Beam) thereby delivering almost all emitted power at
long ranges. The maximum directivity for antennas is physically limited by diffraction.

[edit] Beamed power, size, distance, and efficiency

The size of the components may be dictated by the distance from transmitter to receiver,
the wavelength and the Rayleigh criterion or diffraction limit, used in standard radio
frequency antenna design, which also applies to lasers. In addition to the Rayleigh
criterion Airy's diffraction limit is also frequently used to determine an approximate spot
size at an arbitrary distance from the aperture.

The Rayleigh criterion dictates that any radio wave, microwave or laser beam will spread
and become weaker and diffuse over distance; the larger the transmitter antenna or laser
aperture compared to the wavelength of radiation, the tighter the beam and the less it will
spread as a function of distance (and vice versa). Smaller antennae also suffer from
excessive losses due to side lobes. However, the concept of laser aperture considerably
differs from an antenna. Typically, a laser aperture much larger than the wavelength
induces multi-moded radiation and mostly collimators are used before emitted radiation
couples into a fiber or into space.

Ultimately, beamwidth is physically determined by diffraction due to the dish size in

relation to the wavelength of the electromagnetic radiation used to make the beam.
Microwave power beaming can be more efficient than lasers, and is less prone to
atmospheric attenuation caused by dust or water vapor losing atmosphere to vaporize the
water in contact.

Then the power levels are calculated by combining the above parameters together, and
adding in the gains and losses due to the antenna characteristics and the transparency and
dispersion of the medium through which the radiation passes. That process is known as
calculating a link budget.

[edit] Microwave method

Main article: Microwave power transmission

An artist's depiction of a solar satellite that could send electric energy by microwaves to a
space vessel or planetary surface.
Power transmission via radio waves can be made more directional, allowing longer
distance power beaming, with shorter wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, typically
in the microwave range. A rectenna may be used to convert the microwave energy back
into electricity. Rectenna conversion efficiencies exceeding 95% have been realized.
Power beaming using microwaves has been proposed for the transmission of energy from
orbiting solar power satellites to Earth and the beaming of power to spacecraft leaving
orbit has been considered.[2][31]

Power beaming by microwaves has the difficulty that for most space applications the
required aperture sizes are very large due to diffraction limiting antenna directionality.
For example, the 1978 NASA Study of solar power satellites required a 1-km diameter
transmitting antenna, and a 10 km diameter receiving rectenna, for a microwave beam at
2.45 GHz[citation needed]. These sizes can be somewhat decreased by using shorter
wavelengths, although short wavelengths may have difficulties with atmospheric
absorption and beam blockage by rain or water droplets. Because of the "thinned array
curse," it is not possible to make a narrower beam by combining the beams of several
smaller satellites.

For earthbound applications a large area 10 km diameter receiving array allows large
total power levels to be used while operating at the low power density suggested for
human electromagnetic exposure safety. A human safe power density of 1 mW/cm2
distributed across a 10 km diameter area corresponds to 750 megawatts total power level.
This is the power level found in many modern electric power plants.

Following World War II, which saw the development of high-power microwave emitters
known as cavity magnetrons, the idea of using microwaves to transmit power was
researched. By 1964 a miniature helicopter propelled by microwave power had been
demonstrated.[32]

Japanese researcher Hidetsugu Yagi also investigated wireless energy transmission using
a directional array antenna that he designed. In February 1926, Yagi and Uda published
their first paper on the tuned high-gain directional array now known as the Yagi antenna.
While it did not prove to be particularly useful for power transmission, this beam antenna
has been widely adopted throughout the broadcasting and wireless telecommunications
industries due to its excellent performance characteristics.[33]

Wireless high power transmission using microwaves is well proven. Experiments in the
tens of kilowatts have been performed at Goldstone in California in 1975[34][35][36] and
more recently (1997) at Grand Bassin on Reunion Island.[37] These methods achieve
distances on the order of a kilometer.

[edit] Laser method

With a laser beam centered on its panel of photovoltaic cells, a lightweight model plane
makes the first flight of an aircraft powered by a laser beam inside a building at NASA
Marshall Space Flight Center.

In the case of electromagnetic radiation closer to visible region of spectrum (10s of

microns (um) to 10s of nm), power can be transmitted by converting electricity into a
laser beam that is then pointed at a solar cell receiver. This mechanism is generally
known as "powerbeaming" because the power is beamed at a receiver that can convert it
to usable electrical energy.

Advantages of laser based energy transfer compared with other wireless methods are:[38]

1. collimated monochromatic wavefront propagation allows narrow beam cross-

section area for energy transmission over large ranges.
2. compact size of solid state lasers-photovoltaics semiconductor diodes fit into into
small products.
3. no radio-frequency interference to existing radio communication such as Wi-fi
and cell phones.
4. control of access; only receivers illuminated by the laser receive power.

Its drawbacks are:

1. Conversion to light, such as with a laser, is inefficient

2. Conversion back into electricity is inefficient, with photovoltaic cells achieving
40%-50% efficiency.[39] (Note that conversion efficiency is rather higher with
monochromatic light than with insolation of solar panels).
3. Atmospheric absorption causes losses.
4. As with microwave beaming, this method requires a direct line of sight with the
target.

The laser "powerbeaming" technology has been mostly explored in military weapons[40][41]
[42]
and aerospace [43][44] applications and is now being developed for commercial and
consumer electronics Low-Power applications. Wireless energy transfer system using
laser for consumer space has to satisfy Laser safety requirements standardized under IEC
60825.
To develop an understanding of the trade-offs of Laser ("a special type of light wave"-
based system):[45][46][47][48]

1. Propagation of a laser beam [49][50][51] (on how Laser beam propagation is much less
affected by diffraction limits)
2. Coherence and the range limitation problem (on how spatial and spectral
coherence characteristics of Lasers allows better distance-to-power capabilities
[52]
)
3. Airy disk (on how wavelength fundamentally dictates the size of a disk with
distance)
4. Applications of laser diodes (on how the laser sources are utilized in various
industries and their sizes are reducing for better integration)

Geoffrey Landis [53][54][55] is one of the pioneers of solar power satellite [56] and laser-based
transfer of energy especially for space and lunar missions. The continuously increasing
demand for safe and frequent space missions has resulted in serious thoughts on a
futuristic space elevator[57] [58] that would be powered by lasers. NASA's space elevator
would need wireless power to be beamed to it for it to climb a tether.[59]

NASA's Dryden Flight Research Center has demonstrated flight of a lightweight

unmanned model plane powered by a laser beam.[60] This proof-of-concept demonstrates
the feasibility of periodic recharging using the laser beam system and the lack of need to
return to ground.

"Lasermotive" demonstrated laser powerbeaming at one kilometer during NASA's 2009

powerbeaming contest. Also "Lighthouse DEV" (a spin off of NASA Power Beaming
Team) along with "University of Maryland" is developing an eye safe laser system to
power a small UAV. Since 2006, "PowerBeam" which originally invented the eye-safe
technology and holds all crucial patents in this technology space, is developing
commercially ready units for various consumer and industrial electronic products.[61][62]

[edit] Electrical conduction

Main article: World Wireless System

 The Tesla coil wireless power transmitter
U.S. Patent 1,119,732

Means for long conductors of electricity forming part of an electric circuit and
electrically connecting said ionized beam to an electric circuit. Hettinger 1917 -(U.S.
Patent 1,309,031)

[edit] Disturbed charge of ground and air method

Single wire with Earth return electrical power transmission systems rely on current
flowing through the earth plus a single wire insulated from the earth to complete the
circuit. In emergencies high-voltage direct current power transmission systems can also
operate in the 'single wire with earth return' mode. Elimination of the raised insulated
wire, and transmission of high-potential, high-frequency alternating current through the
earth with an atmospheric return circuit has been investigated as a method of wireless
electrical power transmission. Transmission of electrical energy through the earth alone,
eliminating the second conductor is also being investigated.

Low frequency alternating current can be transmitted through the inhomogeneous earth
with low loss because the net resistance between earth antipodes is considerably less than
1 ohm.[63] The electrical displacement takes place predominantly by electrical conduction
through the oceans, and metallic ore bodies and similar subsurface structures. The
electrical displacement is also by means of electrostatic induction through the more
dielectric regions such as quartz deposits and other non-conducting minerals.[64][65]
Alternating current can be transmitted through atmospheric strata having a barometric
pressure of less than 135 millimeters of mercury.[66] Current flows by means of
electrostatic induction through the lower atmosphere up to about two or three miles above
the plants[67] (this is the middle part in a three-space model) and the flow of ions, that is to
say, electrical conduction through the ionized region above three miles. Intense vertical
beams of ultraviolet light may be used to ionize the atmospheric gasses directly above the
two elevated terminals resulting in the formation of plasma high-voltage electrical
transmission lines leading up to the conducting atmospheric strata. The end result is a
flow electrical current between the two elevated terminals by a path up to and through the
troposphere and back down to the other facility.[68] Electrical conduction through
atmospheric strata is made possible by the creation of capacitively coupled discharge
plasma through the process of atmospheric ionization.[69][70][71][72]

[edit] Terrestrial transmission line with atmospheric return

Tesla discovered that electrical energy can be transmitted through the earth and the
atmosphere. In the course of his research he successfully lit lamps at moderate distances
and was able to detect the transmitted energy at much greater distances. The
Wardenclyffe Tower project was a commercial venture for trans-Atlantic wireless
telephony and proof-of-concept demonstrations of global wireless power transmission.
The facility was not completed because of insufficient funding.[73]

Earth is a naturally conducting body and forms one conductor of the system. A second
path is established through the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere starting at an
elevation of approximately 4.5 miles (7.2 km).[74]

A global system for "the transmission of electrical energy without wires" called the
World Wireless System, dependent upon the high electrical conductivity of plasma and
the high electrical conductivity of the earth, was proposed as early as 1904.[75][76]

[edit] Terrestrial single-conductor surface wave transmission line

Main article: Single-wire transmission line

The same transmitter used for the atmospheric conduction method is used for the
terrestrial single-conductor earth resonance method.[77][78]

The fundamental earth resonance frequency is claimed to be approximately 11.78 Hz.[79]

With the earth resonance method some harmonic of this fundamental frequency is used.
[80]
"I would say that the frequency should be smaller then twenty thousand per second,
through shorter waves might be practicable"[81][82][83] and on the low end, "a frequency of
nine hundred and twenty-five per second" is used, "when it is indispensable to operate
motors of the ordinary kind."[74]

Observations have been made that may be inconsistent with a basic tenet of physics
related to the scalar derivatives of the electromagnetic potentials [84][85][86][87][88][89][90] that
are presently considered to be nonphysical.[91]
[edit] Timeline of wireless power
• 1820: André-Marie Ampère develops Ampere’s law showing that electric current
produces a magnetic field.
• 1831: Michael Faraday develops Faraday’s law of induction describing the
electromagnetic force induced in a conductor by a time-varying magnetic flux.
• 1836: Nicholas Callan invents the electrical transformer.
• 1864: James Clerk Maxwell synthesizes the previous observations, experiments
and equations of electricity, magnetism and optics into a consistent theory and
mathematically models the behavior of electromagnetic radiation.
• 1888: Heinrich Rudolf Hertz confirms the existence of electromagnetic radiation.
Hertz’s "apparatus for generating electromagnetic waves" was a VHF or UHF
"radio wave" spark gap transmitter.
• 1891: Tesla improves Hertz-wave wireless transmitter RF power supply or exciter
in his patent No. 454,622, "System of Electric Lighting."
• 1893: Tesla demonstrates the wireless illumination of phosphorescent lamps of
his design at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago.[92]
• 1893: Tesla publicly demonstrates wireless power before a meeting of the
National Electric Light Association in St. Louis.[26][93][94]
• 1894: Tesla lights incandescent lamps wirelessly at the 35 South Fifth Avenue
laboratory in New York City by means of "electro-dynamic induction" or
resonant inductive coupling.[95][96][97]
• 1894: Hutin & LeBlanc, espouse long held view that inductive energy transfer
should be possible, they received U.S. Patent # 527,857 describing a system for
power transmission at 3 kHz.[98]
• 1894: Jagdish Chandra Bose ignites gunpowder and rings a bell at a distance
using electromagnetic waves, showing that communications signals can be sent
without using wires.[99][100]
• 1896: Tesla demonstrates wireless transmission over a distance of about
48 kilometres (30 mi).[101]
• 1897: Tesla files his first patent application dealing specifically with wireless
transmission.
• 1899: Tesla continues his wireless power transmission research in Colorado
Springs and writes, "the inferiority of the induction method would appear
immense as compared with the disturbed charge of ground and air method."[102]
• 1902: Nikola Tesla vs. Reginald Fessenden - U.S. Patent Interference No. 21,701,
System of Signaling (wireless); wireless power transmission, time and frequency
domain spread spectrum telecommunications, electronic logic gates in general.[103]
• 1904: At the St. Louis World's Fair, a prize is offered for a successful attempt to
drive a 0.1 horsepower (75 W) airship motor by energy transmitted through space
at a distance of at least 100 feet (30 m).[104]
• 1916: Tesla states, "In my [disturbed charge of ground and air] system, you
should free yourself of the idea that there is [electromagnetic] radiation, that
energy is radiated. It is not radiated; it is conserved."[105]
• 1917: Tesla's Wardenclyffe tower is demolished. . . .
• 1926: Shintaro Uda and Hidetsugu Yagi publish their first paper on Uda's "tuned
high-gain directional array"[33] better known as the Yagi antenna.

• 1961: William C. Brown publishes an article exploring possibilities of microwave

power transmission.[106][107]
• 1964: Brown demonstrates on CBS News with Walter Cronkite a model
helicopter that receives all of the power needed for flight from a microwave beam.
Between 1969 and 1975, Brown is technical director of a JPL Raytheon program
that beams 30 kW over a distance of 1 mile at 84% efficiency.[citation needed]
• 1968: Peter Glaser proposes wirelessly transmitting solar energy captured in space
using "Powerbeaming" technology.[108][109] This is usually recognized as the first
description of a solar power satellite.
• 1971: Prof. Don Otto develops a small trolley powered by induction at The
University of Auckland, in New Zealand.[citation needed]
• 1973: The world's first passive RFID system is demonstrated at Los-Alamos
National Lab.[110]
• 1975: Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex does experiments in the
tens of kilowatts.[34][35][36]
• 1988: A power electronics group led by Prof. John Boys at The University of
Auckland in New Zealand, develops an inverter using novel engineering materials
and power electronics and conclude that power transmission by means of
electrodynamic induction should be achievable. A first prototype for a contact-
less power supply is built. Auckland Uniservices, the commercial company of
The University of Auckland, patents the technology.[citation needed]
• 1989: Daifuku, a Japanese company, engages Auckland Uniservices Ltd. to
develop technology for car assembly plants and materials handling providing
challenging technical requirements including multiplicity of vehicles.[citation needed]
• 1990: Prof. John Boys team develops novel technology enabling multiple vehicles
to run on the same inductive power loop and provide independent control of each
vehicle. Auckland UniServices Patents the technology.[citation needed]
• 1996: Auckland Uniservices develops an Electric Bus power system using
electrodynamic induction to charge (30-60 kW) opportunistically commencing
implementation in New Zealand. Prof John Boys Team commission 1st
commercial IPT Bus in the world at Whakarewarewa, in New Zealand.[citation needed]
• 1998: RFID tags are powered by electrodynamic induction over a few feet.
• 1999: Dr. Herbert L. Becker powers a lamp and a hand held fan from a distance of
30 feet.[citation needed]
• 1999: Prof. Shu Yuen (Ron) Hui and Mr. S.C. Tang of the City University of
Hong Kong file a patent on "Coreless Printed-Circuit-Board (PCB) transformers
and operating techniques", which form the basis for future planar charging surface
with "vertical flux" leaving the planar surface. The circuit uses resonant circuits
for wireless power transfer. EP(GB)0935263B
• 2000: Prof. Shu Yuen (Ron) Hui invent a planar wireless charging pad using the
"vertical flux" approach and resonant power transfer for charging portable
consumer electronic products. A patent is filed on "Apparatus and method of an
inductive battery charger,” PCT Patent PCT/AU03/00 721, 2000.
• 2000: Based on the coreless PCB transformer developed by Prof. Ron Hui, Prof.
B. Choi and his team at Kyungpook National University publish a paper on “A
new contactless battery charger for portable telecommunication/computing
electronics,” in Proc. ICCE’00 Int. Conf. Consumer Electron., 2000, pp. 58–59.
The coreless PCB transformer is used to wirelessly charge a mobile phone.
• 2001 Prof. Shu Yuen (Ron) Hui and Dr. S.C. Tang file a patent on "Planar
Printed-Circuit-Board Transformers with Effective Electromagnetic Interference
(EMI) Shielding". The EM shield consists of a thin layer of ferrite and a thin layer
of copper sheet. It enables the underneath of the future wireless charging pads to
be shielded with a thin EM shield structure with thickness of typically 0.7mm or
less. Patent: US6,501,364.
• 2001: Prof. Ron Hui's team demonstrate that the coreless PCB transformer can
transmit power close to 100W in ‘A low-profile low-power converter with
coreless PCB isolation transformer, IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics,
Volume: 16 Issue: 3 , May 2001. A team of Philips Research Center Aachen, led
by Dr. Eberhard Waffenschmidt, use it to power an 100W lighting device in their
paper "Size advantage of coreless transformers in the MHz range" in the
European Power Electronics Conference in Graz.
• 2001: Splashpower formed in the UK. Uses coupled resonant coils in a flat "pad"
style to transfer tens of watts into a variety of consumer devices, including lamp,
phone, PDA, iPod etc.[citation needed]
• 2002: Prof. Shu Yuen (Ron) Hui extends the planar wireless charging pad concept
using the vertical flux approach to incorporate free-positioning feature for
multiple loads. This is achieved by using a multilayer planar winding array
structure. Patent were granted as "Planar Inductive Battery Charger", GB2389720
and GB 2389767.
• 2004: Electrodynamic induction used by 90 percent of the US$1 billion clean
room industry for materials handling equipment in semiconductor, LCD and
plasma screen manufacture.[citation needed]
• 2005: Prof. Shu Yuen (Ron) Hui and Dr. W.C. Ho of City University of Hong
Kong publish their work in the IEEE Transactions on a planar wireless charging
platform with free-positioning feature. The planar wireless charging pad is able to
charge several loads simultaneously on a flat surface.
• 2005: Prof Boys' team at The University of Auckland, refines 3-phase IPT
Highway and pick-up systems allowing transmission of power to moving vehicles
in the lab.[citation needed]
• 2007: A localized charging technique is reported by Dr. Xun Liu and Prof. Ron
Hui for the wireless charging pad with free-positioning feature. With the aid of
the double-layer EM shields enclosing the transmitter and receiver coils, the
localized charging selects the right transmitter coil so as to minimize flux leakage
and human exposure to radiation.
• 2007: Using electrodynamic induction a physics research group, led by Prof.
Marin Soljacic, at MIT, wirelessly power a 60W light bulb with 40% efficiency at
a 2 metres (6.6 ft) distance with two 60 cm-diameter coils.[111]
• 2008: Bombardier offers a new wireless power transmission product PRIMOVE,
a system for use on trams and light-rail vehicles.[112]
 • 2008: Industrial designer Thanh Tran, at Brunel University make a wireless lamp
incorporating a high efficiency 3W LED.[citation needed]
• 2008: Intel reproduces Tesla's original 1894 implementation of electrodynamic
induction and Prof. John Boys group's 1988 follow-up experiments by wirelessly
powering a nearby light bulb with 75% efficiency.[113]
• 2008: Greg Leyh and Mike Kennan of the Nevada Lightning Laboratory publish a
paper on Tesla's disturbed charge of ground and air method of wireless power
transmission with circuit simulations and test results showing an efficiency
greater than can be obtained using the electrodynamic induction method.[114]
• 2009: A Consortium of interested companies called the Wireless Power
Consortium announce they are nearing completion for a new industry standard for
low-power inductive charging[115]
• 2009: Palm (now a division HP) launches the Palm Pre smartphone with the Palm
Touchstone wireless charger.
• 2009: An Ex approved Torch and Charger aimed at the offshore market is
introduced.[116] This product is developed by Wireless Power & Communication, a
Norway based company.
• 2009: A simple analytical electrical model of electrodynamic induction power
transmission is proposed and applied to a wireless power transfer system for
implantable devices.[117]
• 2009: Lasermotive uses diode laser to win $900k NASA prize in power beaming,
breaking several world records in power and distance, by transmitting over a
kilowatt more than several hundred meters.[118]
• 2009: Sony shows a wireless electrodynamic-induction powered TV set, 60 W
over 50 cm [1]
• 2010: Haier Group debuts “the world's first” completely wireless LCD television
at CES 2010 based on Prof. Marin Soljacic's follow-up research on Tesla's
electrodynamic induction wireless energy transmission method and the Wireless
Home Digital Interface (WHDI).[119]
• 2010: System On Chip (SoC) group in University of British Columbia develops
an optimization tool for the design of highly efficient wireless power transmission
systems using multiple coils. The design is optimized for implantable applications
and power transfer efficiency of 82% is achieved.[120]

[edit] See also

energy portal

• Beam-powered propulsion
• Beam Power Challenge — one of the NASA Centennial Challenges
• Distributed generation
• Electricity distribution
• Electric power transmission
• Transmission medium
• Microwave power transmission
 • Friis transmission equation
• Thinned array curse
• Resonant energy transfer
• Differential capacitance
• Wardenclyffe Tower
• Electromagnetic compatibility

[edit] Further reading

Books

• Walker, J., Halliday, D., & Resnick, R. (2011). Fundamentals of physics.

Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
• Hu, A. P. (2009). Wireless/Contactless power supply: Inductively coupled
resonant converter solutions. Saarbrücken, Germany: VDM Verlag Dr. Müller.
• Valone, T. (2002). Harnessing the wheelwork of nature: Tesla's science of energy.
Kempton, Ill: Adventure Unlimited Press.
• General Electric Co. (1915). General Electric review, Volume 18. "Wireless
Transmission of Energy" By Elihu Thomson. General Electric Company, Lynn.
(ed. Lecture by Professor Thomson, National Electric Light Association, New
York.)
• Steinmetz, C. P. (1914). Elementary lectures on electric discharges, waves and
impulses, and other transients. New York: McGraw-Hill book co., inc.
• Louis Cohen (1913). Formulae and tables for the calculation of alternating current
problems. McGraw-Hill.
• Kennelly, A. E. (1912). The application of hyperbolic functions to electrical
engineering problems: Being the subject of a course of lectures delivered before
the University of London in May and June 1911. London: University of London
Press.
• Orlich, E. M. (1912). Die Theorie der Wechselströme.
• Fleming, J. A. (1911). Propagation of electric currents in telephone & telegraph
conductors. New York: Van Nostrand.
• Franklin, W. S. (1909). Electric waves: An advanced treatise on alternating-
current theory. New York: Macmillan Co.

Patents

• U.S. Patent 4,955,562, Microwave powered aircraft, John E. Martin, et al. (1990).
• U.S. Patent 3,933,323, Solid state solar to microwave energy converter system
and apparatus, Kenneth W. Dudley, et al. (1976).
• U.S. Patent 3,535,543, Microwave power receiving antenna, Carroll C. Dailey
(1970).
• U.S. Patent 685,958, Method of Utilizing Radiant Energy, Nikola Tesla (1901).
• U.S. Patent 685,957, Apparatus for the Utilization of Radiant Energy, Nikola
Tesla (1901).
 • U.S. Patent 649,621, Apparatus for Transmission of Electrical Energy, Nikola
Tesla (1900).

[edit] References
1. ^ A radio transmitter can produce waves having a power of several
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2. ^ a b G. A. Landis, "Applications for Space Power by Laser Transmission,"
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3. ^ a b c d e f General Electric review, Volume 15 By General Electric.
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4. ^ 188,000 miles per second
5. ^ Such as an internal change of load, starting and switching operations,
and short circuits.
6. ^ Such as the external change due to lightning.
7. ^ Charles Steinmetz (Fellow, A. I. E. E. Chief Consulting Engineer,
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8. ^ viz., the dissipation of electric energy by the resistance of the conductor
through its conversion into heat;
9. ^ Such as when it gives trouble by induction in telephone circuits or when
it reaches such high intensities as to puncture insulation, cause mechanical
motion, etc.
10. ^ such as an iron needle.
11. ^ a b c Theory and calculation of transient electric phenomena and
oscillations By Charles Proteus Steinmetz
12. ^ Speculation was made as to what the electric wave was, leading to the
contradictory deductions that for certain reasons space is considered as a gas of
infinitely low density, and for certain others as a solid.
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“In some cases when small amounts of energy are required the high elevation of
the terminals, and more particularly of the receiving-terminal D', may not be
necessary, since, especially when the frequency of the currents is very high, a
sufficient amount of energy may be collected at that terminal by electrostatic
induction from the upper air strata, which are rendered conducting by the active
terminal of the transmitter or through which the currents from the same are
conveyed."

31. ^ G. Landis, M. Stavnes, S. Oleson and J. Bozek, "Space Transfer With

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REUNION ISLAND 48th International Astronautical Congress, Turin, Italy, 6–10
October 1997 - IAF-97-R.4.08 J. D. Lan Sun Luk, A. Celeste, P. Romanacce, L.
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47. ^ Nobelprize.org, Laser facts, Applications of Laser[dead link]
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http://www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/newsletters/leos/oct05/free_space.html.
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50. ^ Propagation Characteristics of Laser Beams – Melles Griot catalog
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Random Media, 2nd ed. (SPIE Press, 2005). Books.google.co.in. 2005.
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Solar Power Satellites". Sff.net. doi:10.1089/153110701753198927..
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56. ^ "Limitless clean energy from space". Nss.org.
http://www.nss.org/settlement/ssp/. Retrieved 2009-06-04.
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60. ^ "Dryden Flight Research Center, Beamed Laser Power For UAVs".
Nasa.gov. 2008-05-07. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/FactSheets/FS-
087-DFRC.html. Retrieved 2009-06-04.
61. ^ "PowerBeam demo with Consumer devices from PowerBeam Inc".
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mVSAU7a4J-o.
63. ^ "Nikola Tesla and the Diameter of the Earth: A Discussion of One of the
Many Modes of Operation of the Wardenclyffe Tower," K. L. Corum and J. F.
Corum, Ph.D. 1996
64. ^ William Beaty, Yahoo Wireless Energy Transmission Tech Group
Message #787, reprinted in WIRELESS TRANSMISSION THEORY.
65. ^ Wait, James R., The Ancient and Modern History of EM Ground-Wave
Propagation," IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 40, No. 5,
October 1998.
66. ^ SYSTEM OF TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY, Sept. 2,
1897, U.S. Patent No. 645,576, Mar. 20, 1900.
67. ^ Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their
Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony and Transmission of Power

I have to say here that when I filed the applications of September 2, 1897, for the
transmission of energy in which this method was disclosed, it was already clear to
me that I did not need to have terminals at such high elevation, but I never have,
above my signature, announced anything that I did not prove first. That is the
reason why no statement of mine was ever contradicted, and I do not think it will
be, because whenever I publish something I go through it first by experiment,
then from experiment I calculate, and when I have the theory and practice meet I
announce the results.

At that time I was absolutely sure that I could put up a commercial plant, if I
could do nothing else but what I had done in my laboratory on Houston Street; but
I had already calculated and found that I did not need great heights to apply this
method. My patent says that I break down the atmosphere "at or near" the
terminal. If my conducting atmosphere is 2 or 3 miles above the plant, I consider
this very near the terminal as compared to the distance of my receiving terminal,
which may be across the Pacific. That is simply an expression. . . .

68. ^ Henry Bradford, "Nikola Tesla On Wireless Energy Transmission"

69. ^ Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their
Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony and Transmission of Power

. . . I saw that I would be able to transmit power provided I could construct a

certain apparatus -- and I have, as I will show you later. I have constructed and
patented a form of apparatus which, with a moderate elevation of a few hundred
feet, can break the air stratum down. You will then see something like an aurora
borealis across the sky, and the energy will go to the distant place.

That is very simple. An apparatus which permits displacing a certain quantity of

electricity in the terminal – we shall say so many units -- will produce an electric
potential at a distance of 5 miles, and the fall of electric potential per centimeter
will be equal to the quantity of electricity divided by the square of the distance.

Now, I have satisfied myself that I can construct plants in which I may produce,
per kilometer of the atmosphere, electric differences of potential of something like
50,000 or 60,000 volts, and at 50,000 or 60,000 volts that atmosphere must break
down and will become conductive.
So that, when I had explained this principle to Lord Kelvin, he became absolutely
convinced that I could do it; but Helmholtz was convinced from the very
beginning that I could do it. It took argumentation, however, and demonstration
by experiments, to convince Lord Kelvin.

70. ^ Rauscher, Elizabeth A., Electromagnetic Phenomena in Complex

Geometries and Nonlinear Phenomena, Non-Hertzian Waves and Magnetic
Monopoles, Tesla Book Company.
71. ^ APPARATUS FOR TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY,
September 2, 1897, U.S. Patent No. 649,621, May 15, 1900
72. ^ Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their
Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony and Transmission of Power, pp.
126, 127.
73. ^ "The Future of the Wireless Art," Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony,
Walter W. Massie & Charles R. Underhill, 1908, pp. 67-71

It is intended to give practical demonstrations of these principles with the plant

illustrated. As soon as completed, it will be possible for a business man in New
York to dictate instructions, and have them instantly appear in type at his office in
London or elsewhere. He will be able to call up, from his desk, and talk to any
telephone subscriber on the globe, without any change whatever in the existing
equipment. An inexpensive instrument, not bigger than a watch, will enable its
bearer to hear anywhere, on sea or land, music or song, the speech of a political
leader, the address of an eminent man of science, or the sermon of an eloquent
clergyman, delivered in some other place, however distant. In the same manner
any picture, character, drawing, or print can be transferred from one to another
place. Millions of such instruments can be operated from but one plant of this
kind. More important than all of this, however, will be the transmission of power,
without wires, which will be shown on a scale large enough to carry conviction.

74. ^ a b Tesla, Nikola, Systems of Transmission of Electrical Energy, Sept. 2,

1897, U.S. Patent No. 645,576, Mar. 20, 1900.
75. ^ "The Transmission of Electrical Energy Without Wires," Electrical
World, March 5, 1904". 21st Century Books. 1904-03-05.
http://www.tfcbooks.com/tesla/1904-03-05.htm. Retrieved 2009-06-04.."
76. ^ Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their
Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony and Transmission of Power, pp.
128-130.

"The earth is 4,000 miles radius. Around this conducting earth is an atmosphere.
The earth is a conductor; the atmosphere above is a conductor, only there is a little
stratum between the conducting atmosphere and the conducting earth which is
insulating. . . . Now, you realize right away that if you set up differences of
potential at one point, say, you will create in the media corresponding fluctuations
of potential. But, since the distance from the earth's surface to the conducting
atmosphere is minute, as compared with the distance of the receiver at 4,000
miles, say, you can readily see that the energy cannot travel along this curve and
get there, but will be immediately transformed into conduction currents, and these
currents will travel like currents over a wire with a return. The energy will be
recovered in the circuit, not by a beam that passes along this curve and is reflected
and absorbed, . . . but it will travel by conduction and will be recovered in this
way

77. ^ Apparatus for Transmitting Electrical Energy, Jan. 18, 1902, U.S. Patent
1,119,732, Dec. 1, 1914.
78. ^ One wireless system -- Two methods

A comparison of Tesla's patents covering wireless transmission using both

atmospheric conduction and earth resonance principles reveals the basic
transmitting and receiving apparatus are identical. An exception is noted in the
two-tower form of earth-resonance transmitter.

79. ^ Art of Transmitting Electrical Energy Through the Natural Mediums,

May 16, 1900, U.S. Patent No. 787,412, Apr. 18, 1905.
80. ^ "Nikola Tesla and the Diameter of the Earth : A Discussion of One of
the Many Modes of Operation of the Wardenclyffe Tower," K. L. Corum and J. F.
Corum, Ph.D. 1996.
81. ^ Art of Transmitting Electrical Energy Through the Natural Mediums,
April 17, 1906, Canadian Patent No. 142,352, August 13, 1912.

Three requirements seem to be essential to the establishment of the resonating

condition.

First. The earth’s diameter passing through the pole should be an odd multiple of
the quarter wave length – that is, of the ratio between the velocity of light – and
four times the frequency of the currents.

Second. It is necessary to employ oscillations in which the rate of radiation of

energy into space in the form of hertzian or electromagnetic waves is very small.
To give an idea, I would say that the frequency should be smaller then twenty
thousand per second, through shorter waves might be practicable. The lowest
frequency would appear to be six per second, in which case there will be but one
node, at or near the ground-plate, and, paradoxical as it may seem, the effect will
increase with the distance and will be greatest in a region diametrically opposite
the transmitter. With oscillations still slower the earth, strictly speaking, will not
resonate, but simply act as a capacity, and the variation of potential will be more
or less uniform over its entire surface.

Third. The most essential requirement is, however, that irrespective of frequency
the wave or wave-train should continue for a certain interval of time, which I have
estimated to be not less then [sic] one-twelfth or probably 0.08484 of a second
and which is taken in passing to and returning from the region diametrically
opposite the pole over the earth’s surface with a mean velocity of about four
hundred and seventy-one thousand two hundred and forty kilometers per second
[471,240 km/sec].

82. ^ Art of Transmitting Electrical Energy Through the Natural Mediums,

May 16, 1900, U.S. Patent No. 787,412, April 18, 1905. It is apparent from
documents on file at the U.S. Patent Office pertaining to U.S. Patent No. 787,412
that Tesla collected performance data on this type of transmitter. In response to a
question from U.S. Patent Examiner G.C. Dean regarding three stated
requirements that, “seem essential to the establishment of the resonating
condition” Tesla’s attorneys said,

These three requirements, as stated are in agreement with his numerous

experimental observations. . . . we would point out that the specification does not
deal with theories, but with facts which applicant has experimentally observed
and demonstrated again and again, and in the commercial exploitation of which
he is engaged.

83. ^ "Spherical Transmission Lines and Global Propagation, An Analysis of

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89. ^ Dea, Jack Y., "Scalar Fields: Their Prediction from Classical
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90. ^ Bearden, T. E., Solutions to Tesla's Secrets and the Soviet Tesla
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91. ^ Electromagnetic fields, waves and numerical methods By Zijad
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92. ^ "Electricity at the Columbian Exposition" By John Patrick Barrett. 1894.
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94. ^ Cheney, Margaret, Tesla Man Out of Time
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N.Y., May 20, 1891". 1891-06-20. http://www.tfcbooks.com/tesla/1891-05-
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96. ^ "Experiments with Alternate Currents of High Potential and High
Frequency, IEE Address,' London, February 1892". 1892-02-00.
http://www.tfcbooks.com/tesla/1892-02-03.htm.
97. ^ "On Light and Other High Frequency Phenomena, 'Franklin Institute,'
Philadelphia, February 1893, and National Electric Light Association, St. Louis,
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99. ^ "The Work of Jagdish Chandra Bose: 100 years of mm-wave research".
tuc.nrao.edu.
100. ^ "Jagadish Chandra Bose", ieeeghn.org.
101. ^ Nikola Tesla On His Work With Alternating Currents and Their
Application to Wireless Telegraphy, Telephony and Transmission of Power, pp.
26-29.
102. ^ June 5, 1899, NIKOLA TESLA COLORADO SPRINGS NOTES 1899-
1900, Nolit, 1978
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MIT Demonstrates Wireless Power

Transfer
ScienceDaily (June 8, 2007) — Imagine a future in which wireless power transfer is
feasible: cell phones, household robots, mp3 players, laptop computers and other portable
electronics capable of charging themselves without ever being plugged in, freeing us
from that final, ubiquitous power wire. Some of these devices might not even need their
bulky batteries to operate. A team from MIT's Department of Physics, Department of
Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, and Institute for Soldier Nanotechnologies
(ISN) has experimentally demonstrated an important step toward accomplishing this
vision of the future.

See Also:
Matter & Energy

• Energy Technology
• Solar Energy
• Batteries

Computers & Math

• Computer Science
• Mobile Computing
• Distributed Computing

Reference

• Electric power
• Battery (electricity)
• Mobile phone
• Computing power everywhere

The team members are Andre Kurs, Aristeidis Karalis, Robert Moffatt, Prof. Peter Fisher,
and Prof. John Joannopoulos (Francis Wright Davis Chair and director of ISN), led by
Prof. Marin Soljacic. Realizing their recent theoretical prediction, they were able to light
a 60W light bulb from a power source seven feet (more than two meters) away; there was
no physical connection between the source and the appliance. The MIT team refers to its
concept as "WiTricity" (as in wireless electricity). The work will be reported in the June
7 issue of Science Express, the advance online publication of the journal Science.

Late-night beeps
The story starts one late night a few years ago, with Soljacic (pronounced Soul-ya-
cheech) standing in his pajamas, staring at his cell phone on the kitchen counter. "It was
probably the sixth time that month that I was awakened by my cell phone beeping to let
me know that I had forgotten to charge it. It occurred to me that it would be so great if the
thing took care of its own charging." To make this possible, one would have to have a
way to transmit power wirelessly, so Soljacic started thinking about which physical
phenomena could help make this wish a reality.

Radiation methods

Various methods of transmitting power wirelessly have been known for centuries.
Perhaps the best known example is electromagnetic radiation, such as radio waves. While
such radiation is excellent for wireless transmission of information, it is not feasible to
use it for power transmission. Since radiation spreads in all directions, a vast majority of
power would end up being wasted into free space. One can envision using directed
electromagnetic radiation, such as lasers, but this is not very practical and can even be
dangerous. It requires an uninterrupted line of sight between the source and the device, as
well as a sophisticated tracking mechanism when the device is mobile.

The key: Magnetically coupled resonance

In contrast, WiTricity is based on using coupled resonant objects. Two resonant objects
of the same resonant frequency tend to exchange energy efficiently, while interacting
weakly with extraneous off-resonant objects. A child on a swing is a good example of
this. A swing is a type of mechanical resonance, so only when the child pumps her legs at
the natural frequency of the swing is she able to impart substantial energy. Another
example involves acoustic resonances: Imagine a room with 100 identical wine glasses,
each filled with wine up to a different level, so they all have different resonant
frequencies. If an opera singer sings a sufficiently loud single note inside the room, a
glass of the corresponding frequency might accumulate sufficient energy to even explode,
while not influencing the other glasses. In any system of coupled resonators there often
exists a so-called "strongly coupled" regime of operation. If one ensures to operate in that
regime in a given system, the energy transfer can be very efficient.

While these considerations are universal, applying to all kinds of resonances (e.g.,
acoustic, mechanical, electromagnetic, etc.), the MIT team focused on one particular
type: magnetically coupled resonators. The team explored a system of two
electromagnetic resonators coupled mostly through their magnetic fields; they were able
to identify the strongly coupled regime in this system, even when the distance between
them was several times larger than the sizes of the resonant objects. This way, efficient
power transfer was enabled. Magnetic coupling is particularly suitable for everyday
applications because most common materials interact only very weakly with magnetic
fields, so interactions with extraneous environmental objects are suppressed even further.
"The fact that magnetic fields interact so weakly with biological organisms is also
important for safety considerations," Kurs, a graduate student in physics, points out.
The investigated design consists of two copper coils, each a self-resonant system. One of
the coils, attached to the power source, is the sending unit. Instead of irradiating the
environment with electromagnetic waves, it fills the space around it with a non-radiative
magnetic field oscillating at MHz frequencies. The non-radiative field mediates the
power exchange with the other coil (the receiving unit), which is specially designed to
resonate with the field. The resonant nature of the process ensures the strong interaction
between the sending unit and the receiving unit, while the interaction with the rest of the
environment is weak.

Moffatt, an MIT undergraduate in physics, explains: "The crucial advantage of using the
non-radiative field lies in the fact that most of the power not picked up by the receiving
coil remains bound to the vicinity of the sending unit, instead of being radiated into the
environment and lost." With such a design, power transfer has a limited range, and the
range would be shorter for smaller-size receivers. Still, for laptop-sized coils, power
levels more than sufficient to run a laptop can be transferred over room-sized distances
nearly omni-directionally and efficiently, irrespective of the geometry of the surrounding
space, even when environmental objects completely obstruct the line-of-sight between
the two coils.

Fisher points out: "As long as the laptop is in a room equipped with a source of such
wireless power, it would charge automatically, without having to be plugged in. In fact, it
would not even need a battery to operate inside of such a room." In the long run, this
could reduce our society's dependence on batteries, which are currently heavy and
expensive.

At first glance, such a power transfer is reminiscent of relatively commonplace magnetic

induction, such as is used in power transformers, which contain coils that transmit power
to each other over very short distances. An electric current running in a sending coil
induces another current in a receiving coil. The two coils are very close, but they do not
touch. However, this behavior changes dramatically when the distance between the coils
is increased. As Karalis, a graduate student in electrical engineering and computer
science, points out, "Here is where the magic of the resonant coupling comes about. The
usual non-resonant magnetic induction would be almost 1 million times less efficient in
this particular system."

Old physics, new demand

WiTricity is rooted in such well-known laws of physics that it makes one wonder why no
one thought of it before. "In the past, there was no great demand for such a system, so
people did not have a strong motivation to look into it," points out Joannopoulos, adding,
"Over the past several years, portable electronic devices, such as laptops, cell phones,
iPods and even household robots have become widespread, all of which require batteries
that need to be recharged often."

As for what the future holds, Soljacic adds, "Once, when my son was about three years
old, we visited his grandparents' house. They had a 20-year-old phone and my son picked
up the handset, asking, 'Dad, why is this phone attached with a cord to the wall"' That is
the mindset of a child growing up in a wireless world. My best response was, 'It is strange
and awkward, isn't it" Hopefully, we will be getting rid of some more wires, and also
batteries, soon.'"

This work was funded by the Army Research Office (Institute for Soldier
Nanotechnologies), National Science Foundation and the Department of Energy.

The Future of Wireless Energy Transfer

How Wireless Power Will Change the World
Mar 2, 2010 Isham Jassat

Wireless Link for Energy - Gadget Lab

When Nikola Tesla showed that energy could be transferred wirelessly in the late 1800s,
he gave birth to an idea that would only be realised in recent years.
Wireless energy transfer first began to attract mainstream media attention early in 2001
when online science news site Space.com touched on the subject of wireless power
transfer in space in an article about new power sources to meet increasing demand. Now,
only a decade later, wireless energy transfer is on the tip of everyone's tongue.

How Wireless Energy Transfer Works

Wireless energy transfer does exactly what it says on the tin - it enables the powering of
devices and appliances without the need for wires and cables. It works by making use of
the principle of resonant coupling - devices and appliances use copper coils which, when
tuned to the correct frequency, resonate with one another.

One coil is plugged into the wall while another is attached to an electronic device. The
wall coil creates an electromagnetic field which resonates with the latter coil, which
generates some energy in the process which will power the particular electronic device.

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Any obstacles sitting between the device and the wall coil are inconsequential to the
power transfer, and human beings are unaffected because the human body does not
respond to magnetic fields.

Limitations of Wireless Energy

A number of companies and academic institutions (including Intel and MIT) are involved
in a race to be the first to release marketable wireless energy packages, however, there
are a number of limitations to the full implementation of wireless energy transfer:

1. Size:the copper rings which create resonance and energy are simply too big for
them to be part of any wireless energy package.
2. Range: the range of wireless energy transfer is just a few metres, which is a major
hurdle.
3. Efficiency: wireless energy transfer ensures between 45% and 80% of the energy
put in is transferred, which is much less efficient than regular wired connections.
4. Cost:the cost of developing and implementing wireless energy networks means
that it would be too expensive for the end-user to afford at this point.

These limitations, however, do not mean that marketable wireless energy cannot be
achieved - already companies like Powermat have released a wireless charging 'mat' for
everyday mobile devices, with the promise of much more to come.

The Future of Wireless Technology

When Wi-Fi and wireless internet as we know it was first developed in the early 1990s, it
was revolutionary. Now, no more than twenty years later it is commonplace and
mundane. Almost every bar one walks into boasts either free or paid-for wireless services
enabling customers to check emails and surf the net. It would make perfect sense to say
that wireless energy transfer is going to go the same way.

Read on

• Wireless Energy Harvesting Technology Can Cut Fuel Bills

• Wireless USB Devices and Adaptors
• The Robot Boat of Nikola Tesla

In line with this vision it would be safe to assume that one day a person would be able to
walk into a bar of coffee shop and would not only be able to have instant access to the
internet but would also enjoy any devices they have on them being powered or charging
automatically.

It does not seem that this would be very far from the truth, especially with companies like
Witricity promising marketable wireless power by the middle of 2011. Apart from the
commercial gain and its convenience, however, wireless power does offer to fight a more
noble cause as well.

Renewable Energy Sources

The grandfather of wireless energy transfer, Nikola Tesla, in the 1890s pointed out that
one day all electronic devices would be able to harvest the electromagnetic energy which
was naturally present in space. To consider this presents one with a mind-blowing array
of possibilities. If one were able to create electronic devices which would harness the
energy in space, then one would have essentially created a renewable power source, and
the implications of that would be immense.

Halley, D 'The Wireless Future of Energy Transfer' online at

Fildes, J 'Wireless Energy Promise Powers Up' BBC News Report, 7 June 2007 online at

Minkel, J R 'Intel Gets Into Wireless Electricity Game' Scientific America, 22 August
2008 online at

'Wireless Chargers - What is Wireless Charging?' Online at

Sutter, J D 'A Cordless Future for Electricity?' CNN News Report, 2 September 2009
online at

Brehm, A 'Wireless Energy Power Not a Reality' 19 February 2010 online at

Savov, V 'WiTricity is back, promises wireless power within 18 months' Video, 24 July
2009 online at

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Copyright Isham Jassat. Contact the author to obtain permission for republication.
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Comments
Mar 8, 2010 5:42 AM
Guest :
ITS GOOD. I HEARD ABOUT THIS FOR THE FIRST TIME .SO IT WAS VERY
INTERESTING FOR ME.
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