Garl Levy

I
II d t An b

•
Gramsci and the Anarchists

Otford · v.... lOti

 F,rotl"'bliohcd," Im by
II...
F.. li t"""'off", ...
ISO C"",<), Rood, ad"", OM IJJ, L'K
10 II "h,"at"" S<tuar< So<.o<h. " ..... """" SY 10012, L'SA To Ih t' fll efll Or\' of Jam es J a il

All tncn<d.
"'" ..... ofth .. pubI"' ...on .... ) be <q:If'Odu«d ,n rOlTll
Of by"'} _ " ' .."""' til<

Llbn",)' of . .. C ... D...

ISS" I 8\973 '4I9 (iI .rdbkU

1),...., by JS TH'Cf<1tJOI. lI'dhnporou"" , _

," til< l ",,«I K,"(idom by II'OC !look \-I..... Ilftdcrnd.
\hd (jlomorpn.
 Conl ents

n"

1,;' I " r\l. p'

LIS! of HgUFH ,
Llsl M h bl ..
"
'"
The h. lia:n An,u'"h1.§I!;. 187(1

, Tori ....... Anarch"",. 18·0-1'114

"
,
","
Gr1m$<' " Apprcnllce,h,p .nd til( \\3' Yea ...

, Til( An, rchi,,, in T"on lile hlrnnw "',.."

, Prod"ell ' ,stn . " d Atlt;·Jocooi,,,sm m

• ('011..:1"'"0"
'"
lIi bli"1: • • 241

'" -
 Acknowled ge ments List of Maps

1\ (;<ovorhyoflt. li.naNrchi,rn.
,
M. n) Ind;I,J".I, h,,·c hclrcJ "'" '" the C"""" of 'h,' book I ",wid
pant<ularl} hh 10 recall Sc'llio CapriOlllio, Do, id GoodU). Eha, Ekl'll. I2 D.. uibu,oon o(,he an.",hlsl P"'''''' 11.ly. 1900 !4
•
An'on>oli. M. rro Jon:a,h:ln alliin. (lorn Roou:s and
Wulfl'.ng 'The s.uffs of,1I< lnlnnauonal for Soc..!
2.1
J.!
4. I
Tu,in.
Turin / " 'DUUJ, Agt>f"'02-26 A\&i\l$1 !9!7)
In .... n..:IIOO\.1.I)' ."'., and """",hIS! predom,,,,,nce In !o:o])',
"
9J
1l'''<Jf)' (Am"erdaml. AlbcUrt'fR!.a1' An." o.:h Rillliol ... IS"",lJI<olml.
Isu,u"" G... m"" (Rome!.nd 'be S, ... A!'Chi,c. of Bologn •. 'hlon. 1914 20 In
Ron.., .r<! TUJln iUl'I'h<:d '"''3.Iu.ab!. tItl'w,! .r<! .I",,,ys ex'",rncly
r l• ."., ! "'Iluld hl . lo,hank ,s'Cf'h<n (onll" fo.-drn",mg ,he IwO maP'!
or T,mn all,! ,t.., of Soci.! !'<lIlC), and 1'010,;" ., Go!d,,,,,,hs
,he"
for c""

"" "
 LiSf of Figures U st of Tabl es

2 I F 1151 Iss ue of LI> &001" MoJ.. ,nu. jounlal of lhe

. .......
School
2. I
2.2
!' ion, Me",bt.>hip (Tu.in a nd I'r<:>vi",,",: I \lOO . 14
Turin Ch.mbt. of Labour I1lOO-14 ""
".'"
4.1 """",h,sm and SyndICalism in I. , .....",
S.I Tho\louoPl.n
 - 1-

Abbreviation s
The Italian Anarchists, 1870--1914

ACS CPC

ACS f'S
,-
Meh" ,0 dtllo S ... ,o, Cuel l.no ]'olilioco Ccn'rok.

"",ni, io Ce<Ilraic dcllo Sralo, del1'lllI<rnO. Dt=1ont

Tho .... "'h.... ,any OIl' ,lit u.. fw /unc, ... of m&l."'11 "'" ....ull<'ll
·c""""utl(>nallONh,.., _blc. K<<publt. .1..- "'" ....rJeoSUl' fOl "'"
<II SICUf'C"UI. I)" IS;one Alfan Gcnenli c _ _ ... II .. a ..... ,'" u m>d<mIlO "" ropubhco .. """ 10(\0) tho
R,;(1·..ll. RlIIYIt ..,.,..,lull .............u' AIr<.od} for tolD< ""'" publIC proo«."UlOn '" ftono of
AS\! M"nwio ci, Slim di Fondo f'rtftuura. GabiDtllo. j ....... (Oloalt' ""', .... "'" ...01\<11 po.".. <,,"'" "'<01 if"i,....,.,..... Ill<
AST "",h,vio d SlIlo<li Ton"" 0p'''' 'bc....."h, ... lh<y "'ill '"''' Karl M..... od
11 Sf! In'emOli""")ln,,i'"I. ofSoclsllllS'<><y, AmSl.r<i:tm "'" "M.... f'II"'" I, "'",,Id "'" """"....... If donoR' ,n.1 of'h" kl'ld 'Il<
rro>«"''''' ""&h' ....od ,,n """" i,,,,,, of Sociol< ., ,1>0 ...." 1'10 Qf
'hc 'j"" 11m"" up '0" h"n " .... P'or« f", "" ..,," 1"0000pndo '0 proe .. ,J
Flhl'P" lUI'''. '01; "'''''IThICI' C,,"ea

Fifll. t .." >co ,,,,,", .... "" ouch ,h"'l ..... 'lwl" p«l!>Ic:' i, ..... j .... >
""'tot".] <\pm.>Hln, lbrn: .... "" _ ..I unll1 112Iy ....n. tbcr< .....
""') > """y. Tkr< ..=: jvoI ""II ...... of iDoti,"'""I. _!<red
Ih"""""'" lul, ... Ie'''''''}'. <ado kodln, hOi """ hfc. cacb """td in luI.,..."
0011. k"""'''' """',n, of ].. only ho> """ d .. """ behe... nl
,'''' "'hoJ!c "oo1d be Clr<um<rnbed by h" parish bowwlory 11 • ."... ''''' .. ,
0011«'0<. he knew tll< p.)locetrull. he kncw ,lit 11118"""'c. ,t.cCOOTl of A"il."
.IKI 'h" r", h,m, w•• h.ly
Holy II;oJ "","'n< , po>Io'".,
""'ty, boo ..... f'lrt <>fll> l"'Pul" ioo .., "ni lN
arouod "" >doo, , "T\lIk 1"""'''''''', ,,,,,,.11,,,,, """"':"'"
A'ld .Iroc. " ....1>1<
'0 """ "Ie ,h .. idea aDd lhi, proptmrnc
..... ""'" Grunsci 'II Soc,al,,,,,,, < nall>' II G.-;,Jo tkI ",,,,.:No

If .... _ h " " art "'" <2t<ful ,he" mem... ",II ""rite ,baT

(j.."ano Sal,omlni. as quoted Ifl V M.n'o'·,ni. /.0

.,cage lId DIU/III

The his!ory of 1I.1i;,n 'Oafchi,m from ,IS In (h •• n"nn,(h "rtil.

R"'OI!!,m<'ml.>, h> ,I> ,"tuallk'(nI<,ion b)' foK'II1\. has "",·.r ,lie
0"'''''0<1 i, <Ieu.HI, I ,ball not such on . mbllio.b proJcc, her<, I
,..tlUld 10 11Ii""'. q""''''''' rarely ]IOSCiIln I,alian I.boo< h,,,OO)'

"h) 110.. did the &lWChi>l mo'Cl1lColl ..... !H .. a "'13' p"" "rthe
Italian _,.1,;1 11'<1 labour ",'".. menl. wllil the
Tho f'I"I'h<"hc ..-onb ofGllC1.ono Sah emin; .. the of
Ihl> ,hapcer hl >t 100ft or [.,<$ fulfilled 11o.,onoamphy C<lnCc",1n8
haloa n anarth,sm h.. been I.ft mo,dy 10 liS . ... ><I i, has only be<:n
in II>e la >1 '",cnty.fi,'" yea". wilh the developmen, of. less dog,nall'
J i. ,Oj!uc het"'''''"
CQmp"""nlS of the lIJ<han left , thai" more ba' .ncN
>CCOunl uflh. trlI" .",.", hu \!«n produce,J. Indttd, O<l" might SIIj ,"",
for. '008 lime .he a"",di" mo'-."",,,! had suffmd an.' en tun •••" I'lie
than Salwm,n, IIad predicted for II II Iud '1aile "mply ben! ("'i""en.
relegaled '0 I frw fu<Jtnoc", gencnlly roroo<:m,n, "human colour' lI .. u
b cull. an ,"'<rnI'''$ "fltah"" plebei." ttIlture. "oRlng cl.". "'01" lIIII/Swtl in [lIly_ h " ".11 k",,"'n thai Gram><1 did
bYllu.rd ly ckstn In, close scM,ny.;
T"" ,ene",""ns of _iali"., bmh lu,,",j', and G",ms.ci',. could
no< .,.."d the 81"rel"" lendcn(:y 'hOI coloured ,"" hch.,ioo, of many
""doh,1> And 10 I certain degl'« lo"nll Gramscl and Ihr gr,al
rcfomli>l Idrn"fiod the libonarian lradition IS 0"" of lhe palho logioal
.ymptom. oflb< ill- f.tcd poS1·!I .. ,t.t. _IfT"."t i embodied lhe
It.han ",rjlOft of Sccott.d Inloma""".II" iIOCt.ltstn. "hM G"'m>ci'i
pohl"'.' clrter motl 'I1.d by • dt>irc '0 C"li,ile Ind tra"",tnJ Ih l>
tradilion. \xlch rmI:Iln<d Ioclcd wilhln 1hc "'"iic c,,,,k ofltalian probInns
Ind l13hln obseso"",._ Both I <3rn<'d for. modtm 5O<' IelV iden.ificd .,
an ad, .new capll.IiOi ",ho»c 11I>ItHlI"",. and 'cultu,"" """w
prep;lrc 1M ",-ay (ox 5O<'i. h..,,_ liberal 113'y. they belie'cd, '" IS plaMueJ
wilh g... It.lj. th<y .houghl. ",,,,ar.. gb.all o f regions. gonmed
by • pollll,al oillc. hardly ropre<cnt>tl\ 0 of lhe ""he. of.be ,·.. t nUJ"'''Y
of Ihe I[aha" f'OIl" lal ion The llaha" parha lncltl " . s only a parody "f i"
COU"lell""" in IIOrlhem EurOj>< lnst.ad o f . d •• ,,) defot ...>d pany sy,lcm.
the ... e,;sled "!lXI.Ii",,s of clientele. '" here ptoo>ulily and =Iional
m", ... t >«m<:d """" c"",;,,1 than modem .... " particl "'pre<cnting do"
or. coo.lilloo of dllS> ml .....,,_ In both poltllcal rh<1onc Itlly "
piclured IS I C"OUI\!I'Y prey to clIaoIic rioti"i- ptrptrual scandal-.J poI" ...-a1
adHntU",rj [..:h. In hi. own" I)', bopod Ihil ell'lloli.." "vuld "'" onl)"
destroy lhe Ch"....>t" ""II oflhe feudal _tho bul ,..). lhe ground"<><l f.,.. a
modem <.en>e o f I'<>hho._ The It.li.n peof'Ilc, 'hey fd •. laded a -">Ie
'I'lflf. "001.1 wtcneh Italy ond Ihe It.h.n, into tile twentlcth
cen tLl ry_'
Th"", ,,-a •. ho\o.'CI cr. a <""". 1d llT"",,,,,,, belweon Ihc>c two \'cry di\'cn;e
1'"IIt i,-.I ThIS dtlTerence centred Oft lime How loog would on;:
", w"" 1\" c'I'".I,,,,, to dfeot i" chln)l("S1 For- Tunm hi;r"'Y pru.
.. d >I .. 011<1 ", ... through ,he porrol.. """" o f ",formism r or-
,
{Iallan Anarchml. I iPQ-19/l
GtaIt\SCi, ",orld "'If aOld Impori_li.." hod "",,-en th," • "" olution rould
be m..s. "Eo,n" thi, ",form"t >ntorpn:lallOO oflb< M,,,,,,;, d,.l<'<t"'_
For Tur:"', .... t.".." and part .."",,!,/), democracy I " , ' "
.}-"""ymou. F", Gra"""t soci.li,m '. hean and """I were loe"ed tn lhe
modorn fac.O<)". in lhe prnklari." eommLlntt)" ofprodoccl"\ _T"",,, Ind
Gra""" t 10 Lll'! a f" hmoos It.".n phrasc - w."'irotdt..nerniri (broth ..
"ne lnlOi), for bolh, ,oclalism follo".d in t he foot'I'''' o f capil. II,1
InOOem.zalton Gramoci', idenlif,catton of .... i.li.m·' I·."gu.rd in tho
f....,ry prOlCl.nat Mlbe ....,.. ad\'a""cd """lIern ioo"""". wa, p"""'bly
eon.idorcd '00 'work"",,' for l"ura1t, bul both m"" Cut .be" te<:th In
5O<' ..1t51 Il101.""'111, thll. ""lit 1hc" "noe,.IIons ""lIt I mo<Ir-rn 100""",.1
''''nlp! to "tdtn "","I"m', bose An 1I_"an """Iution rould no! be
carried 001 '" ,,!>out the .... pport oflhe ""'Illem PC"Soan"}. and th"",ghoul
h.. co"",r he for ,,,,,II a .,."Iogy, b'It trhe had gamed. senSlt" l1y
for soothcm p,,>b[cm,. he tiel., Jtmo'ed ,he honhem faclory prol"",,'1
from ii, ,-o"Suard rolc
A•• Sonlini.n int.lI«tu.l ... "si1t"o 10 lhe tnJuno. that h i, 01." island
h",! luffered tR Ltbe",'l ... [}'. G"'n'lSCl hal """,, p',lured a, 0"'" oflhe fcw
\\<>Iem Manim to delclop I colle ....... "&r1'nan policy In facl. "",ny
OIher tntollec'wtl .. he yunl<'d 10 hi. ""IiI" !Unol
50<'''')', "The ,..... ... nlr). and el-.-n lhe proIcunInlte<! jXasanu of.be Po
'aile)' "ho compo!oCtllM ""'JOn'Y of 1hc IlItb"n Soc,ah>! Pan) C
l"1',cnted Ihe c"''''lI''''''' of modem welall'l poIillc._ lie ",anted til<'
pta .. n" to aool\don lheir folkloric I tliOll of the world which he dofiOlcd
...en-", for a .\<i.nlif", outlook buono_Tlic rn'olu"",,"'Y
nonhcm prolel. " . 1 "ou lJ br,,"k Lhe cha",. of p<a>3 t\t bad" anlne,.
b) prodocli" ro""1"\ of c.pilali sm for l he full MI·.tII.go
o f the hali.n PCOl>Ie_ Th. pc.",n"),. and lhoot< clernents of the faCIO<)'
proktanal "ho "c,"" .1111 under 11, mn"C""'. 1"'''''01, "''''"'' dttnocd
<oolam"\o1'N b) In oarlier Ufi>cicnttf", socI11". tradition. They rould IlOl
osc:apt from lbe ,'''''''''' circle o f no! Ind "",Ihy that Gram",i .alled
"''''tT1''"",O
Borh Tun,i and Gramsci rough'. bank "llaln" ',lib.
,-""" o· "", •• ltsm, bullhe COItIparuool cndi here, Gn",,,i's early
" .. inllu."".d b)' , .. riOlI. libena nan rumple<. and he el'cn .nded up
being confounded wnh an. rthi'l and 'y ndlealtSi hcrt" ,.s; Turati ', vaha 't!
<itf",,,,, of Ih. an.arthm •. on ' he Olio.. Illlld. "-lIS loorc the in'pi"'" oralory
of. "lVIl who defended th" righl. o f 11""" on hi. 10 1\ bec' '' >e
of pr;IKlpl ... In mll>d. "ncr "'" def••1of the autl><>nuri.n
thfC.lt1 in ,he 1891)0.. 1hc a""",ht<lS aoo ,yndiollm "-m: OImply p<imil1¥'"
,nMe<i '>1one al!<' """ialiou', G,,"nsci '$ .. lllionsh,p w"h lhem " .. nlOl'<: The F irsl 1870-410--'
ron","" and "omple', for," I>< " ..... ,ed. d'>I,n<lly liben.nan form of
during.1>< Fit1l W.,.W W." I'M' en •• red inoo • "ortiog fnend,Jllp ltah3Jl lntnnat,onait,,,, ",a. IlI.I""d Ihrough a naltonal SlTUggk in an
'" ,'h I n:tTIlIfbbk groupofTorinae """,h,.. , As hu coonell rommu:tism agran." SOCtt1y. "here the c.,...,opt of' Italy' "'ti "m"cd '0 a ..... 11 band
.merged In tbe "'.." (,I>< Red B,Cf\J\''''''. 1919- 20) i. bono ,I>< "r ,ntollectuall. an..... and t.t1blJ\ ptn)' OOttrgCOlI... I'."hen the cmlnlll.,n&
hlllnu,k. of Ihe anareh". and hentag._ \I) 11m In Ih" "al. om"oo in ,he ';OIlIl'T)'<""', " di'hked. and II lime: it "-as "I'f"J5Cd
,nttndllCI<>ry .hapter " ,<> shed tom( hght "" lhe cH.luII"" <>f'M hali,n '(10th and l\3.il In ,he IS6O$ lhe soolh "'I' bluod .. d by a ferocious ci,-il
libenanan mo,,,,=' ber""" (lie rcw.>, '0 inTroduc. ",or ,n ",lllch a rcak,lranll"Ulntr)-' 0JIp0Sed "hit, ","1 foll,o be • r""'i[{ll
O(he, (m,ell()-M""co "ale. had <kgra.,k<J it> ,eligi"n, f..,."od ,t I" pay great"' In.. and
The 'iulit)' of a""reh,.tn, and a mote Il""",ic an" ,,."" lrad" ,oo ,h.II had ccns<npted i'l so", in", a d .. ,.nl anny, n.. brigand. ill ,"" soulh
chara.cle,ilod It,it "n s.eco"d I",ern.,ion.h., _ "h,m. can be .. plained '" lth Ihe Iklurbot ... tld tl .. Cathohc clelllY 0' ""crt inyoh-ed In 1000al
hy eum ioiog Ihre. majur lheme" Ih. of an.rchism·s h;\,ory. qua,,:.I •. Other f0101' of 1" 010" Ih. .lId bread'h of tho
tit. W"I;, ,; li.\ of .he PS l. .. ><llh, ....,I,,"on of the [taha" laoou, ,,,,,,,. po",",ul. I" 1869.• WayC of riOll, nc.,ly a popula, insurrection. wit
menl in its p .. w., f""na,I", ""riod, e."s.cd by tl>c inlmJut:,ion ofa Kroln , .. The I"lia" "atc', gcncrnl poItC)'
By [914 anl ,>1a",m In Its ['U"'" f"nn I1.>d t.rcOOIe o ..",he[med hy of IjualiJ",o (I""" <>n .n,eles "r pUrSued In order
an ri""<>nIlly <Hlenu,d ."",.lI" pally, The .... n:him remai""d a ,,·eak .. to pay lhe dr1>ls or lhe "'lira o r 1\)"0lI01 hbtra"on, alio",,'oo the humble,
pany. parado>"'"lly. ho" . , ... Il><i, ,"I ... , ..... 1Ied !lrong al lhe cllSsn_ Later. in 1872 and 18il .• of mikes b""'. "", In \Iilan.
,t)
IP"'" """s. Anarthl!ttl', s)·mbol. .nd heritage OOrn",.,ed mal"" ... m Tunn. Fior=tt and B<>l<>¥na. b)' ag".""" among sto...
1... lian _ ... h,,- cullu ... Lnfonunatoly lhe dr""h, un,,1 "",.mly. of croppers and l.ndlC!!s labourers in lhe Po \1110)'. To many""""'''' ,he
"ud'!;S concoming Itaha" _1I1"m ti I p<lpUlar culture f"'gik ltali.n $1.0" al'l'<arrd on.he bnnl ofcollapx; ond" "'IS in 'his
th .. curi"", fOCI. Al'hough th"" I probkm "fJfeat ,n ",df. I .... IIng !lu. the InIC11l3I1<H111'''''''ge<i
can ""Iy prc$en' ,he .. ad .. ""h • btt*l ou,[t"" "f. popular soc,ah"", The 1",li.n Inte"",tional <prUd rar,dly in lhe early 1&70. and """"
1111, ean bc<1 be drfinoed .. the 'JtOOnd cul,u",·. tit" I mean a "",wort n,,,"berod mot"C 'haR 30.000 mombrrs. In muhi-H,I"me: hlSlory ofl .. ly
of ''''"tu,i"", bound '<>a<thc, by I<:n,",tCnll of locah'm. In,i,"'''''''' and G,"'l!:'O CaRd<loru. <It.n or \Jan<1>1 " ... 10rc<:<l'O admll INti
'"""ra"mu· I'" QT\<n"",). I( cOllided "'I""trdly ",'h 'he Itahan ,laIc and tho Inlemallorul "., haly', roN In. . . pan),-' The bulk of'" membersh,p
du,ing IOC"OU' <",e, e\On wi,h Ihe mon: ccn,raitud in>l;lu""n, of "o".ist.d or ani,.n, rrom cc",ral and to.aplc,. and a ",,';onal n::pn::
Ih. I,il"u, and """i.li st The chambe, of I,bou r. the new ,emot ion of inleilec'u.l•• nd ,,'''lenIS, Pro"" ti\'o WOlke, ",g.nlzat ionJ -
isolated 00" 1"·,,, indumi.1 SIlburt>. lhe agrotowns of Apo"" w'"
the were als<' allll prt:CII""'" oflhc p,,,i,o Ope",,,,
a"" [ m il i" .nd the "",,,pany to..-"s of I.,gu,i •. and Umb" •.• [[ 1t.Il.no . lId up<!miJ",u
Kcommoda,N. 10 ,.,,,ying dcgrtts. a cull"re' Its ,.1 .. 0' a/f",,.d The le.derShip uf'he Ital ian InICrtIl1lonal cn"i!agN tlot ""'01"""" . s
(iraJ",",;', \Ia"i"" in ncpl"" and ]IO>IIi\O way•. Gram",i', couo<il • '_,.1 , I'.,lh II>< y..... of di"""", in m,nd. ,hey
e"nunun!5m did DOl "",rely spnng from tbe crucible of ,he World 1'.., belt.. Nlhal 'he ",,"onal c"uld be o\Orturn<:<l'hrough anned
and i" .-.'Olul"","ry afle"""'h. The ""'as of s.clf-manage",ent and an ,n",r..."ioo. A donoo",,,,,i,(..,, til the COllnlJ};ode, "I.at [rnco M.I:ol<:>la
aulonomou, culture. SO prom' ... nl ,n .he Gnun><:i of II>< I<'fTI\etl 'propagando I»' """Id pre-poIi,ical ",n,h i",o,
b'"",1lJ 11><W. " . . . aln:ady ptcloCnl ,n ""'_"'r 1.. ly_ On the othe, hand.
,he ,nllability oftbe '>co""" cullo,.". Ind the drmagoguery!lut G... msc,
conscioul sociali., upri>'' ' IIoth a pWtncd ..,,)It In 1874, and I "",milo
.. tion in lbe mountaLns oooth ofl\aplcs ,n 1877. " .... mL...",blo ra,I.,..,..
though' prt"Stnl. caused him", be c",..:.1 of 'h" ,radi.ioo ""oit' 1"""\'1<kt! the: orponun"y for the: go'Cmment to dc<lroy
the InternaTional, ond In .. I Sl'"os of my"""Qu' bomb explosiOlU and
'''"mpl< upon (he King's hfe. tlw: 11I.."",nonal "'I, oUl[av.cd.'
\\ ;th ,he c"".lung [t,Ii.n onan:b,sm railed to create
• IOt'g la"in g na,i<mal "rl)anir,'ion n""I ,!,e befo .... ,1!e Fir<! Wotld

, ,
 110r /870-/9/4

War. The go. nnrnen. 11".y, "ruck hard<, a. 1M IJIa",h". "",,'rn'OCn.

...-
,han" d,d ... he .oc,.i1Sl pany, "'n.",h,Sl' and ·In.,,,loold·

bch."o u, "cre " lerotificd in oUI >lde II", rrolcc,ioll of
,0nSlilU, i"",,1 auar;lnICCS_ The llllreh", "",,'emen! " 3' d" I< i,icd .. e"he. o 0;,,'; ..., -
!errorisl or il\SUn'«,ioruSIIR CIw3cI.... 100 durin, p",-;oo, of """tal "'''''''
,ho IUIIln:hr>'" "",,cd ... ,he: u_1 "'3pog<>alS. AAc.lhe ""'..
"'
0• • P"P'''
(189041
of,he 1870. ,ho """'o;mCII' aga,n rdllhe b-Iovo, of 1I1e Sl'1< ,n !he m,ddle
18SOS dYfI"g the firs, ma.. mikes of Po V.lley Imu,wn" (I.ndl ...
• g.ric ulturn l I.bourers) La' e ... In ,he 1890s. 'oc aMrehi" """'emelll was
",rtua lly d eIIW)ed, The leA ""5 Ih"' OIcned IhwUIlI,,,,,, ,hc 1890s. bu,
lilt anarch,.!> "ell' panicularly hard hi' \\,ilh tilt fom"IIoo of 3 """';11-
oriented """i.hsl ,lit anarch».. f.iled 'o moun. ""'JOf "1'1'0'11100
bttlU>C uf'hlllt'Jlf"'Sion arxl 0 d'<One-n1a11OfL on 'heir _n "'ILk.
Under Giohll1 ,he .",rchim "("It .,,11 ponttLL,ed, Ahhough G,oh'"
had more ",.poel fo, ci,il ngh's Ih.n his prede<ciiOn. he was f .. from
bei ng libcn. nan Pohtieal repr<:$s;on ,e""",lly ,par.d ,he roo", moJc"!e
"""i.lists. buill>< inn.nsigenls. Ih. ,),nd",aIiSlS "nd ,I>< anarchISts could
be am-stcd for I "Ide ,-ariel)' ofpm.s ta", and <libel'! ,hat puni.hed publK:
den,grauoo oflhe m"",,,,,iIy 000 1111' poh«_G.ohlll al"'a)-.1ricd 10 pm em
.narch,,1 or .) ....hc.h,' lead<nhlp from emelling '" lhe: young labou.
mo,'om<n', Al,hough be was pc,ftc,l;- prepar«I,o SU]lI'OI1 moderalo- I.d
."ikos. and e"e n r ' ."U.ilC .n' plo)'orS 10 selll •. I>< orde ,ed lbe a""i' ,)1'
an.. n;h"llnd lynd,."hSI I>.bou. leaderS regul •• ly,·
Anarchi., ht>lOIy" Iwder 10 fol[,o,.· alier 1880 ufthe dis_
conllnuili.s of ,II leadersh,p and ,IS (q3", .."ooS W"h ,he: nse of lhe
IOS I aOO Its al'>OClaled ,,,,do: union 'he C""feder",o!1O
Generale del LIt'o", (CGLI, ' he h,,1<>f)' of hben .. i*n s<>(iahsrn br •• ' s
down in'o I sm.,!y of ,IS in fl ue,,,," un OIhe' i""",,,ioru .ueh.s th" PSI.
,he: CGL, the syndicali" uf labQur aOO II>< Uni""" Sin<hocak;
.he: """,,,,. of"'B,,,,,,,1 "",ial hi"Of)' ... he:re ",..,,,h,... ma,nuined I moo-.
CI)."in"""" physical prcsene •. and ,be ""Ii,-idu.al b,oaraptucs of ,,, n>Or<: ",. 1.1. c...>v..... ( .... 1.<0,. 'hooI_ .....
pront,,..,", na'oo ...1 karkt-< .. 0 Gooo..-oy(<d \ F". , .....___ H,,-.<>i_ n..-",,"/ AI'P""""'"
L""",,,,_ I 'l't0 _ pI"
Iralian " "a r<IIls "" S,' ndln ll s'" and Ihe ·S...., ... nd
1900-14
mo.I of itS woo.
,n «n'tal h.ly, Lnli! !he m,do.ne 19w... Tuscany. the:
Althuuah!he InarchlSt mo'c-menl f.,1ed to """",",n • «MIll"""'" naIl(onal l"mbnllnd ROfI\e mna,nro !he ""'"' of'be """-.mcm
org:ln''''"'''' .fter,he: di .. ppearatlC<' of!he In,oma.oonal. e ..... 'n arca' Wnll III< effec1i.e ro:-pre"ion of the: 1890s. and ,he of ,he: d"',,,oo
be<:'lll<" stronghold" WOCIt: the: """rch,,,,. Ib"'"Wh tradition and 1"",.1 ana",hi!. mo, ."",nl into <li>l"'''f,, 1fllCto oo." of organi7Jlllonali >l'
org.ni7.1Iio""1 ",.ns,h . ,"",i"0<1 pcn"". of rep.eSSlon. "IVmg as f"".1 arid ."'i-"'SlL" ,za""".\i m. 'he . n.reh"" ."".. red endangered "'"h poli_
PO'"'' d'Jnng ",,;,"1._ Anarch,s< !coJerShip "';!lln.ted and carfled oul ,ie.1 e. llncll"" In fact .be .no",h,st; mo<kmilN lhe:,. o]JI>C.1 b) pron,.lJy

, ,

\I.p ' ./ O"onW"", o f th< P"" in h. , y. 1900- 1" ,s.,."" . C.. I L",·, 1810
'n;, " ". Good",. , \«l .\. F", A"""'i, ", 1/0",,,,,,,.1"""
London, ' 989. p. lJ)
.doptiog 'Y'><licali>1 argLllncnt •. Through ,I",,, co",rol of ,mponan1 pow",
ba,es m ccmra l lt. ly's chambers of labour Rome. forexomple. h.d an
an,,,,his1 se<:relari.t for rno" o f the Gio li uian era 'he .n.",hi"$ WCIT
assured o f o'1!." iz.tIO".1 proleCtlOn,
The ,,,,,,,him were capable ofm,k,ng ,,","hng reappe.rat>:;cs. During
1he unsellkd period "pened by t he Liby.n W.r ( 19 11) and 'emporarily
•
rhe halian Anarchi.lS, 1/i7!}-1914
do.ed ,,·ith the World W.r, and laler during the "'-'''', 110. long
",,,,ling popular ity.nd COOItn"" y of """.-chi.", in M""",C.rrara. At>:;om,
PiQmbino. Romc .od 1ho i"d u,ui.1 hinlerl,nd. ac'ed
as a spri ngboar<l for n.tIO". , IT\'i,'.I, . On its own, however. • narch"m
"''" a minor Eve n at ,h. pe.k of prewar .e'i"i'y. o n the eH o f ille
Red Wco: k. an a.-.:;hi", Mmbered no more ,it,n 9,000 10 J 0,000.,. Revi"al,
al,,"ys th rea'ened by "iolon' faclional which erupted
""''''<en anarc I"" cornnt uni >IS ad\'ocaling OO'H;ectarian labot:r
organi,.'ion. anll -organtzallon.1 ana.-clu" communlSIS who de'ested 1h.
Mul"tos,an,' ,n <iS1Cncc o n a sep'"'' naltOM I .nar<:h,s, org. nll" ion.
an.r<:h"" close ly as<ociated wi,h Ihe syndte. I; "I,bour organi""'i"", and
SI' md"',du.' ,,,, preachmg an el i,;<l .eSll>eltci,nt r<:pugnan"o the
Olher fac tion"
By ,hi: .arly twe""<th cen' u!), a patient o f anaITh", li fe had been
e>tabhshed and " ntamed Ill< oonn unlillhe bj'nniu rosso . lAcal tcrrilOria l
.'reas of "lla",hiS! were """omp' nied by contro l of a ch.mb<:,
of I.hour. or the ap]l<'"ronce o f" l.bour·orien1ed weekly neWSp"pN.
The an.tchislS also c"",ributed labour Qrgan,zers 10 the CGL and Ihe
, ynd,c"Ii" mQvements, W;,h in (he lulonomous mil w.y wor\<crs "nton,
thl: SinJac.,o It. li ,ni (SH): 1hey ass umed a p<nn"nont I."der-
ship, Tl>e al'" ac h""M inl1ucnce in 1M socialiS! F<xlol"'.. , ione
lI. li .n. Opera, Met.l lurg ici "" ioo)
The gr<:","" 'M",hl>ls ad"."xl was incre'>l ngly felt in
the syndIC,Ii" Italian sy ndicalism led • be",,'dcnng li fo. "
S'aning olf as a facllOl' oflho SO<',ahSi Pany in 'he ea rly 1900>. ,t sphnt.
cre<l into a b ki doscope of local "","·omo,,'S. iound ncW ",engt h in lhe
pre...·., !Jnione $ iod acal. Itahana. "nd duri ng an,I.1 ftcr lhe
F irsl Wor ld War il w"me conlrollcd di rec, ly by anarchists,
iniluoneed de!>." . 1hroughout lix' It"ltan k it. On tho 0". haild. syndIC.h,'
inlelleclua ls ,'",.a'ed a iorm of 'PMet;an' soci.lisrn'h"' was su, picious of
all forms o f "ale .... n"oni,m or prolec'ionism, .nd w" alltac'ed '0
\I arxt sm b<:e.usc 'he mo-d.", ",vrknlg <lass would modem,ze Itahan
T."",,,,.I
cap il. lism by forcmg c'pi..,i" elM' 10 worn< and dlieient
and not para'itical o n the fa"u u", of ,he Italian "",e, For tno .. 1I0h.n
s;·nJicah,'lhoo<oliei.n" non--cconomi, . rn<>ral were ce"'ral
for the f"",,,,ion of " working-c l,,, clile A prole .."" lhal roli od on
G,ohlli', i"'·ouf' .• nd "'as soft. "e--d by hi' pr,,!!rnm"'" of SlO1i>l social
lcgi.lalt"", Woo Id neyor womc the he roic lhey pmned Iheir hope s
un, l hc ,h""""ic,.,"s of synd icalism formed a close alliance and adnUtoi,on
for halta " free·lude e<oonQmlSn such as Einaud i, ('ab,a'i and Girc11i .• nd
Pare'o h,msel f looked on w ilh 'ymp"hy .m! ;nlere>l a, ,h. beginning, or
I
Gru",fCI and 1M AnarrltlSu TJw /lallan AMrrhiJIJ_ Iii m 1914

the SlOOlCaliSI " 0.. thot <Jthcf hand, ,,0<I.'''i-<:1_ party lit,,, O1n1ro nt:I.. "".JOnltI "'lI"niuuons,1IOf did ,he pr .. 10."ly
OtiI'nlttf'>. """h as h hppoComOOn'. "ttl: of ",<lus.,.;.1 union"m '....""0."", "'E-'''"atlOl1' in a dl'IC,phno<! fO$h1Ol1 <l< pan ......
,n haly. Tiley " ...... d ,h.
ronccp' of Ill: ("'lOry un" radlt' ,han til< ""'ft I. rly sound ...
0< the cham be, of labour as lhe 1>;,,;, of mod< un"", J loweyc" Just a, Ita han hf. was ' lJ llla<gcly "" hi n. local d"". " . ion.
mOSI of (h. non_ . n.nohi" elements In the Pfewu i}'ndlcoli>l ,no' omelOi w, 100, "'NO SlXi. I; " pol itics, A $<)Ciali " presence was far more 1""','l$i>"e
",e", dttply ,"nu.need by • Mau,n'3n huil'ge. This me'"' lha. lhey "uhin the Ind rich poli'ic.1 ,"bcnl!"",. of the nonb<m
P" as • bndge 10 I popIIla' "'"onah,m In [l>.ly. Some Indu,,,,ol Suburbs, E,,"ha- Rom.S"a. T.... any and ,\pul .. _ If the PSI u
»ndicllisls ..... Impomllllin lhe: Crullon ohM "a,ioo.liSl A'iSOC11';.,n an org.m:tat'(In and .. an <lretonl mach",e tmodro munoc the SPI) aile,
and ,1>0 0)'11""'''' of doc,""" and I"*'lic. thai ••,ved OUI • niche for ,I> prom",n, elre","1 " .. to".' ofll>< 18901, lhe ltah.n l"If1y ... h«l upon
fl$'Oi.m a fte. ' he ... t, When "'ar brol. Old In Furopt ,n 1914. ,heS( a c""lj,ion of l.ndl,,!. I.boon:'l"$.• ni"ms, Indulmal ,,·o,k.n Ind ,I><
s)ndocali'" <>ptcd for inlen.m;on. for rome, Frane. w., wuc.te,J middl. ct..set quote d,ff.... n! fmm ,no G.nnan c..." The pos'_
end angered by I'n"sian feudalism . Others argued lh.I, through Ih. t"", ""d lce .. ,,,I., ",110 oo,mnat.d ,h. IOCI.h.t porhamo .. ,a,,· group. did
I,uropcan " ar, the ha lo . " "'<lrking c l.ss w<lUld he p rcpar<ti for an inlc,- "Ill Ix: fully COn'.l\lInt with ,he co'l'u, of M • .,.', Ind
na""",,1 "'Olul;oo Imln",,,,1 a>pee1' "'...... al"" lftS(nl War "u poc,urni Engels" .. rill!!p. Thr" kIlO\'> 1Wg. of n-, C""""""ISI ,Ifamlml) or C"PItal
... Ikmocnotic c",..ado or as I l'e'nlunon, J)nd""I"m'. ,erNl ,iole""e "'IS from ,he 'Cllioos rnodettd by !he ..wehlS! Ca,lo c.rl<TO,
coold ""'" ....... '" th< """·.."...."hl!! k'adcnhip abandoned 11111 for th< ead=.nd r1lnk and file of!he pony much Of!helf poI'''cll
its «.."rol of the '-'noon< Sirda<:.I. the aruroh, su finall) g:alnc:d comrol cduc.,ion "'" ",loa", (In .......,hlS! m:;Il ibel'lOnall IttcnlUrC, AnIl< lmoahsm,
of I "'\II'lers' OfJ.<3n"auoo of • signifICant. If crnolic, Inu,mil,!.>,i,," ond ,nlra",ig"" "'publiczn,sm hnled 'na",hi,," to ,he
",n ... we
n•• o"c, hundred, of llIou ... nds of If br."""" IOClOli" ""'I0"",n"
<0" '1';11'( tho «.><iali>l t mlk UIllOn fedoralion, Ihc ( ( iI., to Ihe I'h. ro ll ing g.,.." a l that punc luated!1K: Oio l;I"',," ero illustra te
il "wid h.,. '0 be co ... Mod ,hal lhe IlJI3l'<h,sts ",INlned a juno".- po""'" ",'ion ...n a, ,he .ulTrage
of d'!\'C1
Th" Jun,or pon"""hlp "'tIh lhe h.li.n _,aIiSI pan) .nd ,he CGL ,I>< adult m.l. popu!allon ofltaly_ " [n f.,I, through the chambers oflabou,
.nll 1""UC",,«I!he !empo and chi""".,. of len·" In, poIi!ical cu"ure ,n Ilbctun"" cullu", rell1lnnc:d key 10 th< COO$' .....'''"' of ...,.",1", lOC,ab,IOly
1,.1), ]'I", !,<",ulian"cs of!1Ie I.ahan Sotiolt>l PUl) 11'-" ,he \>tfart 1914 ."., _iah>l CUlt= of """ ....... /lu""' " ... th<ttf"'"
pol,,,al 'pace 'h'" .., cd th<m from ma1'llInalill"'on. " Fonned in 1892, ,,,tl...nc«l b)i ana",hLSt p<><m. and ><lIIp fou nd in abundancr
11 only IdopI«I ' he name PanilO Sot,ah<13 l!nh.no In 1895 , ThIS "'''I a, ,he chamb<ll. panoeulor!y of ' he .n.",hist poel. SIX>ologisl . nd
a, ilS b inh, it "as • coaht ion of forc", : lhe F.bian · lik" s.:.;,.hs, P'e. ro Gun The eh3'''b<.... of I.bour bound t"llCfh .. ,II" so"",,,,,nlS of
League ,)! ,' '' I.n. lhe Fasci Si.iha m, Ihe wnrlen>! p.ntlo I"c.li ,m anod an" .",11.", s,, 11 fo und in ,,,, socia h" ,ubtu lmral hc.nlands,
Opt .."o U' 1i3f\O, ,he ,1«lonl ,'.hlCle of lhe Andrea COIla and ,1><)' ",,'Oed .. ,h. "" ..... <0"'''''
f".- g,ner1l( >lnk •• lh..1 """"",m.,
Ind ,he '0'" of ,he Po Valley landlC'S' 10\I00I1''', ,he Rowluli"""ry Ik,elopcd in'o open ,""urm:lioos_ TI" •• ""rehl>J",nnue"".d IOCllh'l
So.""l»' p.ny of ,he R"""'8"'" ."., onglnal party t\oh«l from In .abcullU'" "'ted as .n 1IOOlT....I gI1Ipt, ,nc from 190410 1914. and l"N.
umbr.ll. of associ.l""" 10 • si"3lc·tnmlb:r boo"" p,llny, "h'eh ,,< .11011 see. In 1919 20, lloe Influ<n<e of the groat 'no",hlSl E,""o
omcllily " ... >«1 i1> """,,""ion '0 an.",hlSm and or>:Jon,cd lhe Ma.,.,St Mal ...". (lSSJ 1932) in the c,i,is of 1898 or ,he R«I Wed of 1914
lOCiah,"1 a nd organ,unonal model oflhe srI) (German Soc ..1 Domo- he" how ' he a... ",hislS "-ere a1 the of prolc51 ""\'Ci
e,"lI. Pon)), Mombtllhip e'pandM ITOm 21,000 '" 1897 to 37,000 in ,h,1 ,,,, ",,tll. d I'aly u"" 1 !h. Grea, War, 11 TI",refl)l"o ,he lack of fOIl1,a l
19 13, II> elec,oral In I\olion. 1poll. g"''' "' ,uffrag. ""''''btrship w ilhi" Iho >""rehiS! O<]I;"ni'at ion! bef"", th e Fillt
upanokd from 8 per cenl to ""aT "ni".rsal manhood suffrage III 1913 \\'" doe!; 001 nttess.>.ily "",on t""tthey "on: '1WlI, ... liztd In the ILOI .. n
The """a!i""'prurN 9 ptr .tIll of the HII. in 1897 and 17 per ctlll by len.
1913. Tbt ch",f i",,,,""OO! of lhe pany i,..,ludcd 1M Gl'S (.he "",ialtll The description oflhe )"""8 G,"","",', pol" ...1bel",f. thai Introduced
......."""'.ry group), h"wli' (th< n:tlioooal pany ...... , .• he: ",,,,,,,,,,I 'h" chprer hon" a, I <Iou lun'hip ... uh ,he 'yndical"l In,.1Iec1W11s.
d"CClOn'O and l'>e local secltonS the Gcnnans, bo".,·,..-, 1M lu!ii1n Ahhough we ",1111Of e""""nl.' Gram",i unlil C.... pI.. J, i' i, wocthwhlle

"
Inu,,,,,,,,O& OU' 3IJ!:wnetll. about lhe direc1 Iink.ob'CS ond Ok<:I"", .,fonni", 11I<)1«"lar unity. r""r,dcd on ,ell prod""li.. rel>!;"n,- TI>< fact",)-ba.>ed
Ihat "o:d ,t... young Sard,",,,,, t" 'II<m. Gram"'i. like ,II< .yndirah<l mlol- 1111"'" u",f,o:d itaitan 1KIC'C1y. Gr.>nuci "",1>«<.1 ,be "'i'n
1«"..1•. Ind. indeed. like ""'ny radlCll. Ind .on>en·'''''' ofall <Ir1pe •. II>< factory rotl"",I. bu, In tn:Iny liS f"""""", wen:: ;Imll.o,.
" ... , oMc ..ed by til< (1IIu,.. oflM "'hll(l ."'Sf ,Not folio" o:d lhe "The 'l'nd;cali>l ,bcoreI.. ,,,,,,, Ind G... msci .I",.hart-d an 1,-er-l1(ln
Along "'nh the Spa",.""". f't,rtlo. \'osca and An,on", Ubnola. "",-:mIs anarch,,,,,,." TIle e,""" relallon"",p. ......... cr. bc<vo'eC1t!he p""" ....
II< fdl''''u ,he Liberal SIa'e waS nolh'II(I 1el4'''''''' rnon..to... abortion. <yndIC.h>! _ '[I2f"<hl" "",,'cmcn's is hitrd '0 dotermillC "'ith
,..,.,d,ng economic <I<'..,I0'''.... nl Ind degrading public lif•..• Tho f.,l"", On II>< . .1 and .)roical" .. ,,·or\..ed .... pp,ly tog<11><,.
1<, ,u",in • produr"," and Ih. l"'!"Si"e""e of h.hln bu, "n lhe nalio",l. formal. IMologlCallo"el.!he .onfrorn."on bo'ween
hu""""m. had led to, c,,",,",J"IOnd,ni r.,lu", of'ho rt'IOdtrn "",k",& cia" . nd 'ynd,calism for-eslu<.lo"eJ ""'ny of Groll'lS(i"s polomlC$
1 he "ate embodied ,II< an . ",ho,d "'dl\',duahlm of 1I.Ii.n daily lifc. "ill "tilt til< 'na",hi", in the ,.,:m o ,
g<l\Omcd by thc mlngue. of law,'.ro and ,he scmi-lilCralC in,d h on.rch ,.u beh ... «1 'h,,, ",,(Ie "ntOn' only $Cr.'cd .. 0 me' n$ to
genl<i,. G,u",,,,; . nd lhe .ynd,c.lis's fO<lnd Ih"" ..,I u" on 10 III<" dilclnII13 .melioMe Ihe cond'''Oll< of ,he wot\.;ing cia,. and. d"'lIlg ,,,,,,.1 rnoc"
In thc modem f""tory. II was In l ite "or\. of Anuro LobrlOl. and En,"co 3$ "'<01'1, to mobili,c worket1 for ac, ion They •
LCMt Ih .. , he ,p,ri'. if not 'he lettef. of Gr.lIl'lS(I·' ca.ly lov •• ff.i, W,," pos, ... ,."I""o,,",1)" """ie.y buil, on pl">;lh,y "f ",!!anizali"", bo.std
the f""tory was (If" rt lquaU)' imporunl for Klllng lhe <lagc on (."." accord. Ih. unions be,ni only one "'''h In,IItubOn . AI,ho"¥JI
for lhe fac'ory·hased form. of "'Pn,U"Ofl ad,·onco:d dunng ,I>< />Jcnnoo >lndK . li,m ,nheriled ,"""h of .",rchum·5 .nn'5I>1i<m. ,I> eonlinual
"''''' ,,,,,.. lbe pi ........ ing effor1.by unlOO',U In ,he lnuncd,ale of'I>< need f..,. ",pen, and fUDC""""1 di"urbo:d
pro:\Oo-al )c ..... TIle indUSlnal UHlon'§iS "rcs.N,h:>, shi>p.floor democ,ac), ,nany _,,",rchisls. althoui;h \101.'tSl>.n anarrhl<lS " ..... qUilc ciQsc.o I
,"""Id ,I>< ba ... for Irsde u",on,"". Tho pre"" .)OOieoli5l' had func'ion.1 in""""'411o,, of ..,.,.I,""i,u""",. b,,, \lala"'"" and 0Ihc1
,n,,,,.pora,ed d<Tnan<h for ,,,,.leT shop noor COOltol. ""8" p"-n'Y mel a .u"Wthl<tS denounced tbe pnlJI<>Sn"", thai prod""'i"" "". a good in ""'If
"'"" """" ,",Ii... nl inlemal OORtmIUoon s)'Stem ,No, for.shadowo:d lhe I, "'" the dt.<tnbutl'c 000C<:Jl' io IIW'I'bo<umrnunl;l Kropotl..io·s
Iw""w n>ll<>. TI>< ide. \lu., ,liI" Irade """", ...-as ba;ed 011 ,he "ortforce belief lhat ,he Ilrn of "",ah,," "'as ,be full of!be fruns "f
of an ent,re foe'ol)" ""","N by Gram«i in hi' auad orr labou,. "", ""''''I)" tl>< mond url,n work pro,·ided. lNoI sc-paralN II><
e,.t).on"",ed unIOns, \1""1 ,mponanoly.'liI" i"",,,e. ,,'htch ,I>< lribu ... of anarch", I",dn,,,,, from GramK; and ,he
MII'ne'" indus"ial "ni""ism. r ' '!'PO Comoon,. employo:d of fO<'Of,e, Grain"",', Marx"rn inheri, ..111>< J} rod",.II>' k g'>:y 'hrough ,I>< Il>rory
., ,I .. . . buildmg blods of I "",W ,nd"",ri.1 "'10. rcm .. ncd " ,lh ofGo"'8"' Sorel. an<ll< .. '" frum I direcl INgcm"nl of [he "or\;
Gr .. "sci ,Xl G",m"" did 1101 ",.·ttl 10 reahl.c , II.. Labriol •• nd Le"". hod "I' Anu", l.ab"ol•• nd Enrico L.. Wh.t he m,..' defini,ely
cnvi"'go:d ,II< I"uk u1I"'" in " ' ''''h II .. sam. ro le as h" fa.clory COII""", ' S \\..., a ;lyle. lang....¥e.nd rangc of .<:>OCel'I> "hien ,he<J"" ,cal .ynd ical i,,"
{i13m"" cnlicized , I>< ,yooi.. I;", for ", lying "" ,be ""de "nioo an p<>p«131i,ed. bul hi' orrlli",h,y lay i" a n<mp' '0 'yntl><",e "JIO<''
,,"'i,ulion. he .,.pl.,ntd. caught in ,I>< "-.bof ea plt,">""'""ons. Howe"c •• ofsyndicali'", "ilb a pol",",1 philowphy inn"orteo:d by 1I_lian nw--
G •• n,sci "'ould _gf« ",,'h lhe ,)'nd,-.It'" ,No, MalAi'm idenlified ,<ieah,m and ,I>< \/an.ism of Ani"";" I.abriol. Throogh lhe pcdagOl!i,,"1
,.p;t:lh<rn·' .""ltal COlltn<J,Cl,on 001 in ,he uh,m"e economic CT3$h or 1•• d,l"'" of nco->dclli,m. Grtlms.., "inlOd prod""c,,' ..,.illi,,,, to be
'1'1 an in"olulll'u}" falling ... ,e o( profit. bul 'n ,I>< "ruggle on the fXlory "",lized Ihrou¥JI rallOll3.I
noor btI"ccn wod .... demandi,,* Nlf''''''nlgelT1l<n' and the indi_ TIle you:ng Gram",i "35' >oolbcmcr.1 "'"" in a northem ",dus'nal
,>dual 0" nef>ltip "r .1>< "pl ... In foct ,I>< i} Rlllcah,,,' uaok "noon cil). In the no." , ....1"... 1 "in ,I>< 5pOCifIC characteristiCS of lhe
" .. meant II> <lP' I>UI oflM '),>IC!n, InJcro. GJanu<1 would Bi'e hi' """"" Tmnesc "orllns d ... and II< lIru '" 5<><lah". Iln3ITh .., ar<I.yndlcalist
'0 ,Ire .yndtC.Ii" belief \lu.1 ,lie Ind,..ln.1 prolet .... , had '0 >how "",If m,,,elT1l<nt< bef"", 191..1 A of Twin', 'second cul,u,..· and II>
capable of tq>lxing rapll.t.h,m ""h • more producti'''' .nd efflCie'" ",I""ion,hip '0 """.1011 ,n",II.."""ls ",II be follo ....ed by an aCCOIIn! of
i}"em . Gr">lllliCi " as tl>< he;,'o syndicalt'l prod""li, i,m and its pr.llOC of ( ;rum""i's first e""""n"" ""h i, ,n Chapter Three
,he ,,,.olled func,ion.l hl .... "'hy "f ,I>< fac.on Fo. lhe ,yndic.list. tbe
unIon wo$' ",urcc of """,al aUlhori,}. forming a new nallonally bast"

- 12- -u
 /I"/i",, A ..",...hiJIJ. IIi"O /9/4

NOles \'on.. 1991. A. De Grand, 'GI01111, and ,he Soc..h,.,'. on SI"''''''''

M DI Scala (w I. /la/ian Soc,alwft Ikr..«n P<>Iilia aM U"",ry·.
I. Moch of thIS cbapItt .. ba;<:d Il(lOO -I ... h.. ,u.rt:h;srn. 1870- 1926', Amhorsl. 19%. PI' 2J--.17. (0 s..cchelll, 'CQruroilo """ iale c donuc-Iho
in I) Good"ay led.). For .i n",..hiS'" Hw",u:o/ and n.e""'/U"1I1 CQtIIIO Ilell'luh. <Ii,p'Ila·. lIil'iS'" Ss""ca Jell':fnan:hif,.,." "01, 3.
Appr<}iJ"h,s. (I 01><100, 1989), I'P 'Ill. be.t "'<(}\l"' 11\ no, I. 1996 , pr, 93-1 0-4
"r It.. """'<",,,nl untol 1892 oS 1'0""";" J>ernicone. 10 L. LOlli. La Imim""" rill' ''', Flon:""., 1912. ,\ p»<,nd,x. Ta bk III,
I,,,,,di,", Pri nceton, 19'93. A 100<1 ",'e.,..icw ofthc M . "",,,mol;, ' 11 mo'lmcn'" ana.-chico ilaliaoo nc l 19 14' StQ",,"
mo'-.",.nl <an b< round ,n Pet., Man;han. Dc..::J"d"'g 'he lmf'(l>.<,b/c. I'olilir". \01 13.1913. pp ::!H-5-I.
A Ifi>l/Jr'o' q( l"",..hi,,,,. London. 19'92. PI' Tht ch,.flIahM It M Anwnooli.nd G. Ck«>'tl:o (W<), II ftnli"calO f"""',ul "allanl
Ie,I,"n: E. SanLardli, /I soe."llSIffO o""",hi.... /.. 1",Ii"M,lan. 19S9 WIg'''' al(a,'rnnoo / <;>0'_192'. \li!.n.
and 1913 I"" ,$C'Il edilion): G. CcrnlO. Doll' o//a I Tor "'C"le"', of 5«. G. B. hnon:i. I/.illd",·ali;"",
JeIlIlN,"", NUa. Flott"" •. 19n; p C. \I."n., Ss",,<, degli """..-h,,,; "a/ia"". 1977; () 0 Robcn •• Sp.J'call"
dal But""m" .1/u/alr"Q (l861-1892!. M,lJn. 1974: Slam. d.-g/r TraJ'ltQn tJruJ Ilalll'" F,,,,/.''''. Chapel 11111. 1979: A De CIemc<!II.
ana,., h,,,! i',,[',,", ',p<X1J <leg" all<'nlalj MIlan. 1981. A. DaJ., I'<>IIIiro Jot:,.,/e nd 5tndtJi'4Iil_ rj,'OIU:"'''''rTO /900---1915, R(IrnC.
L 'oMn-h,., ",o In fla/w "" punlO d«"",.,,/j 1983. C. l. Il.nmnd, 'ReH,1 ulionary S)·nd".IL\m on h.ly·. in \fa.-cd
Ilell a"wrh"",,, Ila/wno. MIlan. 1984 "an dc. Lindcn 000 \1 aynt 'r hOfpe (WI), RI!\'o/.tion"rJ SJ',d,ro/jJm
A . A)I)f Ro ••. li<-ri"ori popolo, Rome, 1966, "0 1. II. pp, 50 I, I., Aldo,,""!, 1990. pp 139---5-1. M AIIIO,
3 Thi, has bttn a tT\lOJOI lheme of .. ve ...1 ,,(II'\., by Richard Be llamy llIoli. ' 11 s,ndacalismo ri'-Oll'"io","O lIah.,oo·. in \I,"';zio An",,,,ol,.
• nd OalTO" Scho<:ter 5«. R. MoJtrn I'll/ian &xi,,1 T/rrorl' II .<ind", aU,mo il""an,,. ,,'i/Iim' al (""·i.,,,o. S,udi •
poIitie, from P"r¥'U' k} ,At Cambridge. 1987. 1997, PI' 125-S6.
R. Ikllamy. Lib.:rull,,,, and $on<t,.Cambridgc. 1992. pp. 11 >lOOIC.hlt onlcllecll..H '<'<. I). \1aI\>OOO. :frjkro LaINTo/" ,I
105-56. R Ikllomy Ind 0 Scheele •. C,.,.,.<, alld IIw lIa/i"" Ssll/t. """",,,/i.It/,, in 1111/1". Tunn, 19"0: E Zag'Ha.
I>bncile.. e•• I/antl"'" "f'r"iJioniJlffQ Stirtl 'apln.
.. The he>! IoCcOUn, of ,he Firs, 1",u''IlItOooal in Engl,sh i. Pemico .... 1'175; RIO!I. II J'ind"ca!m" o "I'OIw:i,;""r!o In II"/,a . Bari. 1976;
IIllli"" Ifnarrhl,,,,. Of ... R. 110:>1<11 ••• Ila/.m Soc,,,liJl .I1",,,..,..nl Roben,. W. L ';tiMrono til
Unglm f/iJ61) ·18S11. "ew yott. 1958 ,
5 G C"Il<lcloro, Slol'ia d 'llalia ",odema. Ii .",1970, \ 01 VI. P 54
I'Mi,·" Mil. n. 1983. r. F.,·LlII. S""iu del ""Ii""o
/Julle orlglni all" /If' crm, M ilan. 1996
6. P"m ,<""". Ana",hi,·m. PI' 77----S I 1·1 hH' (,,,,,,dOl" sec. M. Anum ">Ii. 'Silllhcah.mo ri",lu,io"",;o
7. On Ih. onginl of !he of a ·..,."aI <ce. C lI1odolli "'Pn'lZa'i , I: <lal """"'110 indusmal,>u d, r ,hPJX> Corridonl
\\oolf.:f limOI')' 0{ I ' OD-186(,. LoroIon. 1919. PI' 4 ]9---JO '" "nda<-all nal!ionali d'iOO 4>1,,' (1911 1914)'. R":t'rt'M
8 P C \h,.ml. fA bil""".Jrl 11m.,.., (la-6- '111. I. 1976. PI'. 14 -0; O."hu)OOlCal." ongiMOh.,......11Wt
""Ian. 1958; S. De Coralo. 'M'gi>l"uul3. ... rch"" JO'<"rl>O. U 000 f01>C"m see. Roberu. Syntliralil, Tratfition: J. J. Tingbiano.
,i\:t1ld;> doll. Nnd> dol M.'.... ·. Ri, iJta II, ,"ona Conl""'pOrtUlea. f.J",w"Jo From R"'o!WIIl1II<UJ' s,.... l!ca/iJ'" '" fuseil",. , .....'
13. J\O J. 1984. PI'.121-72. h.n..I991
9 f or lhe ,"]pI the g<"'<T3-1 ",1>lIon,hIP" discu,std 'n. G. 1'orpp,. II 0,,,,, ..". o(,he f'S1•• n be f""nd in J. A D"Ii. 'Soo,ahsm .nd lhe
Mo<lo" , . Sr'''fN'''' poIi'ico mllgllt",·"m 1870-1921. R.ri. I>" ...... 'ng Cl as, on Italy beU>rc 1914'. in D,ck (ka ry (ed). L,,/J.Qwr
1972. R CnnON . nd A. S.nrumo..o .. "",,rch,el < 5OCla/i,,, ",,,I ';'ww/w .I/ol',·",'nu ill Eul'Ol't' ""(or¥' /914, O,ford . 1989, pp
0110 fine ,M!'''''t><:ento in Iralia, M,lan. 198 L J. " Da"i,. Conj/i(l IX2 210. I. !>hller. From 10 MM,' !'O/illC." I'ali,," &X,al,,", in
"nd C,m/ml. Order in /9/h nnlU')' Jul.I. B.. 1988. t/"'(;",Imian Fro, 1900--19! 4. Kont, 1990. G a nd S Frdtle
I'P 21 7 17; R B Jc"",,n, ['/>uf)' "nd ()rJ('" J1.- n.ffN} anti I,,<hj, II JQ(-,o/,.,,,,,, nd mr.:ogiom<, d 1mllo 189:-/916: Z . Ciull'ol.
o(lMI"n PuN,c Poilrr. 1848 /0 Cri,iJ o(tlw 1890;, Jo-ew el". U OTlj:",i glol""ona. Bari. 1992. \ 1

" ,,-
 RMloIr.. III'SJ t 10 l'/aSCi/a <hI plJn,/o dl ............ 1892- 1912. Ban. ri,-oiUlIOllm f ....",hoc, i..Ii"", ""I1'o:Iio KooIl1l1m.·, .'itvnt:......
1992; C. 'The Italian 5o<;,ah", Pany aM ,he Second In' ... · ,01. 11.00. I. 1981, PI'- 495-512; R...a./1 su.dMal""", ,-;"aIJC1OfIQT'IO,
""norul'. l.a""", lIutory' 11. ....,...... "01. 58. no. 1. 1993. 1'1'- 18-25; 1'1' 209-12; Robntl.. 1M 50"'1<1"0/0;/ T",JIII01I, Pr. 71
S. n. Seala IN.), IMh"n Social",,,. and IImon-. 12 M Anronioh. 'Emco M.Ia1<>L>, r Otl-'niual.lonc """"". c il . ;0<11.
Amhon.!. 1996. \ 1889 19141. ,n ", ,,,,,.,ioli, A:iOfU' d",,"a .'''l>anr:·

16 M MUII.uSh. ltalwn l.allo"" 1'111-1 19 /4. New YOlk. 1991 0l><,ru,,, Sindacali.mu r;."I..-:,onarlo " a""n-h/j,"o Ira

F"r "'o_k,,oj,., of Itali .n puUCII' 1I I). vi •. Conjlic' al1l1 I" d,1I c il jo.!W"'o. Mn"Ju" •. 1990, pp . 201 64 ;
Comrol. 1'. 241, Jon,,". !ibn/)' and Onl.,. PI'. 84, lSI; J. Dunn_II•. p .nd lhe: lnarth,s! ,",ol"!ion'. An"rch",
'La",' and Qrdo, on Gioliman A C.>c SI..dy of l11e Pro, ""'0 o f Stud"". '01 1. no. I. 1995.1'1>. 25-44
Ilolog",,' HIs.tory' (Nan.,I_", 1995. ,01 25. 00 3, 1'1> 38 1

'"
1'_ Thc ,hl.fbtoal'lptut< of M.aLatcsu oro 1.1, "C1tbu, £rnco
" ....' 1922, L. Fabbri, "'altlln/a. I'"""",, ".ple •.
1951, \ It.ohards, I{altll/!jw Ufr& Ideas, London, 19M AI..,_
G, Lalldl, 'Mllatesta. \lcrl ioo doll. pnma imemuionale alia "I'J'OSi.
Zlone .1 fASC,,,,,O· . del MuJt<> dd Ruo'!:""cn,,,, '01. 28.
198). 1'1', 121 56; M Too •• ErricoMalalf>la Baku"ln'
La JU" f",."W;WM gio"'ItIi/e nell 'amhicme Nlpolt"l"na (/868 18731.
'- . ples, 1988. I It""• • 1«> do. h "",,h "1'«10 of ' ''I''e". 's life. C.
L<\'y. " 1>1.10>13 In hile', A,,",,/, <hila
,01. 15, 11181, pp 2" 5-70; C lev)", '\b l.,CSla In london Tho En
of 1>j.'lIOIIl i,o·. In Lucio SpOIIZI and Anum Tooi (e<isl. A Celt',")' or
{'ahan Em,!:""!OII'o Briroin IIIliIb 10 19Ii1h. Fr," """,Ie
.....n! W TIlt /rali,,"iJl. ,'01 11. 1993.1'P 25-42. C. U .,y, 'Chari>ma
."d 5.xlal Monment> ; Em<o and h.li.n AIIJrehism"
Iml,.. "<>1 . 1_ no. 2. 1998 , rr. 2(}5 I 7,
For PIC I'" 1(•• M Am""'''h. Pi.ln, (;oFi, ,I ..
ddl·,ma,rni(u. S,uJi e P" •. 1995
1 Ikl l.my and Schc<lcr. G"'lWd 'he Italian Sm,e
19 O. Sch<.""Ie<. G",,,,,d and tJw TItt"<H")'o{{","mnal fN"""CrtK·... AId<-!
1boc, 1991, 1'1' "5. 56--7.
20_ Anlon,oli, 'Sindaca lismo ri,-olw:iooIario llaliano 0 modelli "'Ian it·
uli' I' In gtnCf3.1 =. M. Malalc.u.. 'Grarn><:i c il sindac.h.mo
n,·otUl.IO,,""O. R. f."ioni ",,1 "'ppano 111. .""tisi sWriOg",flCl C
gUldlzlo dl ,·.1"",'. SrorirlN>. ,,,,I 10. 00. I. 1981, 1'1'. Hi
57. F $01<10111. /.a slru""", d..r </Qmlnoo ltd ",via
:;0"",;0 e "fi glo.ane GFa,""ri, \I ilan. 1985, .\1 . Mar!ell i, ·G .. ml( i
o I. .onsili.",· . in RUllIlO<ro Gi .. omin i. D Losuroo and
Mld,do Mm.l h (t,h). Gromsd • I 'lIal,a. L.rbloo. 199 1. 1'1>. 3311-411
21 G U SoKI c gli ...."'h'" "3h,,",', II.J(""' ..... Sro,,,...... "01
5,"'" I. 1915, pp. 179---f18; G U, hlnoui. 'Pokmtche: ITa

"
 - 2-

Torillcsc Anarchism, 1870-1914

Torinnt An arl: hism: 1870-1900

Dunnaw R""'1l""""rlo. Picdmoot.... labour politics "ere .,....n'IlIUy

e""",,'"IIIO J10'01 e>". e--'ef! small Piedmont.", cLl'<1 such as ROcIi. and
AI.,$.i"dria i:>oa>lW of >1n)1'1gor lef'.,.-ing fIIO\cmcn« ,han Tunn . R",,'51-
."". kag"'" .... re ",t.l.,. """ ",an,., ,n Tunn, ... enou,;an I,bmlli lrn
f",'o",.. d tho IClng_SI.nding tradlUon ormutull .iJ and "<><:>pOt'lion. AI
lea,l ""0 1 th. 1870s. the ral her <"c"she nct",orl: of UrOOn mUlual .id
"",ieli.,.rId cOOfl'C''''U''OI W<TO oom,na'w by tlOCIT MII'l:w'$ honorary
and ... ere rare boron: tho "nko, of the 1870s. I
As ol;e .. 1Icre in haly. the ImomallOn.I,n Turin emerged Ih,,,,,,h
ret""" ,.there<! .5 • ruult of di ... "Llh umficatioo ud
.n ttlUllll)' $Iron, f."', ....
[001'1 "L1h ,he Pari. ('''''''''u .... For 1M
part. ho"c\cr. II", local of the Imcm;ollonallacLed that cooling<:1l1
of middlo""I ... Ri>MgrlOKnro ,,,,.,,, .. s (""00 10 more Imp;>n.m m>rS
of Int ....."on. I;5. &'''''''y.
and 100,1 anl5ll11$ aliacheJ 10
II><" «m,,'''''''' ,nsllt\ltion" "I."mg Ihe Inlemllio,,,Ii,,, w'th greal
'\1'1'1<1011 '
'rho .n.""h ,s,s only g.med broader SlJrpol1 "I><n Ihey """uunl<""d
on,,,,n. d,,,,,,,,hon,w "... ,h moJoral. CI"DUrion poli.;.>; .nd ,Ik: mon:
''''''e Inle"..lIonah", nunured ,I>< Iolonl """"'''"'''' preoem in "1O",boD
"f coop:r.I'i'o and mUlloal.id "",lei,.,.' bu, tho dl;.asuw, Imema.ionaliSl
n"ngs in 1874.n..t 1177 Clu.c..I!be SUl'J'fUS1OII of,I>< Tonncsc ""-"I0I'l
Tonnest ..n:hl"'" enlem! • ...,.' phDe of<le>elopmem "'ith tile C'SIabli.h
m ..""fthe PanitoOpcn.IO in 1883 ThoIMtChl>l>bn::flyand
Comblll<:d I"""k, on parli.",.n,aoy """,.h\Jl1 ,,"h tel;,'. Iobour "'Kanl"'"
",..,. =I\Il\ln8' I.rge ,""tinge"t of .n... ''''''' .... bakeD. m,lS"", and Ar>Cllal
""rler<. An.rch"t, "ore ofle" f"unJ .1 ,h. head "f"",,13n'. loogues,
r,'." .'olu'ion.ry """ali"'. " I", f. ,oured • I'."liamentary m"cKY,
rc>l",e'cd .he onarch"" ," "n",h,,,. donllna!cd ,mpon. nl loe.la.d.
n,,,,"p:lper-. (II and /I IIal,aM) "hlk I,." populor
.narchlll PrtU,mll' TillIS .nd Ga:::ella Oprroia. p<opop.ed
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ach"" cd (.nle ",..kptn•.\cTnly o f !llClf public cOfl,m;ion 10 .... iah""'. f Q< in l&n&rn ""h moJenn. politte ... n, ,""h .. Margan. n.c Chamber of
!lIC pan) ,heu ,mporlance b}' os d'Mnll:"'51cd of """ai,,,,,. rIOt Labou, rd""oly un",a<ht;d b)' ,he repro;->lOd of the 1890s """na
'''''pni",," 0< poIlticoans p<'t" ...,. n..y 'ftY ""'tin 10 ". COdlrol by ,he modcrnlC$. It bul 'I. toop< ... ,;,-. mm."",nl.
e<;L,bI"hed hoorg«ti. «.cles. forwng .Ihance. " i'ft n'"hc.lliberals 'Imp.!- re""';',cd "'r"''IC"'a''''c of a "nail 5e<:lion of ,1\0 worting da.s. IIC'"
lhelle 10 (for "ample. jOl,mal, such "' Hi/a'rna 5.000 ,"embers in ,hi, <kcaJc. I'he sk,ll od and , ",san
yoong TO<ine>e .u.c h I. utg, Li""ud, ond ,he ""'-'lhom follo".rs of municipa l ""iali,,,, ","",Iy their oldeT",odeMo
•• foo,,« Fran<:c>co Niui. .. c<I •• loca l •• Id nauo",1 halfwa; hou><"$ a,soc i,"onism 0' "nO """ ,n>lllUltOltS," The eicc,inn of 189"1 .
OC," •• n Icft·" 'ng G,olmi.n, ond lhe r .. nlto Socia""a-l'"' .."""il'!l""" l"'" on", ,II<- doII-nf.1I ofCnSpO. pro"ed ,hat boIh 'hi' COMl,lu,
The ",I\tr aroup of rn,ddlo--cl",. \1organ.t>J 'of" ency and ,II<- "nhghl.nod middle d •• "ere preparrd to follow
bccoltlC polit"''''nr.. OOOllC<:tlnil,he Iltcrary.t>J !><>CI'"'''' programn... n.c !><>C ... IiSlS· plod"o 10 ehnunal. !lIC ..... ulo'''·.
'0 ,1\0 sl"lIod ",,",lng cbs! Tht" poli'ical pros: ... mltlC middle mo. ,. publIC ......>en. coupIod "lth me., Of'Il'liirion 1<1 the '..,uhcm
of mun"-Ipal "",i''',m and ,1\0 of ",ort", coopen.u,cs de<pot' C""" and ,IIC authontarian Gc:ncr:all'elkll" appealed.o!llC liberal
rem.1111Ctl ,III, or'he 1oc.1 pan)' r", ,he .... " 2{) )'oars T.-..k unioni ...""" Pi-cdrnot1le>e." bu. SOC lali.m 31", g ...... ",«<1 onler, Punng lbe M,lallCSe
and e'en ".re boIh YeO)' ofton iano<ed. but.<O ""re OIhe, nOl' (F",II IIi Maggio) of 1898. Turin under ,he "PllCals of itS
con,cn,iOll' ' .."" •• uch ... ,he Sou!llCm QuUl,on .,Id "'publicam>rn . " le,de"hip. remained quiet . TIIC do" nfall of Pc llou •• nd ,he accession 10
Soc,. lism f<lr .\ l"'lIon "'cam. rathcr \'aaocJy dofined hurnani'ari..."", powcrof 7... ".l1lklh and lh"" Giolim aPIICan;d 10 m.ny TorillC'>C !><>Clah,!>
R.form of socicty'l abu"", would be ad".",d slowly. ' hroogh ,he '1'1'1;';0 "00 I,be,"" ahk. a> • "'CIOI)' for peac.ful proarel, ,, e polthC'.
"Oft of ,!Ie n"" PO,"1\ i., sciene.. ond. ponte"la,l} for Morgart. 'hrough
!lIC J'<OP-li"'''''' ofC","""", $Q1;.!an')'. ",,,,,ina "01I· ........ 'mg middle--ciaos A narch ll m I" Turin: 19 00-19 10
COft' 10 115 14 rOSilll bm ac:conllllllod 10nn.... panK:u!.>n"". ,nd
lombroo.o·, ""Cn'ptJ; '0 WICO' <T so-<:.lIed racl.1 dtflh.. nccs .1\0 Afit,- doe 181\Ot anan;h"m IoI.l !lIC "' ...... I\olm1o& 'mportane<: " bncny
'impu,,"e' If',o"",,-,,,,' "'-'U1ltem lICasan' and ,he '.mnl) '. 1IIrd-"ortma J'O'R,,;ed. ll\o en.pian repre"'ion _nd .IN: .1tIC,¥c"'" of lhe Pln"o
II<II"IhMI "Ilrl; .. r. fill<rrd ,IIC rn:rpaaand> oftbe -1M'''''' Labour s.::.c,ah>llt len nu.l) a decade', PI' in ,IS h.. ,,,ry. In 1900 a local .""reh,..
m"'·o",,,,,1 f", mon) to C"",,, w,i,ing ,n" ,bon,li'ed new edlltOO of L 'O,.,Jine dt:sc,;bed ',i,
yoars of
"log'''''
TIte of "'X-,.h'm pro' "ltd. """,I " leal ", [hor 'h , n • cohe .... n' !Iocr' " Ik'" cen 1900 "Id 1914. Tori ne", """rehi", ",""'ined
I'rol!-mm ,no; i, "Ai t .... med,um "I"eh 1"""111 ,, ' rdonn, wuc ally in, ign if,..nt Police TCpon. indt<.,e no "",re ,h•• 20 Of 30 acti,'e
pOl'ul' ''<cd Ldmonoo [)e Amici. h,s h'cral)' . .. 11, '0 """ah;,", a"'reh'Sh ""Iween 1897 and 1910. ""d e>tll on th •• ve of 'he Red Week
lit, ",nlno.n,.1 pol i.i.. 1 no,·d. ",os...-.J the Itto"" il i.""" <>f d......, •. In 1914. the . n.""h,.,,; probably d id "'" .. «.d ''''y.1<I TItc nlO""".nt
'""""eralll'" . 00 d\ I, 111Iu i'm. and hi, <'<!I' Ily Oft the 'IIy 'OIIne,1 In '"e "' .. '" • dec,dedly pltt>n"", po';liOft unul 1910. A brief legaliza'ion io
1890. ull<lt,hnod In ad,oeacy of "orkcl1' organilll'''''' Org .. ,,"'lton 18'1; ended "lIh ,he follo",na .h. \!ilo""," tom. One)OU
dofu'itllll\o ,iu"NI of unc"",rollable populor ...olene. ,. CIt Amici, moJc Ial., !lIC ...."hlSls reappeaml. bu,lhe" acl,' Ily " .. redooed '0 recoi, ;na
"","'-Ii.." I"'!...I* '(>' Ii""",! rnKldIe--cIb> olee'()r1t<:. :t nc ... """""" and ltalf.beartodl) ,"'c"enlna "' me.:ting> of !he
1\1 ron., wMloa--clas. <><p.ni""lIons "ert d,,>Jcd a. 10 ,,·bethe, or nat AGO l' p.mpltktc-enng and "",I propopnda cotI"nll<'d in ,1\0 1900&.
't> "'«pla rommu,,",,1 ."bs,dy f.,.- ,1\0 Cham!:tt, of Labour. Ind«<! ,he """'tly due 10 tIN: effon. of 'w" .",rch..". Dvmon,co Z.1\ a"oro and
,.,nam,ng al\ltr<hi,,, cau>cd a trmporary en ... ,n 'M "'w body. bu, ,b'l ""soi"'" II.{lCCU (or, a' II<- .. a, L,b(ro T.""rcdi. ble' '0 u,umc:
" .. qwd ly 0\0"",,11'1c . Local municip.1 ..,d.h"n was '.1)' 'weahnK """" in'por1 ... ",. ,n to""",",, ,1"Tiog ,he 1920,) Annlll<-r anarchist. M.rio
to ' he labour ""OHmen '- Endor.cmc"i of w", ker cooperat,,,,,. fou nd Gi,.J>, was I." "elJl-.nown pub lid y bu' • • l.ad· "S w riteT ,n the
"u\e'l'read IUppon '" a e,t;- "'n" a 100W hls'Of)' of 8<>O<""On"m TM chIef r<rtoolCals o f lh. an. rehiS! prest. Tlnercd, .nd Gioda "cre boolh
A>'''''';'7i""" (;;:n""'l< degh Or<n, (I\{j(). " .. AlJcallLa prim.,.. and .WJIn..'tl .... ional proonil"'-':< a f"" )'0"", lat.,
R<>:ea SIIJ'POr'Cd
T"'111.'" (, \CT) and III<- "odm' COOJlCral11 ........ ''''''ro!led It", L'b) on W.r (1911-1912). GIOO.b ,.-roIe fmI",,".ly fOf ,he

-11-
• ......,hi" prtO> ""Ill 1914 "hen lit b«amc In early and ,mponan, 14 P<:' of til< J'OI'Illori<>" o(Pledl""" 1 " .. s ",gaged ,n ,ndu,·
loft·" ,tog in'en .. ,\<Onl" , -':.,'onh.I." in Tun" I,!"I!" (ircoJi di 1111<11 'nal r Uf)" ilS: bul ,," IL 79,000 indu,ltlal wor" " Thtln·. ,1<><><1 IIe.,ly a'
(II<!<,.I CI",lts) app<:artd and d,ed ""ul.rly. bUI a <cnsc uf COl"i· 20 p(r 00"' of it> ,uI.1 " Th.n) -lhree p<:r crnt <)f lhe ,nojusltI.1 wOlkers
nu,ly ".,os lacklnll- :' Tilt JIlO>cmcm f.Mil to pubh$h. "ero tmpl",ed In lhe rapidl) •• ""nd,nll: cngll>t<tllIj tr>de,. "h,1c ,I><
umil 1M "'''''', can bt dctecttd Inlerun,ng men: >Ia&fWI",ooon ""II> cmplo)-ed:!O per tenl. By 1911 Tunn
In lhc lI'" "mJ.,en· ur 1902 .od 111<

.m:,ltd al'" InlenCIlI"' In. demon"TlIti,," lh.1 I<d 10 cla sh"\

,,"'''''c ""'gglc of COI!On
,,<a'<1'5 fou r yea" laltr, Duri ng the 1'.lO6 $<,c nloon wen:
""h
.
.Iroad)' had 6500 tar w",kers. more ,h.n 25 per of all • .-;
' ,
.ntl' lol'Ou '" engmc<f1 "g,
, "
Car "oRcrs w= ,..,..-.Ily highly Mulled mal..: ooly in !be- I.., prew",
1M police and lite tn."C1,,,,, of. barricade in tM c"y Cettlrt H"",'e' or. j",an did any Of un>killcd "ortCt. appr.,)4 Car .. .,n.... 'n
n"" 'hli group c.n bt tonsidered only .. II)' mort: Impof1J.nt lhan tho I"'"" or real'5 "-.... .Iinllxn>«nlhe .,,,,",,,,1 paSt and !be- m<dunll«l
Za""oro," fUlur., bctn lnt,ned'l thelt Ik, II, ,n ta,lw.)' 'hop$ ."d coach.
In order 10 uMMand Iho n" i,.1 of lt lxru".n _ i, lism. lit. moool ftn'" that r roc,okd lhe ",du s!nal boom'!
",,, lI ned ", Ch.p!Of 0... w ill be emr loyed 10 .,pl . in how • ' ..... 11 "","e- III le.I th:>n a decade from it> In,ro,bc"on as. s.nobbi'h toy fOO" P,N'
menl ,,,,,h ,I>< In.urhl$l:i inH"""".d 11>< com",,,,, oultUrt of'M new "",n'esc "'tS""'fal>. lhc lU,omobIle bad brooIgbI fooh. boomi. ,nd'"try,
Indu-aial "orilln, dis. ofTurin's suburb>. "01 only dId ;, Sl/f'PIr trams, bu$n and moror can, buI mart"" and nWIO<I
had al",.dy become "npon"nt prod""", f", ... h and Gennan
The AIl lomobi lr C ll y e.,p""I .• bund."t w.lor POW<1, • n,><;leu, ofhlghl)' workers. and 0
g""'p of ral.nled .n"'pre""urs pro> the "'\lrediO"I' f'" ," 5UCC<!o$.
TM or. '.>1 indu",i.1 .,,,,n,my. sU$lallltil by dynlm,c IU'''' (;'0' annl Agnolli. lhe domlurg<" heh",d F,at. Slood OUI. bu, I>< had mlUly
mob,l •• 00 ....gl"".nng Industries. oxc-urred" i!lt,n 1M fiNlkcack oftltc eompc1l1on un"I,he fi ... ",,,1 crash of 1907 and a runher rallonalWlt>Ofl
1\\Cnll,lh ctmu'}. In a manc, of y""'" lhe nld. sorn""kn' 1",lucntlte ""nns the " a'. Fi.,. Spa. Ital •. St.l. RapId ond 1.ll<ICI' eompeled for
""$ 'TlIn.fonned into It.ly', r tl'micr Ind Ll >lnal "ny•.,1><1 • ,,",W ",.. km and "ortt",,"
,ndu", i, 1r'lJllnll eli .. fOO' p,.."ion, of ",nUt"'" andl'Qw,,, ",Ih Asnelli ",emplolled 'hIS in"",",,,. caplt olist ehle Hi $ m
tho lraditionallanded . nd profcsslOfl:lI cla.s<:s IIIJ'IrI'lIJIcopitaI '0 'run" was malchtd by. sbmoo-d. heno,oicm
.'perim<cd'
runn demOgnplH' .. pJoo..on"" it drev. ml""nl' ka, ,nil that .1'I.lped. ., of med,."ics and JI<"""< toolflllkcr,;. and!illrtlC\lmt'S
"".(by Alpl"" ".lIt)" ''-' II. f..:1O<'c," It. populallon 1il",,,111 ""'pic manual . • nuckus o f ,k,lkd worIL ..... of 'e<:hn,c,an •• and
for SS 1"" ,:<"' of Pied""'nt's during the 19O();,M The """t <lntm"i. ace\l "om.d to f""lot)' NlldltIOll' ,') Agnello bUll! '«'0"" ""
,hange "",urrcd '" n.w "o,kc, suburb> where IndU.If}' tool. roOl, AUI ... crn",,.. ,ub$idttcd hou>lng 000 .",ouraged job mobiloty "'Ilh'" IllS )'OU lIg
mobile and .ngineenng roc'''''c. ",.,t t".blishcd """iok lhe old Indu\ln,1 emplrc Ht ,.",ailled ,II< """ Ik"",vro. ,,'hich
mun,ei""I.""""" blmcT (,he d<l.:Mlhank. to lite .I«tnf.,.,ioo ofTonn
II> htnt.rland.'" A, Pf""p<n,y n:rLfJ't'led. aficr lhe .hod., of II .. 1890>. mlL,,:uJ><d an ·""hJhtcn«f· I><"r«t"•• r.-pt<I<o ,,-m"'" .. ¢>
TOO',!\tsI: w<>rk.rs "ore f""ed by ,"natlOn,ry n:nl. to hoo.ing in on.jrot""" ""'"I, .... folio,.. JTl<I"""" of.,\ .. blo<" ..
,I..·", onu,!t,oormng ,.,bums. 130'11" s."" 1'",,10 from 4.0Ct0 in '''er' ...... til< ,,>II< rooli' i" of tho ,ra<i ;,,,,,,,,1 m<td,ant'l"0fe,;. ion.1 rul in¥
,n 190 I 10 OHr 2 1.000 I.n leafS I.,or: Same", di M,I,,,,,.oo Bum.,. dl .1,Ie of !/Ie ,,')'. r<plaCIf'i " "itlt • polil:y ",*",<01 _mi ...pol ","wnw
...... 1h. """,......1 "'''M'I- _i.1 Jo<r\o<t<. MIII.-noJom ...' _ of
laMa tiihlfold ,,"'
lIy 191 L ,hesr suOOrbi w,,,, bti,. ,wlfll'ed in ""'"<'I of rum m'grant$. dJ< 1JrtwI....,onaI,.""""""''''''
In JUS1'WO ye." (1907 9) 50,000 Alpine lTIOunl.",«rs "nd Po Valley
., Torinesc P arIllo 19(H)-14
p<:".nl' CO"'e tu Tu ri n 10 join. growing indu'ltlal .tlny."
T",o-,hir<b of.1I rogi'lered hlnhs In 1911 c.",. (ro",
Munl<Ip;>1 .o,,,,,hlm ran into il$ ftN maJO< en." du"ng ,he n<'W era of
. .. la.--gcl)' Ioxated in the ... bum., At 1M <>t Of the "a l Tunn '.
Indu'trial rela,i"", u!J>cred ,0 by Glol'''i Dunniliho fIN "av.
coontod for mort: than of I'll'timon!"' ,,,,"I In 1911

25 -
 11901-2) 1',,110" "'g lbe leg.lizalioo Ofl",M uni"" ,.;:"n,y by z.."",dclh,
Ih. co...xmncJ , .. "rike'" for lhe i' imm,,,urily," Mm'
len ,he pony in • I",.. Y."'" bull11t 1"'1,11<,3'>0 (Nofn. 'i"'llan .
(·....1"". etC. 1 rrrnlI,n«l and OOm, .... od pany lik (H'" ,fl11t pany stf\td
3' lilt" (i...,nOll INch"... " demanded handling. ,\1'10' 1900
po\lI,l., .1I,.1lC'" 01"'" parti"" "en: "m:; in any c.... radl<.1
ism .nd ",pub li c,n"", h"d . I""yl ",-"Cn thin On Iho Wilh Ih.
n«pltoo of ,ympal""U<: "",lIIl11g from lhe Gioh",.n U,
de"eals and hberals c,ohed.n .Uta"". dLf...,led aptMl lhe socl.llhslS.
"'I"""iall) afier til< I9().I general mike alienated fooner 'Uppor'lefS o,tII<
PSI ..
M"rgori', i n,cnli"" o f w,,-' • ,"Iher p;1tlICII< .lIcmpt '"
I'3por ,be <11.<1'1" ,!hm the r.formiil camp. Sluhng some 'hunder
f.om ond anarchi" ",,000""1< ,nto lhe borpin, In hi. rbr-ioric
\Iorpri Idem if..,.;! lhe e""my of .0mIL"" as ,II-defln«l ·spttulaIOf\·.
the '<<'lm.Ipl n"",llIy' and the Chu",h. Aft .... 1904. "hen G,oh!1l beSon
"'''''IIIl! Cllho IL"'.• elUde anti·cle," •• li , m o'crshooowed Ihe ori8 inol
oflhe 1890s. AnlH:lorn:.li .m W I' I"" TIl<J6' ",dely
weapon In In'e""Ii""'. arK",,1 of popul .. , rho!onc I. "os
.',,;ornp;>n,«I • mInimal programme-.-nbrg.""""", of
0""" \1f1in and be,,« and m<>re f'I'.. lOble >0<111 5«\',=. bin MOtiari
anJ h is f. llow kept . ",o.lhor eye on Iho" an,1
lowor."nddlc-cla .. ""'cr<. Uok"'l1 care 10 >uruu"", md""lri.1 m;!i'.""y
.r.dct Ie", d..,....!" """'" .,
In ,he long run. 'h', project«l .Illl""e ran 111'0'"'''' of ,ns"""""nt
,ble oonlnodi<t;"", and 'Olen gradually turned
''''')' Imm m<."m ,,., 1s."" ali,,,, ., Ihe ¥ww ins \\o,",,,,'g cI.,. popula'ion
""" and P'<>1igt Wilh lhe 1913 lhe f,rst ur.lcr
mlInIIood ",tfflgc. ,hey ,""Ung he""lly 10 okl1e.1 ond
""I,<>nal,., ...nd"I>I'" "The m,h»"",ll>b. f<>r tbc" pan .... "h tbc CM:cpt>On
of Ag<lCllI. rtmaLncd 1c.unachcd ",GlOIllli', fonu ofhbcrali<m, £mplo)er
,)nd.c ..". oj>pC.ffd wirh n o .hon ,i me and adoptcd moo: in,,"nligent
____ H _
pUhcit' Ih.n had ",,,,,,,d, By Ihe "or indu,tn .li ,,, follo".d
- e __ .",fo1111 policee. f01111,,131«1 b)' lhe.r .)'nd,eates S",l", "'eff to<olcn

- Ih11)llgh IocloUl, and """" "",ed mil".n" ... <ff blackhS1e<J from .11
[acl<>1">C!>. whik m<mhen .tfme<J tn Ind"",;.l d"'PUIO fina"",al
r",,,,
o,d 'w".,'"
I"" ') Funl\e'lIIo",. ",du'lriahm began 10 cOIIC""e of
'hemsd'e§ as a ",p;,"10 producti,-c cia... bcl>olden ". il'" ", lilt 'L,,,,)''''s'
nor 'h" 'profcs"'''' ",110 OOmIlUled proc<cdini> on pa,lia""",""
IlIe ... fom"" soc,absll, for the" 1*'. """be< coouolleJ no! reprfSCI1ted
" .. :.1 T"". ,9,. ''''' '.>! ""i""'"'
IUIUf!I'lm'ted of."" Tl>ri1lCSC "orkinll c1"". This "oecond

-26
"
 CUI'Ure' mll" .. td agOIllS! llIe pol"If' <>( and e'm Agn<"lh r. ..d. l. flO" Moot.,.. ..... 1_ .. "

,-
h:>d 1>ec0l11C amb<, .len' 10".,.,,15 hi. OIiginal political ,muogy
T.n. ",",
D) 1910. The Lib} ' " War dl"",'dy demo),"" ,\gno ll i" COl" " lOellO},
,.,
b)' ' tlmu lallng a ...!ion,liil in Tu,in's mIddle ol>S5es.
Agnclli's fiN anempts a1 inlrodu.:lng tbt rodin....,,, "fT.,Jon"" ",10 I w',
,.'

'.'00
'"

f.."onc< .• Ionl .. ilh Iong-tenn unIon Oonlracu.. " .• '" met lqll •. 1 "
"''''''!lCe
by 'hal 'C'f)" eli« of . . be !wi hdped nunu", lOll 1:'19
1..<:r" •• lIllIly the g.""f1Ilioo de<en.,.j felOnm,m foo- rc'oluo ''''''',)' 191" ',1:1
$<)Ciali ,m TI" ". ""'" IOC "l<J<Iom ""'klnll d'll . n<! the IIIJu>lmh •• s
increa"nl!l)' Gioll ll 13n llberali,,,,."
LIl,,1 the of ,he "ar Morpo-i 000 hi' alh., "'''a nonl:llntd for r_l_l.
'p , _ , . -

"''''''''e<.! f,om ,be Ie••,., of po"er in ,he I<><al I'-'rI) At 11 GrlJu ad

PnpoIo. 1"" 1<><.1 "",,,.Ii,t """spap<f. In tbt AGO. or 10 \be: parly .""",,lII,-
lhe} fClBlltd supreme, bul lhe" COII .. It""""y "., ,10" Iy belOS "1",,led
Ai; the g<'nern"011 oflhc 18'XJs flo,".J .way from lhe ,-,-,.,
,.,
,., uoo
'.'00
9,"9

-
" .91)
party. ocli\1,.; "'e,,, not «plac.d by hi 1910
2HJj
lhe Io<al parly haJ Ie .. !hon ;n 1897." A HC\I "",i3I'!<11 .rl)l.C
In lhe wburbo. II> dr.>,.n. both in I!'ffiI!!"Ipl"UI
'>p;><e and "",ial ria,s from lhe pony lcade"h", of the cmlre AIl.,,-
19,0
19,1
,912
•.
9.11'

9.JJI
I
I'HO.he C'f',cenl'" ofT.".i"""" ooci"lism "",'eJ from middl.-ci'I' ,911 9.111
e";- COnlre lhe"., in<iuSlnallub",m whe", "g"''' In an ifTOgul ... f'!h l0n
hy the '>cto!ld CUllU"'-

-Iorin ,,» O rga Ol lla lion.: 1900-14 I'JOO 10

a.
hen I InduSCriali"n8 oi.y weh 1 had the <ame 10",_
of un",n""ion f"u nd el""" lie", In 1",ly, I· 10M only e>'abh,h<d •
MIJOf dunng ,h,; p"'iod broke Old ,n 1901. 1902. 19().I. 1906.
1907 . ",1 1</011. TYl,.e ally.• Iinke "as chls,e",d . rou"d • &(11"'"'
r,Iln wilh lhe Fir11 W",ld \\ar. h'" the "'''''' popul.. Cll:lmher suike. "hoch brou&hl00,b and !o tile forefronl
of Labwr all<1 had on ul",on)in F, <II If",f<>nlH§! lrade un""'''!> ond s.oci:>li>I dcpullCS ;ought to us.: dutt'
Organ"-,,"onal hfe for f1Inl4l>d. file "Men" •• ,o""rally Idcn"ficd .... "'" to pr<SSIlItU ,be g<l'ornn'IeI1I in lileirpubl'" procWnll!1OO5.localll.nl
,.uh an oO,,'al bu, in<llluUon the Itga,.. in the ... m,_ InSl,lUfions foond In factories and ""'ghbourhoods hod •• ",u.<b ",do ""II
offICi.l_ ",ml-<,Iando"ine f..,Of) 101"".. 1oommlhlOO. 1>0( In croft Of SInk" ",.'Olo aI did municipal Of nallonal SOClalt,l
100"",i . 1f,·,IoMi"" .·' Tl>e "'lem,1 commi"ion, in an,l llrge rour " " kes 1902. 1'i04. 1907 . "d 1909 - arose outsi<\e ,he con.rol
f'I'O' IJed gremet c""'"'''u''y of Ofga "' '"''0!1 "'ere «aJ l1y of !he Ch .... l abou ,. Only af\e",·.rd., ", i,h I>O",CI'$ .'tream"', '0
"'."cepred b) """",,,td ...d non-unioolLt'd .like," f\n"ttn I \lO6 and 1911 ;1> do<.><s on Con<> Siccanli. d,d rq>' .... n.. ti'·cs of lhe P.""" Soc .. h,,"
• 5etI",,,,f<hop tloor 'mICro ,neiclont>· COIIC"",,,, . . "'etllme and ,be of Labour 01T>C1ally endont:.he """ernen'. bu, from
pal. mlcnIiIl dl"'pltnc 000 PICtt-"M ""c. ..... nagtd b) In,ornal Ille 1907 ""I.e """am. ... oopnllCd Io;adershrp of anarchi'" and .)nd.cal.
cor>ln"""NI, only adt'f'!.-d by .he lrade union" hcn a broode, ,Inke i", ..,,,.. 1, III,e,,·ene<!., ,he facIO'}' and nciKhbourboOO Ie'el ' 0 load
. . "
=<kd coor-din.,iOll .. Il",,,he. Ih. ( 'hambe. of Labour Mm.oolOK '")'WI<l<: ' el1OlI , <> .,'II.
1to, "'. ", "r a Ie",,} 'PO/ll."e"y' bocamc Olea",r .,
'gena,'ion 01' 1910" a»ulned _ infl"""'" In lhe 1..00",

-28 -29-
 Tht ,gc""ral '" 1'109. foil"" ,na ,lie of tile Sl"'ni.h Ounng 'IS finl ,...,e. lile S}ndieAItIl mo,,,,,,,,n' f(lUnd ,I> g'."es,
I,bena,,,," <ducat",,,,,h'l r""",,><o i, emblcmal,C or.1I <ul'f'O" in a ncI,..od or <'irr"'i Ji ,..wJ, lha, rrnc-rged from .nll
IIIes.c urb.ln upri5l1lg'_ II hal'JlC""'d durin, period of relalll e indl.l5I ....1 m,I".Ul5l.nd pro-Itu."i ... R",oIultOrl In I90S. whICh """""""
"lien onl""",1 cornonlUIOf\S ll:ad bent J,c'c ... ",.. by the s,gnirtcanl .uppon from the IndUSIn.' "orr.,ng dus." Torquato "anni
N""",lteleso. J'<lOl'I of Inu"hi<l. l),ndi"ah51 and Idl .... lnl I_ .i, il ""Il' ....... ) ond Alfredo Polkdro IttOfU)' en''''. JOUmaliS! ond
soe-,al"l "od... "."cd r.."ones and pulled "'" """'en, Wltb lite car rutu", publi>h<T of , ... n.I."""s of SLI,'OI11C l"fflItu"') Slionul"ed the..
In the un. 10.000 'IrcamC\l OUI "r .ub<trbt_ An "onnt;<,ed campoi grt" hcljl<nlllO pub],1/1 • 5In", of <)"nd",ol 'SI rc\Oo-.papcn.
.narrh,,, rc""'mb<;...d lite ""'''''''''ra''"" pan as "f a much ,,-ioc, int.,. (II Grid" 1907-8. lA ,"'Ir.ale I90R. and
""10 ... 1 """',"en'- ',\11 ,ite rnOlled. all ,he },,,,"h ,,(Europe. 1'l(9), 1'"lk<lro and ".nnl "'l!oN for rou, (,od bkJC.) .•IIi.""..
••" only ,. Turin ", .,.cu,um had al", aroused lhe . ntt.deri,,"1 of.1I the ,.J\w,;i,'I. IA S<><""," I""ocated on ,n,um:<:lional general
"'Hldle·doss f""'nI'''''', IF..,.." "-'d hccn OI"IC) and Ilk: Morgari Inlegmlim. .,,, • • . denounced Inlegnl r<m. and mercilessly I'mpouned
but Ihere "as a ,h , Il' demo",.",," bet"'.. n <I", ,uburnan ""m"goglC a n, i..d moait.m , I'o llc\!ro h.d 1,,'c,1 in I'.ris for "me a nd
.nd lhe, mo,e p<:ac" t'ul prOtest! In Ihe cily Cen're, Indu.tria l ",,,,ke,,, h.d bc<ome • discipk o f Gu,I ... lien. _. nd Iht F... ,,,,h .nt i-mihtoriSI
''''ph'SOl'''' ,t,eor 'F..,..,,·. "'" me ... ly lhe C\lIKalor bul lhe leader of Co tal"" w''''e f"'G",olly for fA SlJ.oak (Othe, ·ifRgul.,-s· a t", eon'f!b·
'),nd'c.h,m" uled Challes 'l.lal.,o. Roben M,chell. r .,;co Lwno, non,to Mus",lilll
Robelhou"", .. ".s "'" unl)' 1.'Plfed by polo"c' In 11.ly indu5Irialrot>. .nd Luig' Fa bbn-t'
lion happ<ne<i on hl1k lnon: than 0 and oldoT 'rad"tOn, " ... In eonnec'ion .. "h his propo.g)IIom of the 11.". ...1 Slriko ant;·
'he ... r..... carried 0'...- tnl0 DeW J,cl!lnlS, In 1\10.8 "ork.... ... ",II m,IoW1<m. Polled'" iauno.hed ¥n I... ltan _lion of ,he Anlt -\t.lila,i"
,••ded In .ulomob,le (oct""" (or ,ndula,ng 'n s;",no \I<>t>doy_ Ind<-cd lhe An',-m,ltt ... " led to coon appear·
" ... '" lh1t liS prkl'"oncrs ... called Ilineti'''"11 by for publtc01ion .nd d,.tnbutton of fOtb,ddon material al local
the fOllnes<: " The leader offlO\1 ".oJ app.alled by the "ba.,m"ly· ba."""l, II Gr-iJo PmlewrlQ co.. ,,,,mod ,,,,,If more <ntirtt:llCly ...-uh ,nd",·
own .""'''luetIC). and not a 1,"lc ,. bu1 dill"" car .. 0Ji. .... 'nal problem ... disrmss.ng nO\j rc(»rm'5I ltadt",· .uppon of,he closed
romklcred ,t.:m ... I,,,, ,he of a ""'........ >ddlc or mJddI"",ras, p<:f'$(tn shop in tor lon,Hctm and a,I",,,,,,,,,, ""'h
og""""""".
\buII,"" Ganoo. a )OU"g an,,,,,h,s, "0 .","11 OtICOUnl...- "as ... he 11.1. CO<lll"1oCt of 1906 oj The .. "" .... pal'<"'" "''''cd .. 'ra,n,ng
''''Ie 1lnl""Ised b} youn" U""'et>l1y ,nldl.. rual, woo I<>oked down 01' gro,,,,J, fo< }ouns<r woo1;<I'$. "here 1l1li1\:1"",. ,)nd;';.Ii" •• nd
",anu,1 "011«,., Ik,nll a ,"oddO\.ko,. II< .....1100. "",.m he had 10 a Ni". e,<o"J Iong·tctm .110.",,", ca"'p.lig",na OSllm1sO\'omm<nlai .!"b,It.Hon
'" hI> own ,ol u" oll 10 le"<hnic. 1 "nd o"n i", tnt d., icc, 10 help In intl"" " . 1co"n""
h1m catty 0111 hIS Job 50 ,ynd;';,1i,m" li,,1 ".'C ran ",,,,I ub i. p,oble m._ SynJ,
,. Ii m "\'0' ,uc"",,<.Ied on conlrolhng !he Cbalnher orlabol", Rofo"'''''''
"("od nMe S) nd ica li , m 1900 10 eonlrolkd ,he m.,n ,'ohng bloc! i" eomm,ncr mOClmlP. alld
.. ,he '''''lnbe.-.hip may ha,. -IOIl>OIimo> Sj'mp;othued ""b """'"
In Its pn:>t<r<yndio. li!olI!'u,\<:.I kfl '1\IIIIn'illt"' fact,on g,'herod .uppon of ,)ndicali.nI·, obJeclion, 10 ",f"","" Iradc'Hn,on "'rPO"
through enl"' ...... of the l"nHl ,ndu>tn:ol PO"ltCS of the ,dorm,>ts, 11""",-.... for 'I> full "III problem.,,,, II he." S}'nJ;cali= >Oughl to
11""'<1" dc, tloped ", coherent pl." thai "0111<1 xtuaJJy coonl,na'. pony ,,,rrum"," Ih" ><Tiou. ,.... k ...,. by ...r,,,,,."ng pro"""ial industrial
pohttc) and the poh.,,,, of ,he Chamber of labou,'· A.ftco, ,he 1904 un""" lhal .. 'ould bn:ak the Il"P of the e ...1\ ""i"",_ Wllil. lhey ra,,,,,d
smle. syndlCaliS! rxtion " . C$labl.>hed " By 190Il Importano qUCSI""" about the (l1Ia""'nted t\aIU", of'he 1\0.10... ,not!< """'"
haJ bttn geet"" fmm the pony.• I,hou,h lhe .. >iyk rcma",..d. Icg.acy ,no' ... ncnl. ,heir argumentS "",'cr "on th< do)' bef"'" lhe c\. oflhe "."
roo- ,he post.1 91 0 :\cw Loll, lin/,k. OIhoo, arca, of oynd",."" growth Tl>< ... forrniSlS curU,I"" In""h of !yndlC.luOl at Ita" for one,,"
Tunn ""i.her produ..;ed not played """ '0
any maJO< alkr 1907. by ,'''' «>n,lil"""" oflhc t:."hItmber of Laboo,
.yn,loeah". "rn: "'" tl obit to d;,lodg< Morga" fron, """cr. as they had SO ,hal S<""ral ",semblio. 00 longe' dcltl>crau\'o pow ... , OJ'
bndly "",ee<:<led .n <k>lng 10 F ,1,Pf'O Tuntl; in Milan." d""j',ng lhe ') ,HI,c.I"" OCc<SS '0 111<-. i ' '''''t fOf\lm,. ref""""I> h<.>pctilo

-30
 Gcamsci ami ,Ite

con,mI .he u>aKc of tho: gmeraJ \.triko .. oapon, tbo:trlIy ""''''trng SW'(IriS( F"",1crie Subolpl"".• we""ing mIll ond. denS(ly pxked "'SlnCI of ..... 11
mobriLfal1OrU lila. had f'''quendy undom"nod !he" "u,honty.'" Ioo"""tly, and mcd,um-sote<i a"ra<:'1'd .n e,'er ,,,,,,In!
""".,,", .hI' llndocal",', C2mp3lgns 1<,l1Im"o.I tho .""... h,>! I1l01l ... '''''' pOpULoI"'" '0 Lnlil 1910 Bamen di MIlano" as ,ul olf from ,he <l1y
mT,,,.n OII<e .,.,n·' CCRire r...,l,njj I 1ram Irnk, me three ","lk "'a. ",,-ely. If e'e •.
"nd<;.ukcn Ikrrgo San Paolo "as "Inuilly an .ulon",n"'" loou"".1
Th e Secund C . n tra' ;o n: 19W- 14 d"""", ,,,,,,II
from an oid., .... sbop Ind""nol
bas. located do,"" 10 thOCI'Y o<m'e"
,\rool><l 1910 I :le<:ond gODeTa'ion ofl""al socialIsts .ook ,h.1pc , Compo$<.-d £l.org" San 1'0010, lIke Barri.,. di MllallO, bot.n a ",,.1 ""tl.me,,'
<>f .. If-N .... '1'd ,,<rl.... 1"'in8 in ,he o<pandi"8 ... buro., thl'y umil .he end ofll1c "..,lu'Y, By 1911 the populattOn stood 0' ef
"'1'""",,",0<1 • 10 Morgan Ind orher 'et...",. The FNctPJOno 4.000, 113, '"11 8rQVo1'l from. meT< fo'" huOO"'" In 1920 IJorgo SanPaolu
GiO\.nil., Soc .. lisu IFGS, Yoo"-8 Soc,.h,lI) S(,,1'd as a 1""''' bal.t. had .. populo""" 0\'" 20,000. ikrrl!o $on Paolo had "" ,mpres,,,,. ,,,.Jus
d ... ml_"ns ItIII·mlhtansm; furth<-r <putrcd on .ft....... """ of'he l.byan 1n.1 «nlre 1911. Cor f"".ones ,,,,,b .. l.ancra 4I90S), Spa (1905).
V,ar and ,he ''"In<'nHlg Europe;on .. tuatiQn The.. )\I<In/l .... ialt>lI.nachrd Cherubmi (I 911 Oraton( 1904) ond __ .. led tndu,tri<'S such ." \\0511"1·
,hem.. h OJ; '0 a """ "'a". of <yndicII", m,l,unoy. "h,eh th..,atcnnllhe 1>Ou$CO ,,,.J [)"b\:»( ,he" door; an "ilb,n a decad<:·, bmo ['cn If
heg"lDO"y of Ihe CGL Iknlto M",,,,hnl, lbe brilliant )'<lung Nltor of InduW), b«.r"" .... dorm""'" r.atu.., of ," landscape, rural mcmor;e,
h'm",', b«Mno II .... polltiul hero. fl is oo,h IllIfIuage colling for " hlocro ",,,,,,,,,,d YOUnll ,",or\crS , ,,,,.Iled rompinH ll1rough "1"'" field. in lhe ..
It".-o of >o<i,li"5, ."arc h,sts, s),oo lool l'" and 011\<" 'Irrcgula" ' t>e<.m. y....,"
therr rrogrJmmc, A now ""'''''''ing uppa (ml mob) was d,><o,'.ml \ IIjj"'UOn broullhl <--pc<: ilic pOlr'r<J l lrlldlllon, "uh .nd ,",",igra""
by .ho Toril"''' mIddle cl asses, but collce.i". "01."". ""' "'" lhe ""ul. ..ttlod on the !.Olne Ry 1919 onl)' 2S ptr orSan Poolo '. popula.
of the .n. of iuno .. nl "'ne"", "hotn Joomalists $0 • i"dly "on "0'" ""1,,,. born TOIi"... M<>I' rt<:.nl ".,,,al, came from rural
pon .. )<'11 II haoJ "$ OWn 1"".1 root>'" Pi«lmonr. II1Ilnl)· "oj d, s..s. and \,.1 dt (i""en;, One '1""na of lhe
Common CUilUfll. pOli.ical and imellec .... 1npcncnc"'lnfonncd.he .uburb '. pop<Ilalloo " ... Apulia" 1"" only grOIlfI ohoulh·
• arly ","<'S of.he of 1910, Re, "I'd "f1"O""'O wa, probabl)' cmm..o ml,,...I<: m..",'dy during Ihcst ya.,.. ') Soc,al", poIl'lC. p"" •
the IlIOSl Import.nl Whllc middle.., .. ., inldlccrual, driftl'd ."ay from oomi""'N in Borg<> San I'aolo .nd imm'i"'nll (c;.pcclalll the Apulia",,)
.he carller g."",.,"""" """,.1o,m '0".,,1, ....,.,okali." ,m1lOlI. "'e", ImpOrunlln I""al pony ""'i."'....
• Ir;t and "."oMli" "'iontallOn$. the y""ngtr . . ><Xlalil" R,1m,'", dl M,I.no had a Il<lGtblo .,,"'.. ,," p'.!o<nc., ",inf_cd th,ough
rela",od I In moreri. ll st phil""""hic •. A popu lar pos ilh;,m nn " "j!,-a",," of \'e,coll<,e , No,"",$< .nd ili"lIe-,< [>O",.n15," G."no
coupk..J with. d'.'AI.e for city con.", inlClicclu. ls d;;finc<l their """ialism, ",c.ll s th.llh. V,,,,dle,,, ".,e 'the mo,' c"",b''',,e,.he """t rno lu·
Craft rndc I. y a' the bottom of thIs "'orl"",· cuho .... , tional)" O<I"'<;:I . lly II .. anarchi,... . . In II .. \'.",d1ose III''''', ".fe
""" bu,l. 00 m_"try or industnal In .he suburb, c"''' pride, 51A)tlgltoIJ,' " In f"". the mcn>ory 01 (,alleani', ':11\';'1<:,
cU5l0l".nd we .. hst manlay ,,= m,ud Io&"'her" The amoo&S' the ric .... OIl... " .. Innsm"'od unlly from the geno .. trun;. of
1>Obll'd I>orghi nf'he InduWl11 hmlm.nd c",,".1'd I <OmntW". ,he I sso. and llvougII thc<c lnlJnnlS lOT""" The VClttIk>c Sf'Olt
,anon 'r"" nunurO<l by 'nlerconnocled, Inf"",,,,1 net,,""',of ..,Iali, <'S. of 'Gallcanl, Inbunc, ,,"" ,n AnlCnca. had done .hlngs·
,,--orl.t'"I" and "",gltbour-->... The .,,,, l'nlIJOf InduslnalsublJrbs ,,= Ikqo TIre B",n.S( had Ih<" ""'n ana",h,s! leader - 'ro"n","", Con<QniIl-
Son I'aolo Ind Illr",,,,, di l<otrlano, U"lrk( older "..ncr SClII<mcm. (Bocx<> """",ah>! and _"lId"';c'!. ed,lf1r of a,ena', IA Thon lhere
Don for e.atnrlc "llIeh atU,..,led poon:r _00 10.. skiliN worke .. ) ,he.. "as dl' .' anielical influme. of "",iali" Dr \tam ",hn al ... p",.chc" to
two suburlli wc", ulmoo.l'Of1\p.... ly populaled by ",l lled wort"" .mployed the ru",1 ",,,",or> " ' Iho 18905, .nd "ho.. "'op,an .... iahsm "a' c",nN
fo< lhe mOSt 1"'n '" .he '," IOI""bile ''''' ilia!), i,><lUSI!lC" BM,io", di ).1, I.no 10 thlS irnlu,rri.1 ci'y " In 1905. bltta Imke o f Vo",o llc<c nee "orku,
contained I row of m.jor ioou,IT i. 1 facIO/ie,. (Off"""" Mcrallurgiche. " .. strunKly ."pportN In B• .,;e", ,I, \1l!."". alk! onc of i.. major
Brnetl! t IAT.... ocl ""II. AnsaJdo San Gioqj,o. Grandi Motori, Fondc"e pollllcal dtmon",-alions w • •• soIrda.ny pIOIl'llln favour <>fthe >tnlcn.71
FIAT IlIlou.1'd In one of the c..,lnrl ,UffI$. Vi. Cuneo.) The c<:"'," of Ikr<go Son Paolo "'lIS ioc.ra1 a1 I'uIu.o I'..-..::h,cra, .. "",h

- 32 33
 c"fI!.m«1 Ihc • <I\'(he, a prim.!) .d,ool aOO • Loca l wine: laW"", Ihey "0'" . lready pohhc,,«I' OJ M.no Moot'8M"" .• ),,,,,ng
donIOII"ral",n, IteI'I' alld lhe 1"".1 fIOpul""" 10<:>1< their piJueg'Ula soc .. h,{ of JOIIl>h II"ddle..,lu! origin. woo I.ft hi, f.mil)' 10 becnme.
aroulld ,1£ ,"In aCrf} ,l>IJI1i prC'C,,,clS, In ,ubum. su<h " San Paolo f... OI)' "JlI"fnllce and on;: of the ""'" artieulalc In ,he new dub.
hfe I..WUmN arUII,r Ih... in oldol pon, of Turin d...,lo ",1.- 1\'(311c<t how ;1$ mcmbrrsli,p •• m<d <oll3ln reput.tlon (or pII"tan"m.
'''ely felHr cof...1Id ,,,,aura",,_ lI'hor<f"", b!xame. """lral pan or tnrn: W'I 1m dnnk ..,d IwIlly..,y S",mng 311he new dub, Ahhoogh he
h fc, On.e uldllm.:, ;"'"' ie" «I brlicI«I ,hal '''rectl,', crealW ,he fo.;ling '1u",klyadded In hit mo:m<»lS Illal '00< or IWO 'I ...... were n,,'er refused
lila, ,he 1><Hxt. "as '","Ur one ""Sk: family'," b)' an)oo<' _"' C.mlilio Ra,era, lnother fum", communi.,. lI,;t<3 in her
PuI""" "e", d,,,,,,dy dfC'C,etl by ,1150 """...1 .mongo"...",._ Many
IoInkl.'S We'" Inf""""l r'K1w<>d. ,hal ,died on I"",al
memo,1S II\:iI ,"" clubs gene .. ltd .., .,"""f'hcre of 'greal moral rig.,..,-·.
Inlclk<;,,,,,l di"'''''"" ,he ·batt'" of i<leu' replaetd all nlghl dnnkmg
lJIorI<<'(pcO 10 .UO\Ol tolls 10 an "'f'3od and neighOOurs.o help f=l hungr) Paolo Itobolll, I furu", pOII"- In "'" Communt§! PMI}, then a
chlld",n ,.. SoIldo",) ,he",f"", f""lId its <u" ... once in the wIly Ii, ... of bo",ly lllCr.lle flCtory II orI...-. mnrmbcr< !be dUM ...school, of pn<:licol
lubulbon mh:lb".n,. "'" from the oily. lhe §!m:11,fe of!l", ocpnllllUI)[l·. IIb..-C ,,-<>den could learn new intenC'Cl\I3.l ",ill •. "'"n
...o..n, and !he Sf'lnI of a ",asarol 'illlS< ,,,,,,,,,,«1 10 Turin by these Immi. <lebalina IC'Chniques and diKu!4 In,",,"-Ionnal e,en",_*'
ann ' • sh3pcd the ':J«<:IfId In "h":h PO;;I' 1910 _iali<l$ matun:d," !)unoa local sinkes or 01«11011 campaIgn>. m<t"ng' couLd continue
for III" 01 1"-= 411)'" The- dub in San Paolo at", ..,,«I a, a surrogale
Su burba n (or ,'''' In,tll\lll llhen they w"",'empontri]y driven fmm.be
faclQOr<, n.. club Iocal«l in riAlza Pe'IChlolll .".... t('d lI'<>rke,.. dunng
Tbc grow,," ofTQOIIfS< 5O<'1.h.m Incr 1900 w", t...s<d upon ",,' In,,,,,,_ l\OOO"m" lu""h bn:alJ. 100 >.pe«h.ts """Id ,urge lround il>
1>OrIS pol"",.1 dul:>s.1Id f""l<l<'y inl ........1e","m",inn., A..... "'hi... ymOOI, .s.- e\On on lI ...kdl)'s'·
.nd ."Itu", ",mal""J "ukly and readily digr<lw by radical aOO rhe """ club> Imr", ... iIC libra"e., Although .ystematic
1101 So ",d,c,' wor\.CI"I.
n:oords 1\:1". no! bftn prese,,-..d ofwl\:ll mombenh,p ",ad. =1 ,estlmony
Polollul club lif. ""JO)'eJ a ft .... ph • .., of VO" Ih III lhe 1880s alld il fai,ly 100",",,,,. of("""ntes, Robot" Ittallcd 0011 ,!Ie m"mbrrship 111
bul ;1 diN ""! IIIIh rhe ri.., of lhe mi<l,lIe..,la,s """ialist' In the <;.n 1'0010 u,eJ 0<1C IS Ih. ct"lrep,C'Ce of discu .. ion They beg.n
II"ddlc I890s, I rom 1905 4 l>ew aroll Ih i. e, ,de m, gathering stealn by nrt
\\ I/u,h". thoncarri.d 00 to Jack LO[l(km', Iron
1910. ' 00 b!xommg Ihe ch'rnele".", f.alure oflhe new SOCialism of 'he .00 fo!!owtd "P ",adinllloo.. "'ndi>,' of oarly 1",""" Nh-o< IH UI), \\ott",
prell., yea", Tbc f,rst 110,'0 of 'yn<lic.h>t aeli,,,}, cOITl<ided ",,, 10 III< cuilun: ZIllu .ltd Ana,,,1e h.",'c 'rhcy WCT" OIIr r,,,, book, o f "",i. li"
I'ro lIfer.""n of '''':011 Vi JIU<Ii .Mwll In 1905 ' ' 11'clubs we .. fi,,,ndeJ educati o,,·. he cotll'lud..,.. A 1I0no ri, liben. ri ... I". mmrc pn:JominateJ
and o ' lte" ""'i'tlt In 1910.• n", ,a p" n oJ of .Ugll.nt ""',a liS! gmwlh. 'We lbou' M.n', he ,doeJ. 'b!x.",., we h,d h i. ponn'" in our
lhe 1"".1 soc .. hsi CI",Ie. "C'" 4 I>rlaht <pot, F""r yoors lale, If>e """,ali st """',nl! room, """",.,,,.,o..ay ""e k""" a\lou{ Marx;,", would h< cxaggcr-
,;o",lel had 1,000 members. " ilh tl",,, , trong ... "'1",,,enl.tion In .tc-d becu,,><: M.,,'. bi>ok. "ert \ 00 heal'Y for our ,"omach,. II",y "e",
Ootll" Sa" Paolo .",1 fhnicra 01 M,lano" TI", eirel.. "'ere ol<»ely alhed 100 '01"",,,,,",,, 111>10:..1 11'< ,ud the booI-.s ofC.fiero, lhe poel!)' of Ma"o
W, Qlod >QIIlCIlInrl oo.n,n.{c<I by til< ...,ialiSI nlO'e"",nL In lheory lhe booL.s of Pierro Gori. the poel_'"
• d,..;ol" was lhe Yno! of lhe I'.rtilo Soci.li"x. btr! il Of><""d Its 5.1111" . roc . n. _iah,,-, immcr:>td in anarch,,\ dasslc._
door.. to w.II, "'""",h,st. aOO "'hot nun-party members CO"'lWSI Q{ Brf(JI/" "' ex"" ..... ly popu lar, L"";,,, \llchel's
"1P',fic.n' pre!.mOe on the$c local orpnlnotion<" ICCOO .. oflhe Commune andlhe J)3mphlcl. of 1'3010 \'al"", foiloll'«I
The iC"",,"onal cbange by lhe soci.liS! mo'e. in pref.n:""e, anl;.m,lita,iSl olld om ido" ..1 pornpblelS mack up {he
men! dunnS 'hese )cara IS ",nC'C'«I in the VO" lh of the ... d.", and ",he, ., Yoo.l'i a, ,dty d,gr'ltd lhe , "ther OOmba<1IC rhetoric
J"".h nelghbou,hood orglruullOOJ_ '"oung f""n<kn of!he new clubs fdt of \bria Rygiel, CorT'ldooIi. Rocca and Gu,""" Hen t, Corri·
.he all'l1OJ.phtre In older dnnllns loxII", 100 fnvolous. Ballis.. Santh .... don'-. and RYile,'. RQmP''''' (0l'l'<1/r Raw) Wti
f.,u>e """'",un, .. nlllll""'. arril"d from ,'''' \ '=ell= and ""Ipcd fOlm rQd b)' ",'..-yoroe" .-\n!I-nuhlMUrn wu I ehorff«OCCllP"'''''' during 1IIe..
Ihc""" club.n San Paolo, 1[< "","11«1 Ih., '"." if,,,,,) "-'-'" ""lItd y..... IIGruIoiki popt>lo mil campaign 'broughout 1912 and lhe fGS

-3S-
 iI, IfK">soge Into the rounl!}'""" d" nn8 wcekenJ · .. d oych.I,· Cirroio di Stud, Soci,,/i f 'enw
tou .... pre",,",ng to "I)r\;; .... Oft Ihe e, lis of n"lnanSIII 100 ..
!.ibe!tan.n"m thtrefote .ffect.:d ,he enUre "eIA left," IIh ""'IIIhS!s no. ,nnurnce lhal .""reh"m ....c.. upon ,he Torinc<e wl)r\;;ing cia"
<II',nunng pamphlets .. nUen by an ,oomdoah,t .""",hlS! like Rocca as from 1910 (0 1922 " .. <Ioscly """n«ted to the hi\I<JI}" of ,It;; Fcm:.
",.dily., .ho>< by the ,nduwi, 1 .yndloah<l Comd"<1I. hen a young ( ,rele . It pN' idod • ", ib le proflie for a modorn fonn of anoreln.!m
",f'>I11"" ..xi.lt" like GIUSqlpC ROlnna ,harN Ihl< ""gIn ' k .sub","""" anrborod lA ,he indus",ol prolel.nat. 10 Sani ..... dl M,laoo" pl.1jed an
III .... i"'kfl<al group ,n IIo!x<> San Paolo _ft", f=',
analogous role to the ""'Ullist dub ,n 8o<BO Sl.n I'l0010 both ".,,.. oecond
" ... "" ""'i_Jl\II"an" ... " oil . .:dlll"1I G;",,,,,,, So..,,,/,,,,, in I'll I homel aoo schools fo. young sclf-educated w",h ... ,"
1912. ",hieh (Icd'red '",ar on war'. ,"d lu. , efun"" m OliO cooI",,,.d a Tutln' , <If Ibo Mooe'" S<bool I'r<scntod ""'cral "0\01
mung repubhean ele",c"' '0 II·' Th,s repubh<anism jOl".,d ,he "",iahS!> fc.ttIre'I fin>. 11> f"",,",ion in "'" .... k< of Fmet"s <xeculIOd " .... inlC1lcled
,,"h tht hbo-narilns. and • ",on8 100 ""Ii, e conling<nl of rC"flubloc"" ., .n Iltomati,.., '0 tile .tready T.,..,,,,, ... . . ,,a 1'"""lare
plin'",", in SI." Paolo temenled a Inplc alh.".,. between all Ih''''' groups. (PoOpIe" Un"o"'''yl : runn h.d hosted Iho ft ... t PO!'OI .."
'>J"" allt ,,,,,.s "ere wn w.eted lilt g,,,",,1 office. of 'he local Houoocd in 19(0). 001 by 1907 115 m"derat. m,<ldle",lan "'¥.nlz<n had
aoo cirel.\o. aoo aft" ,he llbYln \1, ••• miliunl ml<idIe",I .... naliooah.m alie"",ed """'ing..d .... stPdl'nlS." One founder of ,ho Fe"". Clrele
made iHlppa""". on ,he .uws. "hlCh forced al\ZtchiSIS and "",Ntll", .,pl,uned llw lho Un"='ta PO!)Obre had bc<:ome '00 ob> IOWIly. mIddle.
'0 osl>bll,h ",If-<lofonce uni" a1 dc.mon""'tions to proI<'" 'hem<el"". fl<)'" cia ... I",Iltu"oo, whore '<)IIly ,he ""'kilt d.,... gn, .nd "ery f.... wl)r\;;on;",
by "allon.l i" )'oulh,," 'Th. (, Ihe "nle, ronll",.ed, 'j, abo due to the fac,!hot it ,.I rare Ihattlw:
.. • • is sufficiently edut: ••• d '0 "ndem.nIl ,he arglU"l"ltnl' of ,hue
Cn,,"Ih: 'peake"', .. 1>0 fonhe most "m.sa'" f.. mous prof<SOOtS and 1.")'efS ....
Se<0l1ll1)'. ,ho 'r", i,IC'. Fe",,! Ci.de - "n hke 'ho polt<y of the SI"'""h
,\ hbenan ... ,,"i"ol sllmu laled by the Fel"fe. e""oIlOO 8>1hcred pace educallonalill d,d no! fttnti' lIS i" pup,ll bul ,)""Ih "ho
aft.r 1911. Al\ZtchiSls .ook leadml roles In lhe 1912 ca. wodrrs had m:enlly Ieli publIC school for ,he wod,Itop·.'DO The Ferrer Clrele
t"" am,·m,l"an., f<>ll"" ,nl!he LIbj."J.n W•• and the Red W«k C.n be "",""dere<! part of a w><le. hropean c(>n'ompo"'!}, ,onden.cy'o
<If marry ,,,If.. MlICatioo aoo md io.1synllical ist polilie, In ,nanr "'Y' it bore
In May Iho l'led'''''''le\.< _nalthi", OI'8"nlled a pro, Inc ...11I,",,><"J_ luiking lO.he BrllLsb Plebs L.agues iUld 'he.lthen." ••
a;""", f'ii"mOtl".... , al,hough n .."..,ned .. <air. "" Inll 10 bo;:kC1"' ""hools localed "'i,h ,he Fmo;:h bow'..... du tral";! I.' 11$ re.1 tmpOrl.,..".
Inl runn had II, 0"". tar more efl"«I"e. Flse," Libenano .ioc. 191 2, lay In III<: c",aU"" "h 1I<fItT'I""" of,MUStn.1 milt .. nls. Dunng'"
B.I"f;<ra d, Mil.".., ""'" the Cent .. of the Clly'. libertan,n ,no""",,,,".
"""'re of exist.n.c. il ' IlractN ,""on" of pup ils" 00 la'., pia) cd prom Inent 101••
tile .... reh'''. d .. ,.. .... ppon from lradltional hbenonan causes high ""''', f,,,,,,
,n lhe chi.r .onnic1, the 19L 2 "j'ndlC.hst car
hIgh prices and limilal"'" of poh.e p""...... In the ,uburbs .. lauons "nh "orlt1S' !!nke 10 ,toe 19W occupation of lbe f""lones, Ilu, onhle ,toe
lhe police "' .... "tdiff.ren, a' ,he bool of"m<5, and "'hen Morgan and Un""",I' p'l\X,I.re " "as alll1O>1 ..clu,",'dy composed ofwl)r\;;ins-class
Cn.. h", """,ally 'pon>Ol".:d • parh .. ocn,.!)' 1l" 1'0 "renKlhe" ,he poltee lIu<ien1>. 'cry fe", ,mll,lI ... cla", ,nd;, Illu.\, e'·.,. "enlured out to R.N ..".
I""'e. lhe )OI>ng anareh"" p'lleretllarg< '" Iltei' local proi<'SIl .... di Mil""". Ga.i"" I of ckrl" and a' mos, ,bm: Il<
(".,.lini " I i >om<!lunll ofa . f<>lk <11',,1' for lhe anarrhlStS. 'rne reform"t fou, Inareb", Inlcncttual, ponICtp3.'ing In the Cirele', "",i"i"<I, Its
rflncmberetl b) Gan"" for helng a slu", I.r.hord I" ,he p<J\lUll. po,ili"'SI anJ m>tenah>! - d,(fertd 111
d""icI of VallCh,gh. ("1 It .. 0 .... "ho explOIts ten.n" .• ,,<1 the" loa, ,I .. «""en' from the Un,,·c ... iti Popolore The: auiding 'P;nl. ho ... e'· ••. " ...
.000!lI.J:< 10 Wme and JJlt3L abo", soci.lism. ')." or
Ikons.: IOu,1 y proletarian. s",!"e"",s outside in'c,,·enllOl1. 0'
Tbe anarthlS" also seemed 10 lu.H had a mea.u ... of ."rrcU on a..",hiStS "' ,he cen' .. of lhe C, .. Ie·, II<t[\ ,.... look.d '0
.upport for cl«,,>nti abstcntlon. In Octobe. 191) th"y mounled 'wo S01J " e' (,f LuigI Molina,i . ,he: .n.rehi" la" ycr ..
• <I<,,\on,,"'llOn which d.. w 12.000 in", the mlln piaua of llam< .. d; li",e support .. oftht L,mOTSIIio l'opolno in M,I .... puhli\hed its maga7lnt
\hl,,,,,," tha, pro>><Ied the young .""rehtStS "n11 an «1«:11" of

-37 -
.narrh", ela"tc., Spencer, an<! In", ,n, D""o.,,;,on. of the po),ti,al ix<w"",n Man .nd Baku",n Wt'" fully
f .... lo"e. b'rth control and ,he Chu,ch don"nated pages, LuigI r abbn 's Indly;Ju:o list . narehi$l5 Ktmed to h"e ,no rhilosophy
and OmllC uloo la'Ottcro'$ .hon· li,cd La .ll(xkr"u (1J.o Ioall', on Ni(1)sehe and Stime.'" POW)' . nd an wc ... more
19121 d"SI'minatN to"",'. "h,1e Mohnari. f allbn pnrular Rapi .. rdi, (inri, CarduccI 100 Guiu; " .... "",mon""" by many
and Z.'.Il<.'l'O publi5bed ....... ll JCnC'S of lnarclu ... ,ynd"ahSl and rIt'O- .ruden's. ... ,hty IIad been in the San r.olo club. \lll'. lantern .ho".
'rncts ,hoI probably "'''N as pohlical Jlnl ....... ,n the School, OJ ,h.
on ltah." "",,,.r<, a Iho. l", grotlP for
Although ,he r e"", C lrde f"urode" " or< mo," radlc. 1 'h an ",>I'I.c" ,,,., .nd .ma leu, theatric , l, ""'13",,,d. I,.
popular p.>!, imc,
""" ali" l'O'illYI".I, lhey ih.ared phll'"'-'Phlcal p'inciples, The an.n:hlll ",. (,rele c"" .. nu. lly Undo.--'!Ined il5 ",ri""'I>e5s. btl, the re"", Cirrle
",hool,"" ,", Fabbr, •• p l.. ned In 1912 Ihat Ihe " l ockm School "U " . . dj, lded to ocoonwnodatr I:.>tl! iIUdy and """""uon, One room, rc5<'f'c.l
h!>cn.rian b«.U5C " ,I'atISI'mded ,he older radi",,1 hbcnol &""nd for for donees, led "", 'n I eounyard "'th • b«a c(lllt1, The "'her room ,,-..
"",,,,Iy Cd"","Od, Ed"",'i"" IIad to be camN Od o"b.de and &""ed to <:d""",on.1 "",iwie,. \\ hen it ",IS (""nd«! In 1909 one or its
' gOln\1 both ,ho clergy and II>< ,131<'''0", fauh In mod<:m hnkedprog"''' ;"tcnlion, w... to combal ,he . poht'cll "'or1<ers' <porting d ub> Football
tho Modem School,,, ,,,hocl tr' of ,, ",e.cono ro lled edl>l:.tion. Sclel>ce, ""s f",,,,ned upon. Inlread In. Circle Ofl"nlzed donce .. lheatricals, poetry
Ferrer e.platned in lho journal L 'Vn" ..,.,lfJ P<.<peJarr SC"'.,..I )'C!n befOft, rtt'llll., cyc list loul1l, and picnics IS
" .....11 anlldo(. 'gai!lSt do&m" and reh"",,,, and tile \lodern School's n.eC,rele "'IINlIJIOII its mt:mbcr$1O ,hoI' fltt ,uno and money
fype "f edL>C311"" """,hi
,n shape .. tIOna! human beIng< ready to h,·. '0 " Noc'Oonlns SU('('C<.Sfully furo,..,r a de<ode. Lectures anJ cou"<"
in. hbenanan "",.. ty,IO! The Tor"..... ""JOn
of'he Modem School we", at a n "lelllCllla!), 101 01, but stude n' s " .• '" .... '0 read at
announ,"d i,s ,"'" III " mIla, I." gu,ge : to sp,ud rationalist cu i" .... ho"...."j comr lcte occasion. 1II ,illCn "'''gnnlCl\t!. The most '1>I:':"'lf"1
amon8st ,he wo,\'ing daue" to <rc.tc 'individ""I,' and to rutn', ones "'.... gn"" fo limn.. en,hu"Mm, h"e "",oiOIl 'ur.ay,'
al''-lh dttw,ng itS "ori;mg,dass Inten"SI """" oponly IlIan F = had !t.suIllI) '''0 or thn:e \enafhl ",11ect the lilM;nanan poII"n lSm
.".- dwnpione<! b)' lho Circle', tea<her$, (£Nu.-uran/ls", aNl ReligIOn, P<>Ilfirul
' h" partlClp' ntS ,n Milan', I., ni,c" '" Popola.o, "r
1,1!><-<1\ l'o .... e' .nd >l) forth) ' " In. O n:le al'" <>pOI,ly
the ' tudcl1 ts of the Tm ,ne .. rem ! (',rrle ["oured "' .. occ Oool'Kl ", Jt>cU>.>I:d frce 10' e, ",,,,I rroble!'!\$ and e,en held .." .dl>l:""on dane.,
hl$tO!)' or I""""ure. • 11 '>!Of)' was en' I53gN in ",od pmltivi"
.. an OOfl""'fh of ""tu",luN o«iolOj)'. and "
pend", III rlor;a uni,nral. ('Ii lan, 1910), "h,oh began human hISle)')'
,<-. " I"" prudblo ,halt local _illi" dub> ' f or the: common """,,Ie
i, "-" liboo '0 di,;cu>I t""'" ,hlnp", Gori"" rttJlb II'

,,,'h an e,planalioo of'I><: ,,"gin. of'be un,,'c ..., " typ",al oftl'" I",nd, ,co
",. 11\O){ I"'pu l., Cnun;('> ",ugh' a, ,I", C"ck (by anan: hist ted ",,,. nl
and ull,"er.;i')· "lI<IonLSI w.'" l<InlI'IOI11y and mcdl<lf\<I ,,.. n '","n',t""'-'n' Tho h,.tt. Cirel. cltalyzed the a!\:lre"'" "",,,,me,11 In ,he .uburbl. TlIr
ofO\olull"".nd Inf.",,,, and Q.hleoand <en,ral COft of ..", »1lI Cons;$tN of25 fo JO former )OUI<g ...,111"" .nd
.. cr< rQflSoO<rrd CI",le he""". "lUl1Iliy ,I><: refutallon of religwn ..... I ,ynd",ahw; who had cut tho" political 'mh to 'Ianni', and PIIII""",',
<OIIStam "".ompanylng Ihtmc . ClltlOUSly ''''''.Ift''.• !" 'itry Ci>Ur>C ... nlCd . . her c.mpalgns. The School'l "n",cdl3l< populanl)' awakened older
to h.. e bee n a poreo",. 1 f.""",ite II. Pom.p., ... Logi. B,rro,,' h... how" a n.reh i." "ho jl>tncd fo"'e' with the new recfUi". III Dame.a di M,lano
In the el" of Bnh.h p lebe i... cul'ure, the lIali .......... p"""" e '<lo- 'heref"", b<'c""", fhe cent", or inJUltnal but tbe •• "e... al""
It -}"""",If' medicone, npldly bemll" tpt ""& by speeoah ..,ion ,', less important @:fOUPOinlk>rlloSanr.olo.ndB.im..... dihi7.7 •. "
SI000n' reading I"ofermce, malehed ,hooe of the San Paolo club o. "" ,I><: .':nlre oflhe new anarch,sm ...'at the Gruppo Barno", dl
popoklri (prople's Jules Vemc "'" ext"."...,I)' a !l\Crc do",n or ca. aoo f,," nd!), ,,'Od=-" ho ",a;ntai OC(I ,m<illi"".
popular In Mil an .nd Turo • . • nd ( i."no ",. d "'8 10,f/()() ufmih .. "" y in lotal r80!0.i.... n.'(ch ing fro m 1910 '0 1920 . Tho I .rre.
LIMN Sea . Na,uru lly, . ,,,,,,,hlS' d . '"e< wen: h"., ily represented C,rele helgh .. ncd ,be" ""'P""" .... Thrt)llgh its offk., COdt300'"
MO$t', 11It Rdigwo<. ser.-W as If! '.tl!eist ,.",book' ., Allemp" w"h _i.list club mcmben "en: e.,i ly e.tabh.lhN. Tho; anarch""
21 \1=', dialectical "",.nah.m were '""" sue""",ful. bu, "ere considc.-cd In the San Paolo dub a. PU"" bul .ligh,ly o.'op,an

-H
 hl d I link" jlh III< anarchi,m oflh. 1890s ."d •• rty
1<l(I(h. CC'IlIre SOOn'o was born on Tu,in In 1873. An "'JIh." who h.:>d
""'n co", ""wd ,,,.r • oo>..n limes of ,agmncy .1'<1 robbtr}. "" became I
dedIC.led ,nil" Id.alo>l In. rchisl ",nll0 0 ponal "la:>d In 1899
.,-SS'
and Ii, .noreh!>1 pOIllltal pnllOllCT'O_ 0.. hi' return to Tu"" he
I>«on .. I ml S<lf\ Ind hpl''''' Ii\>rn.>nan ban"", . l1om, . "dly wriling for
• ..,,,05 of """",hi,' """'''f''Ipo1'S. La,... he .. as. foonding of ,II<-
F....,io I i\l(1lll!lo. " IItillo boro ,n Turin in 1887 ,,-"" .1 ....
" R•• lly pan of lhe l"""lIC1 g........ t>on. hI< "''''''''"
back funhC1. apparenll)' 10 1902. He panicipaled ,n rnosI oftht
unslOCC.s..ful elronl., ...arcIuSl m:nomnon' before 1910. \larganto ..-...
atn:$ICd '" many <kmon",..."on .. 1hr f,r"<t "me .t tho ,<"x,ik <tril e in 1906_
He remalllCd. colourful. odd fi,ure in "'" Ton""" labour- m(".. =renL

LA SCnDU BOLLETIINO SEMESTRALE

,\ e, i,. In 'he faklO L,beruno. he had .. tobli.hed con,acts ,,"h tht
European mo'C1llC1I, durms htS pmOOIC Ir.lml" in France. S,.-ilZC1lmd
.nd SpaLn.
pohllCal behds "'ere ......... n.."'. oftht an"-orpno ... ·
[liTO mOI(ll.O • CI1ITIJ fIImD fOlD 'io ....1 eurrem .. toKio 'ht M.l .....lan •• allhou8h ., """Id be an
n.aa ..... "on 10 .1"", lillol be was. consistent Indeed. Garino
IO IlIIA RIO, ht """ 11",},>'o h"k Cra7}'.• li nl. muddleheaded ' "1
H. "ruI. 10 ,he poLn, of.«... - abo.., all on Iht eh.dhali3n iOO i,'-
idu,lm 100 Ofpnru"on..h .. nev." papt"'. panoc ularly for ,h. 0<1d
!'Ll3n I. ',j"enrrt" Ana.-ch"m for M'fE'\nta "-OS Ie" a po l, ,".al
,lox,,,,,. conc.ptionof hf, and ofo freo lif.· '" 11 ,,-..... ally
hI> ",.,1 ,u.df•• duoalion.oo sclf'''pITo;.,,,n.J"'t as" 10". h«n 0 fonn
<)f ,.I I.b,h,." "" fur Sob"I". RoLlo ... p ... ..,nIM a ;;o<i"i type
(l,,,,,,,, " ,". ",tle red 0". f.ilhfu l stude" , of 'he ferre r C,rcl. - Casa,,,,,-
un un"",, from V.II. di Lam_o ,,· 100 er>eydop<Jie
.... m'·.'lIru\04t : CO"" Pol, ..... k,IO" INS. Capabk of """''"II Of I oftradt, he r< fu<a! f.c'O<)'
1_ ...... J() 11>1... _ . 4Q,
jobs box.usc. 'J,(, ablo"oluooly not ' ''Iltnil to .xpioota'joo · _, " Anan:hi",
funnod from this l rad iti<m "on: dillieuh '0 ""IL,
A s'gnoflCant "'l!ani zanONll ist Cum 'yndM:" h\t tradition was aoo
.u,.. illCd throuaJ> ,lit 19001. Ih= anan;h,st •. all Dltler ",.11-1:00,,'" stn:ct
Or.ItOn lnIl l.bou, i" ArL>oClmo AcUh. (b. I S97 in Tunn)
_,aIoS15. I flC' •• Ied n. nonally through ... 01 historl,al ""ILl I pI'm'tr ,, 110 had COIl.bor.oIM on fA G .......a and lalcr helped
rHt.rch ". <II!!"n". ,he ..... io I iben.rio A, tht C,,,,lo he ",h'i..,.o d•• theatre group.
The: <II}_" I<lo anarchl\r ""'" "",,"I ..... """'" po""cally h<t<rogrnrou. be,nll In old CUPOC'"'''''' (IICtor-m.n:lger ). I. l>tlrio Mobdlu. born in
Ihan ommboN of lhe namcra d, \lilano group ,,-ho endorsed IBn. had """n a clrpcnr., ,n \ 'n"", Ton......., rIC!Uri ...illC. he om\"N
Mal'ltlWlllW'Ch,.\I COtlIlll""u.m. (Tht Clltk ottr3CtM 'yt>dic>llis!s, ind,,-. from 1/1( \m.lle>e In the 1890s. II. "as I t odviSl"8lhe
!<hal is!. 100 gallronIJri.) The )'ou"FT gcncn"'"" of """",hisu could tr.>ce four.dc .. orthe Cirr i. 'I' G,UJCpp1: \!0lS0Iia (b. (876). I \ .rc.n.... agn
,""i, ons'n' I(J ..arlit!" groups. Inti" 'd .... hru and anll-<llpmzalionah$lS ou IM·lllaboo, rC1. had "onM in Ton ..... foundm-< "OC. the tum oflhe

"
ccntul)' wa, Ih e Imk I><t"ccn lbe firsl Wa\. <) [ all and "" uch "" ' hey 1"1",,,,,;<1. ""hnk.1 ' "Ihc' th"" Ti te,ny <"due"""," ,
revolut ionary "" ,"II ,,, (corea I 90S) .,><1 Ihe y,'"n8<r '" li",,,,,,, had alreaJy 4U.hfkd OS an inJu,,,ial eng"",.r r.:: ,,,,"o too ,,"' I);:
r ,,·c a n,:.:hl'''. """",,,cr. slIa""d the ne" and and Mos.Iol .. .,.. $lI lt <O<t1'><'S.' ,Il<: un"rnmr
",.";e;,[,, lpl)hncal ",a,tgY aft.,. 19 10. \burlZlO Ganno .nd Pietro Fem"t'O "']<>SS(I-S (WtICttW ,nlCn-;.t. _in<1tIlft: lnanag=menl -w., 'Inned 10 bl'l.lldcr
".m: the t"" nhN QuiSI.ndJllg me!l"obol's grour. A, skilled theomi(.1 in «tll l boration ""h plnlu"'JIhy prof"""" ,\ nn.bak
""r\<r\ .. 1<1 a,lulo labour OfJl,nizm boIh men g.in<:<ll hc of Iht P..""" For many yeaI') til<: pa ir wo,\.d l<>geTh or an.I)'utal
rlt" of ><>C1.iI,I' rad ical and ,d"TlTl;51 u wel l "' of ",""y
",'<en' 1'IIr.1 ,m"",, I. to Tu,, " 's cxpon;l.OS f.\olori..... If an.u th;,,,, SUC""'t'(k-d
","I""" '"U •• and IOK", . 1rhil"s..-;.phy 1n '",>nne", "or.
The ."""h,., Ic,h""i. n> "TIC natur:llly attr.>< 'ro '" K,."mkJo·,
, '"
' eo, •

'" be<.-oonrng. if dttr&dl)' "''''oril)- ""'<c""","1 in Tuna. ,I the"s of modem III<]U.Uial anJ pohu.al,>!n,"""",,>.
la'X<I} due '0 !he 1'''''''11'' lhey eamod. /1.1".", ".,..... bee."", a n xli,·,,,. •• ,·",pa,he,,,, '1"" ....·I""an
(j"'rk' "''' b«/" In I M n m or, (h., ! .• Iand of Sardinia "he,... hi s Wlk> ,ttlc" oecd with "".. """,1 It:<:lU", . , the Forrer Cifcle 0< " ' n<"'S-
r.,l>" r.• Piedmomcst had b-c,n "a,ioncd fo, Iwe n,,._th ·e P" P'" ben be(.>" the ".'. Go,i".ci .nd Dc
yeo,,'" II .. lamily to Prc-.lrrl(llll;n "",Iy IQOOs. "1><,,1,,, m local po lili". rollabunolln" OIl ",ony 1I31io1l31 o1l3n'h,Sl .nd
f.,her b.:,g.>n h" ,,)-e,igill. Unsu,,,,,:,,, rul a1 slqllc""""l! in Tu,in_ r..,,,spopcrs. Dt ,"'pn:.><.-.I \b!OI."'" hi,
th..,' n'IO,"<J onu apl" to C..,ine ...'" AIo;.s.:ardria, and h,! r.. her I\craltl(' ,· .. il '0 Tunn in 1911 1 he }'O<tng <"i'''''''' On I b ong ."'"""1",l1li.
a rur.1 Wh ... the .oci.Ii", w .... in ,I>< <ie<liun (Or \l ilh hOl"<,,, n' . I r,bb,;. K,opct], lnJte
I Q06 I", 1"-"1 "h<>lIsl>C<l, Ga,i"" "",I hi' ,i>fer leO ' lte r.m i] >' 10 fin d ' "" iottl' r,c 'I\arc hi,,,,' ,\ lal. lt'I"" ",;opt;'i,", II
wo,k in llot"lll) VI!!,,"!), Tuno. Al (oo",,,n "II 8p!>Tef.,ice<! 10 . 0. iJ.>nolorn"l\ wroto W F.t,bri.·". ""ont,ti, in1OIl''''I3-
On Ih. lnil>'rnce of hi. de<OUI Sottl,e i." II1OIhOT oc had bttn tion of lbe un " e,s.e· .. "'opoll,n peIhaps .. hi< ca>c b}
rcligiotl> SCh<.,l>. he TorI""" Itth _ ,dy,ni on a ton ",«h.,ni"ic coneO])lI"" of lhe n,"'hod. b<.,
"i •• 1 ...·lklOl •. 'lU.:llif}'lr.! for 'oc hi ghl> . . D<: Hattulnmei, fd, ,h.1 " """h15m "",,,,. Id h". to . ba ndon
,,,,,1 exe.;uti ns pl"n' fo r ""'''iX'''"m, on lho <>r mdu,,0'. In 19(17 ." I", rely hum,,," . ,, .,, n "'OUT i f i1 was h> ,omp"o d kc'i"c ly \I ilh
G:"OI>O 'cd hi. rQl ili<• 1 <31.'<, as a l"d . b>1. but r.tpid ly .• b. rId""",j D, ,,,J on l h" exl"",imcntall"",hoo, ",wid marry
dcri"",ltSI poIlt"', 10< a,,:m:hism. Ono of1hl: r,,,,ndersl)flhe F<m:f Cln:k_ p<llm"al "",,'ic'ion 10 and pure \\,,_ he
bj. 191-1 he <Otbldc."rI'd an oxtre",dy "'U". d:t:tgC«>U.j; so.wrsl,,, bv do t10I W,"' anan,bt>m ,., oc ,,,,,,,,an 'm ' he s.onse o f tbe "oro .-
<I", local 1;<: had al",,",ty artbled ''''''0,( ., An.rel"sm, ti le "",i.lism ,,' ,I>< I haJ ",n Ihc In lcll"",,,,,10 10 ,"
I'"rrem. h rl ,t.,,,,, [ri c'nll " ntil"'htical cllmr.de. "'"' 00n' '" 11M II. w"' Ihinking ,n djif.rcnl lcrm, than a ,,,,,]'e,,,' " Ito c't1I1C<lcd
p,m-Il"'" ..,fTu,in. in 1892, Hi . '-,tl"" had been . n ,hi. "rr"""h. lie ' I .. id 10 mal. a"a",h"I' not
,,->ci.lt<l . nd ' <li, ,, coopcr..:or, Der"", III.: ,,'a' Fe""ru ..·orted a< a 111"" ,L b, """.-.,,' . I '"
dunng lhe "ar in ,he A,..,,,,,I.,,,I In 19 18 bttamc I "'e<hlnlc ro,. Ftol Self-edu,:a'C<! Cirric .",,,.,, found 0. Ibnol""",,'s's <iew
Wilh Itul" formal ",1Ioo1<ng (b... ,han Ct'"oo ,n a,,}' ",,,oj h. JUliUS <onll"ni,[ Wh.\e d", ,('Chnlci"" ,"iculOled • ",,·re ""I'k"uo3\cJ and "r'
It" lrec ""'Ie "nJ b<.".,,,. , ,,"-"'1"1)' "f !1Ie F",." (,;",10 in I') II. li e 'o.J.le I""ito\ 'i<l philoSOl'hy ( largely bas.e<! on "I:t l)',,:al
"ea>u", d hi, o""'n 1";' I:. I.bm,} or ' MIChi" and «<illt" da ... ie<, .r.d Int e.per "".ntal tnelhod\. "r.Jo' l) inK faith in I." hnical proll1"UI .... .
;n R' fT",(3 d i .\h l. no 1ir " ... grnllly adnmod. Lr.lix. G.,ioo he <Jt.,od by Ihr polilic 'lod "ork..s of'he >uburl:tol.
lit",..." 0$ • 0Irtt< ontw... bul po>Se>5O<l "'lid OlplllZ3uon.1 .t..ill. "h,e h
",cured b,m an ,mp",•• nt poil ln the 1"",1 n o" branch. rl' The Ge tlera l;" " or 19 111: I he Soc ia li >!s
Th o III, te ... m"ining "nareh ,,,, PL<I'" Carlo roo", ,, o n .
Bart" lom. i, .nd itJ I" (l"nnei - "" '" G.n no', , ,,d r em:",', ;nte ll"",,", 1 Tho d, ;, 1IIl! (o",e I><h,nd loc """al"l cl ub,; is k;K: . ,ro on a of young
""np.no""•. \1 0»0. bom In 1893 at ASIl.'OO De Banol""",i .. born In "or\:crs born be!..-«n 1889 Ind 1897. . .h,alt'l aOil .""",bi; l1i., .. "'"
lhe !.>me at Ch,,'.... ",-e ... of ,he _ Rene..."""... bile Gannel .... , . deat!} " ,lkr.1 In lhot! 1",1"",.1 V;neC'tlZO U•• ne" (b. 1898
o lde' Pi"," bom ,n 1886. many ""<kI le...,I,,, sociali,(, T,"i nl anJ Ar1UN 'kmm (b in Tllt1nl. fac tory worlcr:l..,d

')
 of {inc, grq>"Qnr/, (}-..ulh e"tl6), in "hich IrherUtian .... s n>OSl defmrtcl) '"fthe ",form,St 10<11001 or("1audio T","es &. Filippo
ponicipahon ""a$ noQblc, al.<.o'l<pm.m! poputlr 'red' <reli" propapndo Tu...;·. ht, .mpM,i, on indu"",,1 orgIInlZllll"" IIICComron",d b)" a hatnod
'OIl'" in ,he rounlt)"ide'" Gio,aItn' lb. 1889 m AIc.""nd.;",), a for Illlrln ,)"ndicali'ml. and hi' "'vrtiog.-<:1ass ong,"', m:sr\N a no:w
fKlLcd mrxhan"" elc<:<ed 10 the ""m,,1 contm"'f'C of flO\! in rkp,anu", lluou,'s pohlle.1 cdu<alion may Irnle from
190hl !he aile of .i"lf'Cn, and latr:r fin"", Y0WI8 SoCIaIr,,"nd PSI ' ...... nbcr. lh. fi,,, genern"()n of Tonne", l\OCialr,t" ;ndoe,I, hi' iline",!}" incl"""d
remainM sirongly .ympa,houc '0 Ihrough"''' Ihc .. D.", ,n, posili"", trar:<> .nd Do AnHC ... ROlher. h'i rt.1 d"III>, lion c.me
period, '" Si m, larly. ,he f''''lory "ork." Ant9nio Obtn, Ib, 1893 in Turin) a, an ",J"Wi.1 org.niler and on ""ule STude'" of lrad. ",II"n afT.irl, ,"
and Il."i.l" Sa,uh,;\ (ahady menlioned), a Ikilkd m«har.ic "f peasant H" indu,t"al e.peri<,nce pcfmt1lcd him '9 ras ilj' ",th ""'"al
oris.n., both m. ,nta.""d "ann rcM;',", wi'" 'he an. rth,St. of Borgo San t'en anarthlSl f""1)I}" m;li",nll bu, 01 the .. me time he
P"",10 and 6:lmcnt d, \hlllO. ," \bno \lontaKJ'lllna lb. 18<)- m Turin) "",u,,,,,<1 closely 11\.r;l to ecnln'" ''''h as \lorpn, IIld 'hrough .lllhe
(s« abo, e. r lSI 'US' <ry ac1i,'e in !he San Paolo club and a t... ,"" and tum! of.he rurbuk". 19105 htS rId".1 Cn"C' a1""YI rclUrnctl
panr<1llaradm!rat>On for ,laJ,tr::Sta- FinaTl)" OIlier "",,"'n .... ,ghbour 10 h" lode acu'_ ,rxru,;tnal """,niell, Gram5C •• nd hi'
I>ood f'gu",s ItlCh a, Paolo \I"",hellr, !he G.ambosa b<oohen and lhe eir<:1c could ... ,er maTch hlS and ,,= con"anlly beSted b) him
Ca,'allo fam.ly (0118",0Ily from Apulia) crnbo<i",d the new """ .ali .m.... In ,he: rough Ind of st"" "
T"" "I<lr:r md"." .. ,,110 exe""sM i,fll>Cn.:e on Ihe city', ma,n org.n, 8<>00' ""portN' fresh Sl}·I. of leadash,p 'ntO nOM . H. pon""l'-'ted
izatlo". "Crt Otln;o Pa"ore (b, 1881).• nd Pagella (b, 1879 a<tl\ ely '" $,n . /:$. he ed"ed uo,on new,rope'" and tna<k """00.
in ,he 1'ru'·In.:e of Ale"""ndria), Past<ore had prtviO\lily "'orkcJ as a "" I" 'ay elfon, 10 union policy to the Nnk .,,,1 fil e. Serious prcp.",'ion
I"" hnic la" hefon: he: .rrl\'ed in Turin from 1.3 . . ,n 1912. II. wrole for I'nk e! WII joined to a of lhe CQnd11ionJ of
freq""nlly for.he """,01,,, pre .. and in 1914 "at el..,led """"'1)' of ,he ,ndu>l!}".nd lhe evolot"'" of '",hnoiosy. I I, _ghllO adopt the lechnIC.1
T",inese soc,.li" _lion, Pagella had "<rlN ,n Torinne fliI" oy "'P"" ",penis. ,hlliiol tnl""",J """""""""" J><.»>",.,J. "hile dampent"ll """ n
,hops .. "". lhe early 18'JOs.. and ioOucrICes uan>mmed their O<:<:lsional ""rnUlOOfw) eoIItu>i..snlS
'0 him Ihro.tglt lhe SFI "I Ruo1... , ' ••Iotos< coItoI:ooraun ;""IWcd the: .Imd) nl<'1l1"""'" Gu'lo<\"'l'"
The$c: had a"ailablo to lhem ,he "'Iher "oak local Rom"". (;,rarn,.n, Em,lroCrnomh,,,,, In.! Gino CaStag.OO R""""
uadillon of tn'fllII'&C"' IIOClalosrn pcrsooifiN by fnnecoco 8a:bc:nl \b ,b 1887 in lhe: pro. of 'Iualrfied a. I .,,·il engineer lie
18&4 tn A'>1t), An "'trtmel;- popubr. hartly IoICnll<: cln.. fIIt'1to:d "unag.. w'l • City coun.:, llor and ed,lor ur /I ( ;",tll dr4 P"r%'" G ... rn.",
of the: ACl"s e""I",n, he OOm,nal,\l """alill f")h'in ,n Barri.ra di Mil. tw, (b, I 886, Pro"mcc ofCremona) . tt.ndN techl"cal ",,11001. btll eamod hil
"he", he was inStfumtntal in the Casu del Popolo Ii\ ing "' • Jnurn"I,,, ""d I.,boo, org'"lur In Crcmon,a. No>'.", (he "'lIan
U.rberr,'. polru,a l i.. " I'oment wa. p.nlCul.rly rich and long 1i"N i.ed the \'"",o ll e,"" rice ",-,",«s strike ,n 190') .,Id Ili.lla, He arr" od no
UnJoub,eJly II< l... n,miuN ...... 11)" ,he ,,,,dilions of lhe Turin," 1911 .,od became uf FlO\\"< /I lead,ug lhe
and ,he: P:mil.:o Opcraio, Ihrbens ",as """'<1hing of a M<><ia" campa'i." ai,,, nst lhe ,yndicali'l>... '
"un. he apf)<"" nel onhde .. '" il.a>e rcwned his '" orkrnsm' Tl1e .... r· Colombo"" (b, 188-1 in Turin) ... ·as on al",ady """... In lhe
chiSt> e"""dered h,m • 'good soci.I;,,' and .he IUbu""'" popul .. ion Panito So.;IltJrwr hI< adoIc!ittOCe Act"'. ,n FIO\I ,inc. 1905, he
u-c.1ed h,m h a Iocll foil hero an .. hI> cltt<>On 10 !he pony', nalJOfllI
di""'l""'l. on 191", "I
I"
b<:<:ame prO\ """.1 .... fCWy In 1\108. hel",nll 1(> rd>uild lhe "'P"itallon
,he: 1907 lodOll'- 110 ,,-.s 8I1Ou,', "ghl·haoo man. but far """"
Thc: ge ......""" of 1910 allO irIClu<kd .ts ",form,;.!•. 'They had a ,"'cal'h "''I'lCious of the non un;omm! wt.)m he (and qu". ,"""""'lly}
of ",dumi.1 . 'perrerICc, notable <><ian,.. "on.1 and joumalr,<lic .bihel idcn"r,cd wi,b w; lel>re.kors,'" Ca".H"" WI! II .... "" i,'c-OOm TorincS<
and the of rcm"inmg 10 c.rlr.r m,ddle,cla" '" h,le Ib , 189.1). from. family of urly roclalr,t, . Ca'tagrn st."ed
"""nlaminJl, ,fil(>l en'irel )" wann. ",I.,ions wilh ,h. ""'ol"'iol\>.'ic. a, a ",echlIlOC', app","'i,e, but waS fOfCtd OUI "f facto,)" "'ur\ afler an
Bruno Boon, (b, 18K I ,he Pro, ,nce of Fcmll1l) IS lhe" most ""1,"ndinJl, "'Ju!}" and l>ecame I prof", .. ona l tr.J. un,on organi, ... ,"
,ep"'''"''''''. becoming FIOM', ch,.f un,on he had So far I ha,. d,lf,,,,,,"OIOO ""0 gl'Ollpl ",(h,n ,he: roc,a"" "",,'cmen,
,.,<rlcd ••• I .. ,IIM mechanIC In AI1lKKtglt hI> political MUC";on of the set'l(fI""" of 19100 ",formLll> """ 'n Rom,"', '" Uuuz:a·.; mould,
 and ",,'righ, "volu,ioronc< .ed ing 10 o"ablt,h ,"'(ltCglC wtth agreen ..", "'a, , fOf . 11 inlen" '00 purpose" 0 repel'''oo of Ih" • ., l1 er
,''''n'h t, t, "nd ,ynd,c. li,I>. It ,1><>,,1(1 be borne tn """,1. howe'Cr, 'hat 190b hal. Tho UOtO<l SOUl!hliO reeo\'Or (",m tho disaslrous }'e. ..
• 11 r",,,,,be .. of lIle: lIo"oMion of 1910 c.rricd "ilh ,II<", a de.:tdcdly aner . lodout in 1907. finally lalttl"S. m<:>o<:>p<1Iy tn ll>c automobile
hbenana .... ungnl autodtdalic lhal ompha>t7Cd Intt-miltlan,m and 'ndu«ry', labour """l(1, bu, deep-sealed problen\l mnatru.-d: 1'10\1',
.n'i ..d.ncali"". and all oftbcm ""'" lef,,,-.rdJ. and ro ... ardJ. autonomoul numenc:al (I 517 of al'l't'Q"mately 3.(lOO ca. work"", ,,=
.... ort.mg-cl..' poI,IIe, 1'rt.. 1910 (all,at><es "tth m>ddle-cl. ss by FIOM In 191 I)•• nd ttl dt>lrust of tho IIOn .. uniolli,od. left il
freem . son, .nd »O>ui,i>! mldlcet u,I, ItVtng in Ih. cuy centre) "al leli '" a we.k »O>ilion. '" ,
f""lnc"t l 'loo",f"",. )'oung socialt'ts joined by )'OU"" aru.n'htstl... 1'10\1 ""copl.d 'ho oonlrac, tn D«cmbr. I 9 I 1. but " ..-as by
rat.oil ,n rho <arne ....burt>1... ""'pi,,)"" tn lilt <Om< raoctorieJ. and at rimes a '35' t""'Jomy of oar ",,",0Tl0 in Jantilt/)' 1912. !-lalltnl' b," ..... semlmgly
shan"" lhoir po],u"al hptr:ttUOl'1' tn tho Ioame local dUM 'PO'U3r1C01r' A ,ruly arose "'ith unioni,.d
1'10\1 f""'Ofte! pror""ed from ,h. taun," of strike ..
,\ c1io,, : 19 1(1- 14 (110\1 tl\emb<; .. and Ihe IIOn · ,,";on i,edJ b) lh. (orobmie,-i and tho
pol"o.
In lilt r"",1 . . befon: ,he '.., ,ho ... cmetFd . . . StgndiclInl \10." aliO<l' behtnd tilt 'tnle .... rned ro d" idc-d beI""n nut" .....
fore. In Turin The 1912 ca. ""'lers .trilo and the set"''''''''' of pone,plo ond ceono""e &"."lrICOS_ \llu ... of ""nctplc. """'-
"",,' (thc Red "'..,k) in Juno 1914 tholr t.o.h in indu,ln.1 ., .r. no"hd pccuh .. ly high ,n this di,pute. In hi, ,ta ndanl of'ho
,nd po lilie" "" ' c. P.olo Spt't'tlO uJmilS thot a gonerJ I .v... ion 10 ,h. suppression of
Tho 19 1'2 .trike h'rroned tn lho mtddle of fom )"'" of nationwide lho and lllC ttShtemog up of diS<:tpli"" nuti" of tilt
cl;a" ICn .. A btt1et strike al Plombtt"''', SI..,I and iron rompltA had di,pu" II. lend •• 1IO" .. er, 10 "",p/Ia>"e lho IMs of "-"gO$ caused by
,alen pI"". tn 191L In 191.1""•• yndIC.h.t-In'JIi...-d ",neral \honor hour> as """" .ig,uficanl t't In any ,a.c. a "tde: llulf had
>tnkes broke oul Mil.. I ..... s}'nd..:a"ll sumu lated a gro",h """ned up belw..,n 1110 .hop and ,t.. full'litne of 1'10\1
l ilt . narchISI moW,,,,,n'. uodoo h.. clly tho Rc",o,,1 >ludt" of llH: .. "k" , o""o,,'ml. on tho pololi ,,"! "nd
pol'ul"ily of llic TOI'ineoc gro"p' ,cOSOnS f'" Ihi. bK. ltkl ... n in eo"ununICau""._
p;tn of thiS I) nd""Ii" ""e.; il. ongnt. to • ne" rouRhor The leadership of lhe !.!ril. "IS largely dra ..." from hlg.hly skilled
indu:oln.ll$1' In TunOlhc..,tOmo/:Iilc lUI""'''''''' "odors. ,,110 desened tho" "n,oo .. bm..ly dt;app<nnled ... lIh
O",."IUrton (,he """"""0) had prepared for ,he 1911 bI'Wm,ng ie>,",," ,ho" rIC" eon'"",I, Thoo;e skilkd wor\.:e .. In 1912 "I.hh,hed d,.",.nd<
>e<:ooJ,ngly \\ 'Ih It.. lie.""", oflhe rn,iooah/attOO of nICChan for 3 "llOle raoge " I' Im,k, lied and $Cmi.. , k illod ,triloll, ," A long wilh a
tzcd prwuCi ion il <!oI\'JtI(!<d 'h"" Hoor oontrol. One wa .. this high dea= of r.ktll. tht' uoJwbtedly '01)' young - p" ..... l"
"""Id bot "IS ot!ltlo,l'ng ""'lotn:lt)' p"'cliceS , Thc In lho" euI}' . . 01'11\ ..... '" 0kI0r .!:tll.-.l .. orten h:td been ..ftded
"""'"r.m spO'C,r",at!y dtmllndcd tho .\>oIitton ffhc or <>uI dI.nnIf. tho 'j"'" ohilent:o: .. foIlow<na the 1907 tf!hoy tiCCfIICti
'on tIlln"t, ollo".""es for la .. ne .. and carly d<'p.nure). ,110 introdue'ion ,oomil,,"n,.'"
of lho A"",n<an (Rowan) pi",. rates) I,om ,nd a 00"' '''''' from r he hoart and lOul Oflho ..-.. tlo.1group of "ktllod wo'\; '1'1 from
FlO'!. A If unaulltoriu.l.tnko, would be <itall with "," Aline so" .. Ban,ono d, ,\" Iaoo . uachod 10 tho Circl •. Th. Fem-r Ci,de tlClod •• 00
tttTlC. ro I",,<'eo a bIller ptll. tbe .... ".-.I[,na ro van1 con,,,, ad II« beadquanen IIOd ill "uden.. unlil ull .. kno"n .)'ndteah>l
COfKe.»>O<Ii_ 10 191 I ,110 indtlSlry WU buoyant. A ,.n",.J [urop.. n "'II"n",,,.. "';,-.-.1 "., the .,",... - dtfOCletl tho .. nle·, r,,,,, ...nk
,he L.b}.n \\.r and lho ",,"'lOg <itm.an<i r,. J'fl''''. Cal'i... (;.,,110. r "tTCto.nd ",hor a",""htll< .. '= in ,h. Ihtck of lho b..ulo
lorries ."d lnoms, ttIC.nl m'''"e ocdtn.. w. nl.d .mClonl. Garino e_' plain. ,t.. on"'t o"nlrol'=i.,1 deots;on by )
00,lI ,1I00UI produclion, Tho car workers' " '''on. "ould gtl>r. ntoe had I>con i" doo<:d .. shop policy, Not only .ltd t1 oflonel I"'" non .. unton ... d
di'oCtplirlCll ,,'oo..ot> in n.hlm", f,. clOK<! ,hop J'fl' ilo¥",. It.. un;""i",,_ ,,·oo..cn bur .... ny .-..d,e.! no\! "",mben 'hought II ncedlO$.ly ahCllJtcd
ttOO "f., '''tng "!lema! convru"","" and!hc gnnltnll of'l>o .m""/<) <yml"'thctJc mignrm "-OIl....,,. ". for Ganno.nd
Sorunb}' "oo..InK on SalunbY>1 .. Tho: I'ropo;N jointng a lrack union "."" me.n' '0 a free decls,"" .. ",he"""" (h.

-47-
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O) IU'J '11 • 10J p.lJoo.Jd >II nul lOOlJS'\OJ4.L l\OH " I' Jo OII 'qw"loJ Ol"'l>p ","unp , w,,,! V n", !S 'InOtp"AS :X'O
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'UO'I'PUO) "'li "1'"" Illun V "'l p.>'''<JII" lOll pU" p"'JJ"" 01003<1 . .'I""J jO SI" 4"'""" ullq'o
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1"'''.1''' SJ'i(oldw, '41 -I"'!) p>qwn"n, S>1I1" Jl>41 u, P'lB'oWO>U 1p,",ow>J pouod l<'I""OIl¢W'"JI JIll
·",',{Old·.u, "041 JOJ 4'I"tu 00 "',." 'I OG OJ "'II ,("p JO P"o "41 IV ,"S'I"''''''' U" " ",SO JO '\IO ", p"" "1'10 SU'UlOl'<l ·ulJn.1 01 po.,ow
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pU" p>< n " " U1 1'''" 'qnU ',S" " ,:>w (CWOI< I" pue · u"" lipfuo l ' "" OI""",U'$ "'II JO 'I!) pu¢ ',SpOI
S,""'''' " 41 UI 1"1 "1!Jq "''''lw,," SUl'llO." PU" sums",;);) lOll 01' "1"" "'11)0 lSOW ' P'II'1< poE
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PI 61---t)L81 PSUlv_9
ofiginal1y champlon<d ","h n>Qdcratt onos. 'The dId I'lOl 1'"" .. 11 ",("""i<l. Mussolrn .." and "",,".n.n '01i-m,hlamt,
were to be Iimitcd. bu t ,101 .hohshffl. 1111<1more O"<I"nlC a"d rcg"llr P"Y fOllcfl>c:1 dun"l1 tilt Lihy'" War 'TI\<,,,, oct;, ,flc' had. I"'rtitula, ly
cOI""",n!>II1M for. ,hoo.r J.y. 'The ""''''' """Id li","ahfln of onarc""t 'inge 10 them "",,,. fl\<, e:uc. of Aug""o \ t;1.S<1h and a"",her
tbt nih, 10 ,n f", broade.- """'cn i"m 10 the In'enul an.rch,.t .... 11(1 had re(usal to join their lIm)" un,l< In I 'b)'a...,ud lho
commISm... s. BlIOu, ",alized tlw the) ... en: ,-i ...1 in m:"n"'tning nO\l', i"",,.ilL01ron of'I\<, ent,,,, leli. With MaI3'.,IlI.·, mum to Italy in tho <pnng
f'Tt'CI'\o:C In lhe faclOf)', '0' of 1911. 1,,10,"". the 'OICC <)f ... s,"n ana",hlSn, .• arned hegemony
The dCI"and, were pauenlly nplallIed to cat "'0'"'' durmg call y OWt I "' . " movemenl nurnt>erM '" ton, of fll(lu.ands
19lJ . • nd the syndica list, We'" gi"on .. alS 00 a 27_n .. mbrr <tnl. 1911 M.lat.st • .,s,tN Turin .nd <po<.e to a lali. """,·d
cOlI1",1I(ee 10 smooth ",mM fe.,hen. An ",·.""helml"ll m3Jonty of a1 ,he Ch.unbet of Labour '"' In the foil"" mg months ,he pro- \t;l>C111
"urlr.I.'fS (4.(1.41 of S_OOO) o.upponod the ....... SUlk •. ' .. Tho SUllo laSlod campoLII" rore'" rap>dly, 'lUf1l<TllO> lTICCung< we", I\<,1d In Bofgo San raolo.
for mOre ,han 90 do)'1 SUlke I"Y wa> .uppliM by and the "n,On llorgo \"ftoti •. Barrim dl t-..IUlI .rod H.lTie", di Mir.'I0,'" Ouring \Ia",h
,,,.... N . iJ from 'he ACT and G«rn ... engineeri"l1 "'"011<. The .trike. 1914 1.lli... b. uk,1 notio"."", '" Ihe sfreefs, Pl. A socl.li .. ,.nd,dafe
G.rin" c<>m:<t l) e'pt.iltl, was " ,ltw o",,,C In Itah.n induS/riol ", 1>l1OnS.'" coofl'Oll,.d rut oprnly nau"".li<l GUIlCppC !In·ionc. lhe ..... r correspondcft.
In pia« of Ibr 10<01 ""'sglc of 1912. FlO\! moblhzed tile rntenunona] r.,.- I", .'iI'""j1<l. In • po,h."",n!>,} funhe, polariling the c"y
<UrPQfl "fllle.lthy fr.rrre!'J\ll1 unron< When.he Lcga IndUltri .... th",alcntrJ 1....1 had aln:ad)· ... ttn...cd su-w Nnles ,n ,I\<, autumn of 1913 duMS lho
atOlalloclou, of Ton ....", IndUstry, G,O,"'" "err><d to"nd fh'''fC".J fo general dc>:tion_ - It ,.. , fhe fin;( foughl u!lde, .... r onl\ ........1 nlanhood
dcpon II. French-born 1e.de,. Crapon .... ". In In ... bolh sid.... n l.d , ,,,fTmll" a nd t h••1..,fOl\1fe po1.. i1ed betw •• n weil list, .nd rij\ht· "'lOg
The conlracf $lgJlM by I· 10M "as qull similar to the Uni()l\e SinJac.I.·, libe"," """ doncal;: fhe cen'nSl 0010&111. _rod ",fom",,, "'=
m MIlan Slriles and direct confronfation I.&"ln<lll\<, WI .. hod ",pedoul.'"
nocl>ccn any ""'''' than Buoul" cOUrse of ..,..on Throughout 191J and •• rly 1914 S<lCi.list•• nd Irbenan.ns we",
1ho ha.l bttn to "'garn fhe f,"h and con",nf constantly lIItt"ed "' harrocl ' di<uibUllng 'nu,"'J' I"..""",", ,''' Aft.,
of the anJ fil •. llIc lud ing PIOn_unr<)ni,.d \lurke ... '" Tho t" II yurs of ",d"'tnal conf1ict the "u\Qrnobil<; wo,hll were t hoHlugh ly
momlx"h,!' of "' Tuna lo.p! f,<)m 1759 In the early "","ths of ""hflClm. On \lay U.y a 1.<1;' ef1)wd II"fhored ,t the ""'mbeT of1.abo....
1913 to 1.125 by tile ""d of Illls "The union established a linn G.lI11<1 .pok. for the anarchi'" but "al p""'omed florn fim;hl"l hi5
foundo ..on for fut"'" 1fO"-,h. .......h "hen • po"e. offICer ordr:-n:d hIm '0 stop I. A fe" ... "",,-, liter
Bool/I'j most accomploshrnrnl hid bttn lho 0JlC""'8 of. Tonr\C"lo< " ..",hi,t, lnt,dlod to Bologna '0 attend a 1I.11101lal pro-\la>eUI
ocw with the onorganilN The" o\"e' af lhe •• ,,,, h.. l ,m,fe"'IIC.,f which M. I"".u c.ll ed for national dOIMn,tralionl on Th.
...·fi, had bt'<" supplied the cadre ¥ ..... nlttlng Nn"nuily r."" In Ju .... The daf. haJ btt". conscious .hoit•. falllni
of policy and gre.t ... in •• "",] dernrxr1lCy. Pietro rom:ro holped CaS/a&J1O F<I,a rkll<> Sf.tIllO. III hlch cekbrated the 1100". of s..'''Y'. c""stltutl""
edit Lu SqItIIlQ_ flQ\i's faclC><)" (1)SbrC1. ,,-hlCh c<l!II',ncd rkulled
rnfDf'l'tU" ..... "" """ 1''''''. ntl'" and union polic}'. \lll>Jor I""irknts "nh nl!;onal"t; c",""nued up 10 7 Ju"" . On June.
,i"b,lllyorrl\<,union ., . tter hcor ing of t",o ,k'''h' in Ancon. dun ng ""It,militan'' demon
the 31\,rclli«, h.d been COOpled by t his "r.II00. an "no!frei.1 Stille broke ""tIn the autoonobllc laclOri.s. "'p,dly
ref"""I!m they pnl"M In 191 4 !haf their srreel poli''''5 ... en: Slill capable bccoo"ng grncr.l.1 th""'&J>oot tl\<, subutbl.. 11P 'The Wile, .." In 1912. had
of Ial,nK fhe e<labllWd Wrow- m<n'1.'fnm! by ,urpr1". bcn1 !-Pftad by F0"'" Circle ocli"stund Ihrouih lhe youth cirel". ,n lhe
,ubum., Gan"" led the domoru,,,,fion fro", 'f' beginning'"
La .'it!lli"'{lIIa ROSSi' Aller fhe 1911 mike G.noo had been from h" fa<tory job. bu,
he qu,dly found a",,,I,,,, .. the of a "nail torpcnfry ,j,,,,,
.t • tHm
Anti',mlllarism be<1"'" the 'inille ""'it ."""",.ful campaIgn IUt 'he <tud,o . (Turin "-" t,.ly·, Ii"" film eap",I) Foor 01 f"e of hIS ",-.,o.IN'.,
hbr;narian. """,n,ed before llH: lIIar_ A. "" h.a'e oeen. It alTccfM .... ,alists Of I,bc-rurian, .nd "'001"1 cortdiriorL., as ho rttallt thcm.
tl\<, "hoi. V .... "'li"" of 1910_ FHn the d,,,,ron, •• o>cd by fl\<, 191 2 "oro "'" "Of}' "'"ng .• "
 On 8 j,me he read (n.tll.) ,n """on>_ left hi •• hop . nd 3 F ell'ollnt. L '"n"n'hi,,,,,, dopo e""wn., j <a,i ""Iialt(>
" ,th a handful of . ,.""h;stS scnlld the """.. throughoot !he L.inS n"J". • . 1911 l. 1'\', 112 Ii.
,he f = Cude as tlo;ir hndqU)nm. !he anarch,,,. org>niZtd a ""hdon'y "' 'eJroIli. 'Com:"'i·.1"I'
demon"'''''''''_llaHna Ik-artl tho. """Of\"-
"as con.roIled by the left and \1 -r"" ""mp" .,.,....3'. t S<lI',alt,13 I I s,.111-19141. ,n AgOSH
that.he Romaglla had bttn cu, orHrum the mt Garino and hi. • .... Bra' "" 1"1' .to! S r oJ< I Galleano on America
tornrado:-> "-'Surncd ,ho.
a rn-oTu.1Of1 had broken <lUI tltt ,ce. 1', A,,,ch. S.lt'1Yl "nJ Ian:,'''' no., .
•" lhe f8<"IOf}' worket"$ !hey "".i,«I ''''I',
In """,<d.ate I'C'J'OIISC' Tools Pm ...... "". 1'191. rr 101. 1n 31>;!\ 'Luigi Golle,n,
downed and.he f..lor .... ''''plo<d, Thf'tt tIl3rth<s from 1lo'1l" .nd I"lian " ..",hi" To""'''''' m lh. Lnttod SI"J, t""j:ru-
\''''ori•. H,me .. d i \liln".., and Bo'IlU San raolo CO">erg"" on .he /'H,',', "01 :10, ScrI.",b<,. 1"1' -'69- SS Tb('re are many onl
C'ha,,,t.cr,,f Labour, Lng.ncef'!. '<r«1OlIy f""" Lar", i,. freju, and \1 .,ena h"toocol ,",coun" ofO,II •• oi ,n ,he t in p, i\"nch. A narch", Ii."",
f orro,'i. in San P.olo "'ere nottcc,ble. bu' .he che rn t<. 1 and rubber In Om/II,,'IOrt' of '" Am,."cil. p""".,on .
v.ork.rs from M.c hehn al.<O jom.d . A. on other ..,I, da",y demonstr•• ion, 6 I Nei r"" i,' lo p ri me <,poe"."" p<,hnd,. ,It I uigi I
dUII"11 .he pt<war ye." .• he rcmlk , •• "Ic workclll partici pated c n,huSi· in Lu,g l I. m,ud,. lm".,'h;.""" C Gnm"(:hlll ".-/
351;oally_ Gann')', mOlhe, ",.rthed ,,. Tu, i" 1971, P lJ Fclelt.
1I"hin a few hours .hou,"JIds of ""n.rs were ., 'he Chamber of '" ,,,,i d, {"ftJ IIMI Ii. ('c;.ona. 1956: I' C. Mas,ni. SI,,,,,,
Laboo.>r demanding an om,',al amcral -I'be followmg day ,he CGl '/"):/1 Jal " ,I/"/"Inld (1M I \1013n 19"4.
.. nd ,he so.""Ii,,, .,nod an ollk.al F.fty.bou.and "",,,,hed,n,, IJ 1'_ C. \Ia"", . .)j,,,.;o '/<"1:/1 Itallani
\ ,ulen. dcmQ'lS'''''on pte""'" confront.tion> dunng gen ... 1 d•..;, """"'all. 'I,W!. '981. U ""","". r ","n<h. P'''''''''''.
'hou .... nd< of work..... ;•• o<oJ "r - baulN ""h Pn""",,,,,_ I pp 16' 71. p, Aln"h. SaC!" . .tti. pp,
,he polico. "'<KInd,ng many. and '''0 "'orl.,,, "ere shot dead by ,he [ G Zappi. fI I/.ntn S...'", r;><) h .... _1/,,1>111::0/_ o/lI_n
'",n:
'" C3('" 5m&IhW up and a sen., of barrio U."A,." 'J( lla/,ijn R",' i\lh.ony. I 1'1', 1>1. 69. ,
tJ<k' we« in.he cilyct:lllre, 8)' 10 b .... lhe pe'."ng J'<omieoo<./Ulilan Jlif)4- jli9.'. i'nnttl"". 1'193. Ad \,'''''"11
DU' (hrouI;OO\U 11..1) _Gaml(> 'p<nl .iSh( da}"io 'n jOll '"run,. 'Currtntt """",h,d-..:·. p I), \larucco. 'Processi ...",h.:,
The ",al .m,,,,, of the Rod Wttk would only he<;ome 'PI'"rc:m dunna 3 'I ".-i"" l.a il 1892 ed il 1 I;,,,"di. '"a,rh"mo I'
,he "'t.,,!cntionisr deb3l,' "hICh .hllt.tc<l (he h/{)("("() "''-'0 , The ,io", had "/r""I>la,pp,2IQ_ 211 .12,
.'p">cd dcep_",".d problem! on l ihemi hnly.'" but they ...,.. ed ... S P 220
bit p"'''' of flr. fo' " new gCfier.tti oo "f c,ht<,u.d mi ddle-<e la» """"ahs.s 9 "ejm LL ,- ' La ''' '''1'' "PC"'"'' p,
"""pi up '" ,I, fury. "m"ng ... 1>011' A n,,,,, ,,, Grnmsci, Itl Ihld.. p,
II ;'p,iano. 51,m., II, TOI'rna, p 2.1, I' or '" ",e, D Robo,,, a nd
il .... /I ti.-ll" .miJ",i.,t';. \Iolan. 1'191
" "rna"". StGr;a J, T",;"". p 36
1.1_ C. Pogltano, '\.ondo ..xao.\rmlCo. ,n'clkuu. I,. profcssioo. S<lI'i,1c
dall Lnita """,d,.lc·. ,n il ..",. SlorUl tid
"",,-,m,'nfIJ 01"""'0. p_
, li .... n.;:la nose,tl dot! monntfn,o <>p<ttio (1815 18601". on '....-;no.jlI) l'ogltal>O. ·\londo..,.adcmt<o·
A_ A,""i a .... G_ \1 Bra' 0 l<d.). S",..", do>{ "'," '''''''''0 Jfi I' <19
<I><"iali,...., Jri/e lol", in Hari. 1979, ,01_ I. PI' 1< <;pri • ...,. Swna <II r;>t"inl1.1'P 1
2 19----68 16 R, AU,,,_ 'Oddi"" \IOIpn. _i.Ii".·. R,dln'In" SI(Jr/("(} - BiNio-
2 r ""IIaoo. J, Tf;".ilt(> ffl<"It,/i.w. Tunn. 1972. PI' ! 2 ",1. 6K. 1970. pp, S67-91
13; M, Ncjrotli. 'Com:,," anarchiche 0 S<lI',ah'tt ! R70- I 8SS·. in Agosto 17 Spn""u. Sf....-'" <Ii TO'i"". pp 7; P<lslial>O. 'M<'lIdt> accadom,.o·.
a,1d Ura,,,. 5 Io'-;a. pp, 275. 282, p I ?, r or loonbmw "'<, L. !\ulfortl1t. L"mh,.",,,. Tu",, _ 1975. D
 G",,,... ,d and 'M

P",k, 'n.c facfS of .",rchy: I ombros<> • ...t ,'''' o f "nm,n,1 ·D.ti """ruali·. p 31
or, P"",Un, f,,,.,,,,,, Ilaly" H lslOY) Ili:JrJ<.>h()pJournal. rIO , 2 I. .16 Spn.no. Sum" /Ii 1im!lo.pp. 102, 114; F ,\dk', /",/ian ImIU."Iriu/""
19S6. pp 6O-l!6 I'"",m I.thua/mll '" f·ascism. 1906-1934. Ca",bridse. p 35
G. Ikn""". Ii botgbc ... Dc Mni"s, il p<imo ""'UIO e la ("anJun noI... the role of ""'tocrats ,n ,he fo"nd,nll of Fial S«".
pn:>pa.gan..b "",Iall,,,,', A/tJl'JlftrMtJ Opera!" r !)oc,,,/UUl, "01. J, !IO§ AmI""""" in BOIirg<"'iJ ""I... PI' 164-77,
2J,1980.rr n. Ca."ooo,·o. 510"'" trg,nnl,!'I' 191 2
19 fl"d .. I'P 16<)...170: S. Timl',raoo. Ii 50<'lul'.,'mO'/1 ed"cu/o, Vern"" . 18 .' A,l lof, ' F""wry (,,,,,,,,,ils. Grn,me i a nd ,he Tdl!,<.
19S3 ooJI.1977.p.76,
20 1'",lIano. '\10Il00 acea<iemoc<.>·, p. ]42; \ 1 Grand"",,,, .. \ to, 39 I' P Ikllom,. 'LOlli d, ctosse,III'wiac.lismo c nl<mn"mo a Tor,no,
",ndacal<-. pol"". so<ialiSia I Torioo lI<'gIi uh,ml anni II<WOI\OtCtUO', 18qg 1910'. in AI"'(i and B,",o, SU>rlo tid "",,,,...,,10 tJPtru".,
'n Agos1" and Ilr.. o. SUm" tid "Pt""", p, 347; Robon, ""I, 2, p.
and Gcm. II "''''1'''' 4(1 S1' " ,oo. Siorm tli TomlO. pp n. 79. 80--1
2 1. Ura "tl mc",. imemo ,;,><loca le·. p, 41 Ib,,1 P 155
22, (",rand,"""i, '\10' ,menlO pp. ]6-1. 366 \\ AlnlC. IA I""a In irlll", 119M>-
2J L' Turon. I ""rmbc1" 1900 19261, \hlan, 1976, p. 69; \'. CA>!rono\,o. G",""nftj Lu F'Il'
24 AST .. ampa e ".....,.1, a"."h", p,o. lem; 1898- 1902 riallllW a1194J, Tunn, '977.1'P 51 ·;
MallO 146 bll; MOllO 151 Ubi,,'i, Procurn (k ncrak dl Tonno ("as"""",,,. r
GIo,anni
1')06.'7-1914; M Antot"oll. ' II ,no"imonto an.rch,cQ itollaoo nel Spt .. oo. S'"nl1 til TonnQ. p. 2().1 ,
1914', Slom' t p"l<IIr". ,01, 11. 197), p. 238. M "'Olomoll, 'D:llla lega d, n",,"tIC . 11.> frdcr.."one d'.ndu>tna
A'iT, 18<n-1902, \1= 146 bll. 118'18-1914),. ,n \ 1. AnlonlOll and B Belli tro.f, I.Il FlOII
26 r Sanlllrelli, 'Rocca, \la-I,mo', In r Andre""", Ind T Dem (ed,>. ul 1901-1926, Ban, 1978. pp 111)..11
II IIW"""e"',, "f"'ralO Unti,,"o. /)i:""'ario Rome. 1978, Sp,,"oo, S'orl" tI, Torl,'o, p, 91
"I) I 1\ pp. 365 A. R,...Ja. . Za'a"ero. 0..""''''';0'. In AndreOJott i 47 Ikllom i.'1.01t3d;das,, ·.pp. 11114
and Dc11" tJPt""',. ,,01. V, pp, 290 3, M. ""1011,,,11, .8 Mu.,.,.GI'0P<'/vI.p.9 •.
'('11 anarchic, lIall""i • to I'I"IIno s""rn rnondi.le 1.",,= dl S. Onaggi, 'l'aJronalO 0 c11.sc openia I ]"""00 "'1!.1i IIlIIi 1906-
'", .... on"'" (1914 I R,,,,w hmffo. '01 2, 00 1911'. Ri,'i.Ul til 510"0 '01 8.00. 3. 1979. p. W
1.1995. PP 77-87. SO, M,,,,"o, Gir 0p"rm. p, is
27 AS '!", 189l;- 1902, Mono 151. 7 l>1.r<.'h 1902: jl,ocura G <ncrak <I i 51 I"i<!. p. 100
r",mo 1906.'7 1914 52 M Rc.elll, '1iIIon,;lIa M Gam•• '. MS. Tunn. 19'5. p. 9 I'.n,of
I': Audcmr><>, 1>", "","wall ,,,li. das"" openlla II< "",..,. R.,.lIi's tronst"pllu" c appeared ,n priOl. Sec. M R<-t..lli, "13<lJU>O
<en'o' in A[lOSIl and B",,,,. 51""" rid mol""I,'m" <>i>"'alO, "01. 2, (ianr><>' 510ft' d, un anarchieo" MrzzOMrolo. '01, 7. 1981. PI' S I
PI> I S 16. r", 'he bt1"<en \I", Tonne", "';"",,,,,,,y ".,d R. A"""m.nd I' 1''''a, J>oo ",,"""'''' tid ",,""', Rome 1980,!'I'
the ne" m ,ddle cia,."" sec, A. L. Car<IQza. III 8"'''ll<'O;.' 45
11U"" Th€ .\"<>I>i/II\. rI61-J9Jn. Cambridge, 1997 53 I' ""'rich, TM IIO<km Scltool p"""",o<>. 1980; Re«llI.
29. S Mu»o, Gil "{'rmi tii Ton"" fJIII/}- f920. \I,'an. 1980, p. 'Inl<T\ lSIiI. • Ganoo', p. 20 .
.JO \ Ca>lronO'·Q. Slona bllr 1/ Tunn. 1977, I'P 54 Or!'ggJ, , Padn:H'l.O'O·. p. 342 For ,lH: ,,,,,,,,fonnaIlO<> oflhe "ortmg
174. c1 .., ;ce. G. Ikn". '0.11 . rnanlf.llura al ,;",ma dl fabbn,a : ... ,ion ·
31, IMd .. p. 2(].1 • • cOIlOuti ci, 10\""". "' Sl{ma d'lwlla, "01. I.
3! AI/don ;00, 'D.,; , IIU!t". li·. p. 2S Tunn.1978
CI.!IR)nO'O. :;"""' P 209. On.U'. 'p.wl'Ofllll0', p. 343
14 57,67 <(0 Re' .11i, ·I n'e ...·",. I Garioo'. pp 34

-55-
 Gram,"1 Ihr A"".rhiw

57 Iklk>mi, ' Lo'" d, dasS<", 1'1', 74-6 69 Mu,,,,. GI, 0lNro;. I' 10l
58 SI"1300, SIr>na d, 7i)TiM,pp. 9lt-1 00 7(l Co.. rono,'o. Suma pp. 249-$0; RCHlli. 'Intef\i .. a 0
59 A R;o.a, /I jindaca/mm, n"'/II:i,ma";u in 1I"li", B.n, 19't>, PI' Ganoo', p. 22.
11.l 15. Ikllom" 'LOlLI d, dl»O', P 101, Spriooo. Ssori" di Tun"". 71 R"clh. ' Inte"'iSla 0 G arillO'. I' \ Ton1lQ. /Jan.
P pp 224- 5
/:10, ";,'OIU:;'lIIiUW, 1'1', 2.l7, 251 2; Iklk>m', 'l.o!u 72 U, i. T""1IQ IT" g,...".... p, S
dl da;;c', p. 82 "1 Re'dll. ' In,.""111 Gal1oo·. p 13
61 Tunn, I May 1908 '4 lhid" p. 14
62, G Cern{o, L ""Ilml/i,,,ri,,,,,, anan-hl"" In lralia ""I primo Ihid., p. 12. In ra,he, a _imlilt .ih•• lion In the M,la"",., Indu,,,,,1
<kl ",.,,10, p,W>ia, 1968; A. arod [ Gcr..oIS, '\);)mela ,uburt> ofSe.. o San 010"'''''' . Ikll OOtre<l {I\c Inlporut><e or """"hIS!,
hUI< < II mo,·imcn,,, .nMel> to I S% 1910', RM;I" SIOric<l from P,ombono.nd Cornua. 500 Boll. !kSIO s"" G;o'onni. p 12
r1ell'A,wrr-h,smo, YO I I, " " . 2, 1994, f'Il . 76 Rewlli. 'Inler,.,,,,, II P
6.1, A nten iQIi, ' Da lla loga', p, 56 77 IhiJ.p.8
6.\ Bellomi,' LOI' a di daSS<", 1'1', 1OJ, 106, 10'1 78 Inul. l'. n
65 <;pr,aoo, Ssori" d, Torino, p. 100 79 \Iu»o. Gil opewi, p 10],
66 Spnaoo, S'orlO dl T"rinQ, p. 2$9 l "i, TV'illQ lro I, . .... p. n
67 D. La \'311 • . u eng,"1 drn. . . IO ope""a dtll. Fla,. Rome, 1976, HI Ekllom,. di da'5C', p 82: Spnaoo. SlM,adl Tor11lQ. p. 2().1, /I
1'1' G"Jokl PopoJo. Tunn. H \by 1914. P 2. FOrlurn. of.the-cen{ul}
bI! G Eknolu I, Trw;nu lro '''''..... ell/'"1'1l "i,,,
qUUlid;tJ"" In •• \.O<iational IIf•. «< R Aillo, Il Gon. G. L",. R, \Iooteleone and
fI.Nxo San Paolo. T win. 1 h" uf prodLICOO • U Ol,,-a, /I "''''PO drl ripoJu Sq""T< I d; ,"a IItI
"..aliI> of "",do. and bool.$ ,h"",,!Iou, {he 19&0<, «< f", <'Iampl., d; finc ,,,,0/0. \lilan. 1'»/
D. JaHa, moo papa "'" UR fmm..... "I..,.. farrugha IIp<1'lIi.I G Lr' i. 'A"""iaziOllIS/110 Ol"'nio. Tonno 11891}--1916)". In Ago>tI
'ori .... dei primi dtl R",,,,, di Ssun" and Rra,o. Ssona "lNr,"Q. ,o1. 2, p. 487,
wll. 9. 00. 1. 1980, PI', 17 \1 .......,. Gil opcroi; O . hila and S M3 1f",1" p . 486. f.,. a gc""",1 diocll>SlOIl or dtil\l'"11 and h,li.n ...:iall""
Musso, Terrilorio,juMrrc,,' rul,,,rD opI'row a r",i"", Cuneo. 1981 . boro", «< R 0 "Ci ""i,1 i{ef'"' I/I'SI c
O. h llo. ' Le qU3I \;el co"'"o< '0"',,,,
represen{"lion: ks il lle,{ioo dtlle ",'0"•• m "" .. lit• ., .koo/i,,,,,,· . .I/()vimrnlQ Opc,,,,o
"barncres" "".-rit"" dt I W; II .u <kbul <10, XX' ..""I... L• .II",,,,',",",,, ,'Soria!m" . \'(11 . 8. 00. I , 1985, rr, J 22.
S,"'iul, o(). 118, 1982. pp. 79 97, 0. 1.," '1, CII!,ura e "SJcx';":i,,,,! S4 M Montagn"na, lIicvn/i di "I",roio ("0110 lu g" ,d" d,
<>pt'raie in /'ie",,,,"e !tl9(! 1985. M,lan, 1975 , L FaJmm Gm"""i), Ro",,,. 1952. p, 19,
m f'l>f>I'lur Mrm"": Cullutul (iflhe Turm 1101'11"11 8S C Ra'·era. D;orio d, Irtm/ 'anni. Rome, 1972. pp, J.I-5,
0""" Cambodge, !987. Lnah.h {run,ll""" of h.lian. T","w",-ula 86, A....,.,iulomsmo opt1'I.lO'. p. 500.
t: r""j'ma, Ihn, 19'14, \ 1. GnNudl, .tl""d" opn'alO t: ",,10 vpt'l'Ilio, S7 R.. clil. 'In,,,,,,,,,. a Ga"oo·. pp. 13-14
Turin, 1987, G,ib300' ",.;opticol of {lit ,orcnJ:,h 0, long,,'''}, of 8R I.e> '. 'A"""ialiooi.mo operalO', p On the
>Ub.irban commufU,,,,,.. i!<n. Also >a:. D. H GM"n",. O(]talilUl won.cti .... M. U R......ua. ' IJlbhotcclle popolan e polItiCO
II<..-A.-n. eilirurr and PO/III" /Ia/'lln To,.-", 1&!If} 1912. 'Ie .. del PSI !ra Omx:r",o ., I>.",·«rn",', Opcraio
Rrun,,,icl,19&6. SoNoh"'J. >Cri«. ,-01. I. "'" 2 t. 1977. PI'- 259 1l8; r. And""",,,,
Foo- an ",'cry...,.' ofthe hL>lOOosnf'h..al dtba!•• boo, ,he Ton",,;.: 'Fr" ,I ",In", 0 ,. ""', Ut oamll c /"U""""mo dei "" .. Iis{; t!3h"ni
.. orlLng cia;" ;ce. S Muuo. 'Tonoo e II mo, lmenlo IIp<1'lIio I<>fi ....;.: ..,1 period d.1 S«ooda I/O"imentn Opcrol() r
1/ dibani{o SlO/iogNfoco', In \1 01."'00,01" 1krl!.rra><:hi arid L Soriali'Ia, '01 . 5, 00. I, 1982. PI', ]-28. R Cul,ura e
G anar im (cd,1. .!fi/""" opI"a'a "$:gl, '01 1, Mil.n. 1m. .o<:lem In I'isa. C, Lao." •. S,i/"ppo
pp, 375----95 angml dell Mil .n. 191>4, G . Turi. ' jn.cllc" ",,/i

. 57 .
 TodnrsRAnorchum,11I7(J---1914

c no l mo_i mcnto soctahsla ' , in S, Sold.nt and G, Tm i IDS PUCCIni, popol. re', p,102
(cd,), Fare gli iwlwni_ S<-uolo CUII"m nell 'halia cOllleml""onea, 11)9 I.a Scuol" Modm'a, p.
B<)I<)gn., 1993. \'01 . I , pp. 4 59-50 1. 110 R." IIi , 'Inte,,',," a (,""no' . p. 32,
89 LOI'i,' A'sociaz ion;smo opera,o', p 52 1 Such ",ading 111 L. BalTo"', Indcpemknl Spin" Sp;riruah<m aIld Eogli>h Ple/.!'im,.<,
.re ,raccd 'hroughout It.ly, = Degli 'lnnocen". Geog",fja <' 11«(1..1910. londo,,_ 1986
mi'":i""i del joclllli.<mo 1892-/914, Napks, 1983. pp . 3 I I I :' Rosad " 'B ihliotcche popol. ,,· pp 283 8; Rc\'cl li , ' I rotc,,'''''' "
0;
G"ino', p. 1:'
9(1 8. Santh;li. Con Gr"ffuci ,,1I'Ordme 1I110Wl, Rome . 1956, rp. I 2, 111 Ih1(I, pp_ 3J-4
9 L I D<gl'lo"lOCent'. I I la g"o"a di Libiv . Rum." I 14 Ih ,d .. pp_ 33--1; La ,I/odema , p. 5. For , ,u,,'cy of wcoali"
1976, p. 248; Sonth i,\. p. 42 . On Rom""" Ie Iilc see, L. Bet"''', theatre ;" Tun" and eI«:whoTc S<"C. R,dol fi , La na.<cila, pp. 236-42
Bibliografja ddl"ana"/'lSmo. '01 . I, Florence. 1912, pp. 201-·2, A lso se., G. "01 •. ' La "bait. soc iali ". i" haloa Ir. Otto. )--;o"e -
n G, Sape llo. 'Rom It., Giu",I'P"' . lit And.-.;ucc i and Den,,I1 modmrnlo « nto'. XX Secolo, Vo l I, I\OS 2 3. 199 1. pp 387---4 I I
operuio ilvlimw, voL 4 , Rome, 1978. p_ 376, Nejm{{;, 'La ,tampa 115 I_a Scuol" .llodcma, p. 3 . foo tb.1I wa, com;d,red , '''iddle-cla''
opera,a', PP, 443--1 spolt b)· Ihe left un,il Ihe Grra' War. " her• ., cycling "'''
93 Sproano, $<oria di Tori"o, p. 262, S"n th,a, pp_ 26---37. w ith <"I hus i"m . On the ro lo of cyc li ng ,n Italian soc,"" s," see, S
94 liJlon/d, ArKoo'.4 1914, p. 3 P,,-at,). 'l·a.wc,alionismo del Icm[>O li bcro !tella "u ltura social i, ta
95 Re,'elh, ' InlO[\ ;" •• G."no', p, 17, ,o,d ist i "",,', ,n D. \lo"o"i «J .). Gli uommi raj'i d, RomaS>la
% !iJIQnlii, ArKon" I i'.o,cmbcr 19 13, pp, 3--1 Gli an",' della dd FSI (189J), 1994, pp 181
97, Spria,"'_SlOria di Torinu, p, 2S8. Seo the ,i n, iIO' role of'he .narchi,,,'
and synd icali", OStena in ScSlO S.n Gio,anni, Be ll. St'SfO Stili
GiomlJlJi, r.n,
"
116 U. Sellola Modema. p. J
117_ ' Into[\ i". a Ga rioo ,p . 3i_
98 \ 1 G . Rosodl , i.euni,rrsitapupolarJ, Rome, 1975. pp_ 39, 75 118 INd,p 10
99 La .lfvJcma. Bol/elfino Editu dal ('ir<:oln dl I lq P. (. Ma,ini. AnlMio ,- L 'Ordine \'uo\'O "istu da un Ii""'-
rllllUra Fmnu>cu Fa,,,, ", Turin, Nowmbtor-,\pril 19 16-17, p. 7 lana. M,'an. 1956. p 20
100 Ibid p . i 120 C. lIonn."" L'alwa c"lmra , M,I.n. 1970 pp 3---16: D \1ontald i,
10 1 C. L.,y. '""",alo,m and the ldu('a,<d M,ddl. Cia"", m Wosten, Ifilir(Jnli polrticl dl h",,'. T " " ". 1971. pp. SS 73, 92. 99. 102-!O,
Europe, 1870-1914'. m R. E)·.rma,,_ L. G_ S"cnsson.oo ,. So.'l<krq"ist 164 6.JI I -20.J24----'l
("Is), U "H'Cf" 'iues, and rhe Slare '" Ilod"",, lI"stern 121 ACS. CI'C. 5OOrno, Cesart '
S".-'e/Je.• , Berkeloy, I rr- 176-9, c. y. 'CoJ>Clu,ion. '''''0''- 122 ACS, el'C. 3053, 'M arga"t •. Ill ar;o'
ograrhy .nd the New Class" on C I.e'), (<:<I.J. S"nal/jm and rhe 123 Revell i_ ' Imcrv;" •• Gor i,,0·,p.6S_
/8811-19/4, London. 1987, p . 280, 114 I Margarit., L 'A,wlli", ._IIJarchru. 1',,,,.20 O<lob<r 1910
10" ' Interyi"a. Garono', rp. 27--8 12S I"t"rv,,,ta a G., i..o', pp, 3 I, 36
10.1_ Rosada, Le p. 130, lkgli · in""".n11, Gtvgmfia. p_ 99 ror 116 ACS.CI'C, 15,'Acuti',An",lmo'
a general d iscussion ofthc educ,nonalthO<Jries .00 It.lia" .""",hism Il7, ACS, CPC, '\l"",loollo . Mario'
see, F Coddlo, Ed"ca:iune e al!archismo. L 'idea Cd"cali"a "ei 128 ,\("S. epc, 3134 . 'Ma,,"_Giuseppe'
mOl'imRnlO "'1vrc/lico italiono (19OI1---1926), •. 1995, 129 Inrervi"" • ".,i",,' , p . I>
104 M Pucemi, ' L'u" j" ";t:i [>O[>Olar<. I. Scuo l. Modema , hJlalJ',;, Ilt) A,S . CPe. 2290. 'Gauno, ,\ t. uri zio', Repon " n 'rcfett, 30 ,\ I.",h
vol . 25, 197 1 p. 202; RO'!a da. Leuni'rrsilapol"'loFi, pill
lOS, L Vnn-"r,itJ Pupulare, \ti l," , O:tobcr 1909, p 295 I ) I A. And",,,i. I'iotro'. 11l Andre""c, .t><! Dc"i, /I mo,'mJoltn
III(; La S<'uola Modem", p, 8 italiano, "01. 2, Rome, 1'176 , p A. Dal rant and l
107 "ni,w.<ilci popol"". p_ 167 Zocch i, P,O"fe"; dcll'lcaila democm,ieu . Rome. 1%6, pp IOJ---1l,
 I A("S. epc. 3210. \I<>SSo, MS. {"PC. 16117. Dc Bartolo- I Srri' no. SIOr/a r/, T.m"". p. 211-,
m"". ','n'''' A("S. ( PC. Woo ..,,,. halo 151 INd.. 1'1'. 14---1 n,,; •• It.O by Si"..",.,,,a Otugg; ("am·
I n IIS II. Fabbr, ("oll«""., . .,..., belw".," r "bbri ,na"""...... "1"=" Jrllamm Ti,..,,..,
r /"lttJ"'I"" ".,lIa= ""I pnmQ
and Dc Eia""I<.>mC"b. 191 f> I \0111). Turi.., I 9!!f1, 1'1' <5 to.
LUISi Fabbn {""llcc'>On. Ik '" r .bbn. 24 Oc'oi:>cJ 1916 I Ikr1;l. 'OI.lla manurauura·. 1'1'. 1099-101
11< 19 S. OrtaW. 'C",,,mi • prodUUIII" n<'lI',OOu.tnl dol primo '0' ....
I.l(> );"""'<1.14 \Ca",h 1'114.1'1' 0...,"", Ri'i"., r/I ,,01. 1. P
l.n R. \1>"i .. llI. '11"""o. \ tn Andre",," .nd Dtrll. II "'''''i- I <4 Rc'clii. I {i • .,,,,,'. P
",..,,'" ",,",'"'''' ;,,,J,,,,,,,. ,,,I I. It",,, •. 197j. rr 293 '. G 1'01•• thld..p. 39
Torrin,. ArturI'·. , 0\ And """" ."d 0.,,,. "I""'m ,,, 1.16 Ihid. P 40 . B", !It<tC "at Ilw the ,ca"", thol blcyclc,

"u/""",. '<.>1 5. R"mo. 4: "'CfC " ill rclat '\,c1y rafe am"nH" wod•• " " od "am, ' .pt P"""
11 R. \ L"""oll i. l'aro.J ., ("u><"N"" In -\nJroucc, "nd ))ell i. /I m,,..,_ schedules '0 thal (n' ploy«. n.ed«1 e",.. tltn. 10 "., 10 01,. "
""'111" 1,,,1,,"'0. "" I 4. Roone. I p, foclo, ies O".gg' eamm,I'(Ita,...,. 1/1"-':::'" I'P 112 1
1.1'1 R Martrnel l•. '{)be",. ,\ "","",'. II' 0<-'11.11 """'j IS7, Re,elh. • • G.. il'lO'.p 76
m,'IlI" Op<TQIO j/"/,,,"O. ,ul. Ito",•. 1'1'. (j. Sa""IIi. IhlJ.p 45
·s"nthi • . 11.,10>1.', ,n And",,,,,i.nd Dtrt •. /I mQl'lm",,,, '"",nJifi IW, A"'",,;oll . ·OI.lialcK. ·."· "),
""/,,mo.I'ol 4. Ron ... 19,9. f'I'. <;j)4 160. Rc, .th. · In,e",,"" 00,,""'. p. 5--1
140. R \la",ndll. . .. n. , \bn"·. ,n -\nd","",ci and Do11'. /I 161 M S.IIadori. /I . .. <wl"l,.-o g T....-mo (/911,15). Tu" ...
""','I.••",,'" ''fNT'"'' i/"II""". ,01 .1. . ... '00. \1"''''11_ 1%9. 1'1'
nana. R".,,,,li, 1'1' 1. I..". p IS 162. R.,dh.·ln,.",,,.aGau,,,,·.pp.42 J
14 I R . .II,. ·ra",.",. Obcr1t· ...\oon" .... " 1:1<-11;. 11 nt", ,m,'''" 161 Spnano. SIO.w r/i T","m". p 217
'!{!<',ui" iwha"". ,01 4. It ........ pp 66 'I. T DelIL 1M RC'elh.·ln""iSl.aGlfioo·.p
',,,,,<nT'" ln "'00""",'1 aoo 1><-" ,limo, im,'nw op;'f""" I C.\1",no', ... , SIQ'W "'!:",m. p
,01 .4. Rom,. P 11>6 1l<llolrni.·L"uad,d.s>o·.p 131
I·n T o"u, . . BorWn,. I r.""<'S<'(l·. It, And",,,,,,,, on<! lktll. !I """ ·1",,·1t!0 167 Anlonioh. ·D. ll a lego'. p. 7('
,,,I I. 1'1'. 16i ' 0 IbIJ ... 79.
IJ1 A. And re",;' '81'\"'0 lJu,'ui r ,I """ ,men,o ,m,!>"I" ,'ali,"o', 1M RO\dh. ' Inte",,'a a (jo, i",,·. Adler. Inr/u>ltiuli",. p-p
dfll" /Jih/"""·,, G (0, '01, 14. 1 p A1'0 76--7,
'"'. A. Forb 'e<. L" /,,,,,, Ir""'fll'{{" $,111108110=01, ,ind"wh"a 170, Antonioli . ·Dall. log • . p. 77,
,-d""";",,. Milan. pp :'0 7, I 7 \ Ihlr/. p. 78 For lho of ,he II ..""" Sindaeale
144 S.pdl ,. h .. R",ml •. (;u,stl'P"·. ·'nJ",u.,'<i ond lIeI". 11 ><=C. ' 1. A"I00'olo, "'¥Oni::",i"", oJW,Q,u S,·.JU·
"1)("''';0 iw{wl!(). '01. 4. Rome. 1'1' FI> 7 rDI;.mo ...·,"''''';OIlvno ,,,' I.. ,i"" 'OUDC""'O • II
I A Andrea;,. '(i""", ...... 'I ..... ', ......."""'; ond Detti. /I """',....,,1<> lilletsmo. \I>ndun ... 1990. 1'1'
''P''r",o "dl,,,,..,. ,01. 2. Kilt ... "". 6().l AnlOilioli. logo' ...
146. II. IInd"'3". -C"lombono. I mIl",'. al>d O<tll. fI""",_ '71 And....i. ·BruooBuoni·.p '39
""" ..."., ,01, 1. Itom.. 1'1'. '1 J 'o/OIIla, An<OI\&. 12 'I",1911. p. 1.
14'. A Andrra,i. "Ctilallrt(l. FU8,""IO·. \nd","",ci 000 Det' .. 11 17<
191' ...
mcnlo "fXrti1O ".,/i,,,,o. ,,,I 2. It_c. p. 1,6 Spn3no. S""ia r/, Torm". p
14S Sp,i."". St,,,i,, r/I r",itt<). p 21 I; Ortaggl. 'Padron"o '. pr . .1 177. IN(I.p 161
14') Anton;oh ·D,II. P "I, Adle,. Ila{"", Indll>lt'Iali,,1. PI' 17M 1/".1. .. p . 267

'" I 79 11.,,1. p. 259. G. 0 10\1. 'Un' i"",at". Inltt" ,ht3n.ta alia "gill . <lelia

"
 G,aOOc Guo"" La ''('a.", PC' ,I soIdu del ",Ida,o'"'.
'01. 8. 00 1. 19119.1'P. 2H-60. -3-
IMI. Spriaoo. Storra d, T"""". p.
181. Ibid.. p. 273. Ikllom,. 'I...... d, d.,... ,p I H.
IS! Re"Jh, ·lnl"""lltaGanoo'.p 60.
183 Ro,..,III, 'In",,,,,IltIGanoo',I'P,(!() 2
1S4 1I>,d.. p. 62
Gramsci 's Apprenticeship and the
I Bcll<>m, ,' LQu, d, cla\.>(!', p 1H, Spr..,,,,, -,,"'ria di Ton"". p 274 War Years
186 P 282. 11>" Red \\ocl <0" II>< 11\C,ofsl"",," <Ie'''''''>1'''<O''''
.nd on" • ..,C M \lun.uKn. liaUan Lahm"
/WJ-I-IYI4, York. 1991. p !06
A, detai ls .bou' An.onio Gramsci's lir•• ro ro.Jil)· 3' .ilable d>cw l,.ro. I
"III nol rchea= his biography, In Ihls "hopler, I ,,·,11 highligh'
IIw.»e eul.ural. soc;al and pohllnl ronnali". inn",oce, during hi' pollticol
.ppKn.lee,hip ( 1911-19) Ihll b-roui/ll h"n ,n'O direct contac' ""h
,),nd",.li" ond li!>crt,,,,n polille5 Ind Ide.,.' I" III .1", deroon$lJ1l.,e lho:
.ffimu., bcrv."", GntltlS<:,·. WIOrthodo, \la",i>m. ",,,,,d,,,," .. nd
'yndocoh",,-
1110: r,,,,, and perlIaps d<c,,,,e ,nflutno:. on GratruCt', poli.i.:! must be
hI> 10.. er middl.-<'I .... Satdini ... on,I"". Gntmsci came from lho 10>0 er
""loci"", of I"" hallan ,,,•• born imo" roml >ou[hrm
fom,ly of ""e ooro,ucnOls. """h. [0 [I>< nnbm,li'" "yo ""ghl, hlH
.ppeare.ilo >haro I.... $.>me n,,!-Cry as [hoi, pcasan. ncighboors. but .he
ob,lil)" " , ",aol . :><1 "·"Ie. a"d .,," 5<11d • ton loliero and possibly ()Ow.nh
.0 a prof",,,oo.1 <Oltt" m.de them the 001"':1 of .n'), and rosenlmenl'
G,o"'''', '. "" iili".l <omlnw of .we ,"'c"m:d j.", " Ihe Ii"" d ",'uo"
un,lo, nc.t o",,'e, .. 1 m,"no."I • .,ffmg. (1913) s,gn allod <it " eri, is of
l""I·Ri'OI),:';",e"/o eliti" hbotmhsm cuh" ral .I'flrtnlicc,hip at tM
L "i"miry ofT"rin (1911_1 S) i,,'rodUC<.'<l hIm to I pott;cula rly "",,"bodo.
Mon' ll"" 'W'. "hen Gram5Ci 41Th oJ in T.nn a •• flllan<i.lly "",bar,
ra»c<l .. I>llarship moden •. hi' polo"ej ha<l been link .f1<cted by Marxi,m.
I'he) " .... i",tead" "rS.,din,an ....11"""1"''' and ""olu"onary
syndicalist rhctono; (or " ",. .ho ...."<>l.lI01W)' s)'ndic.ll" •• nd ' .... i,.,.,"
p""...,lionist and an'i·tt3llSf""",ioI _umencs rhot made thorn such 1U1U",1
oIl"" of """,hem and ,n",w $OCiali,IS, G<am>c, became t>eqU3intod willi
many lead,ng Sardi"i ... radical. \hn::luslllus oIde, brotheT" h,Ie ."end,ng
"at} in Caghan.' In 19]) he s'atted a puhh" mamf.,<o tha. prolesloJ
"a"m;1 '''J'''''''.' ,·;.lled upon Sa,dln,. by lho "",I«lion,,, and
"""""ali" ltali. n ,u.le' II> promorors ioclu<lcd lead,"g S3,dini," ,yndi,
".10"" ooch •• Aniho Doff""" . nd NicolU Faocell<>. lhe Maz:zin;.n-<>ricntoJ
,),ndicaliSl leade, or til< "u l",),mo", Oi...., and Seba","oo
Gramsc, 's f" ouro.e Sard in;.n pot. "ho>c r.,ooo, poem .boot 1M
 m"...,.,' 5mi •• , Rug('fru in 1904.• domlC'li ,iIt ronnie! dllll >CI off lho """iall.. lamiWcd by .n,"nar;y ""h ,he- "ale A WIUnlanl'
fim nalional ",ne..1SInk h" p<I<1I}' $u"'ly ronf",,"i '''''' ,m,lowphy nndcmuncd!he bas.. upon ... hl<'h \Iani"" had bee""", a,n
afS&n:h'm and .yndicab",,· . F,nally, as a dc>OfN moder ofM,W)', ortbodo,), a ""m"r.c soc:;'lj,m. ,,;nc< the I H9(Io. Gr.am"" 1tt.11ed ,n h,'
.y,,,hc.loilJOUmal. II . .. G"'mk' ,,-a, fully .h,. !O the own na""",,1 con'e" M,ns 'pan of. "",,-<mem of """"I and ,n,.lIe':I".1
and <ullurlll "tthon ,he ","lnlond's r.,.;p.>'OU$ mo"MK:!>1' "hi<h ,n haly Sicmmc<l f"'TII IknodOl'O Croc •. and ,,""'" f,I"II
GrJ,"!"i b«am. a Ma",i,t """ali>! .. unl\ermy "hen POS"I\',!m "a, premi", "'''l,n,,' III'n can and ,I\oold he ,,"1\001 the h<lp of rehg,o".-l
P'".c. I ,"aJori,y of his m' cllo,tual"olltemp<.>rane, imb,l>cd am,. m:;.n, of course, "'1111001 , ",<al«l religi"", P'»i,,, ,;I ", lllIlOn. ", ,10010£..:"1
""".Ii <, n,[,,,,,.hs,,, and phil<>SOphical ,<I<, I' IIn. wiltn. Ih<",f"",. I1'I05t ",11,'011,01 "haleH' OIhe, brand I)fIC ."",1'0
po lobcally ""ndM S,ud"",, <:>ppO$<'<l1t> Ihe I. bou, mOHm.",· His "O\Ild be n""cadinll '0 ...'u'''' pndr of pl..:e fo, Gmm"'" Hegehan,
\b""sm "as Ihe unonbodo. lense, of La ,ho or 'Gcn'ilr;m·. """'"lr','i>e )'O\Ing 1,.I .. n "",i.li""; i. <:<'I'UI,nly
joomal of"'" atnemion of 191 4 ,o l,ie "'" F","",,,,,.. JOUrnal. hll """'hers did "'" A"'"""'" ,he '1upohun c;,;1 mgin..". ,,00...
.. I.... t:"".ro;i,y ofTunn ""'phasilC'li Croc. and Gen"I •. and ""'" philo- '",."lu",.:&r. or .... 'haps belle, "ill ',come'nc.r ann.p.rhamonllry
""Ph"'.1 ,nn"''''''.:1 "ere imponan' In ,lup,ng hlJ helm:xl<,. \13"i,m, "115 SoD si,n,flC.nl ,n Ittnll""ll )"OUth '0 lilt FGS, "
Sol, .mmt .nd Tunn', f=4fI<lo 'nfused 'n him a $Obor•• ' . " Oflhe ,rud""" Gram!'" !tid bef"", the \\1Ir only h lmi'" Togh•• ".
puritan".1 hbornl ",in •. "h'eh la,1Ied 0\11 at ,he ·!lo.m· liberah.\m of tilt >On of. pros.ptrou. P,c<I'n{)n1= N"""'N m,JJIc..:"" f.mily, .... nlferrC'll
. . , ",&ime ,. ,nil ... "" ••. ,n •. dignif,'" and "",,,pcned '0 Sardin.. far of work. ,0001d be s.aiJ '0 .hare fully Grnm",(.
hI> ."IICT <;"d Iyn..!icaliSI rage (mdeed IAI I;"f !, ,";sed svndic.h. ", '1 • mcnl.1 "Un. be"" To"..eini. of PiNmon'es.e Jow i' " prof.,,,or.al
fon n of populo>! I"'dagog"al po l, Il<SI. bul ,hey . I,u In hi'" on b.1dground, aod Ange lo Tasc. , ' he on ly of the foo, f,om ",a"nal
'ppreco.llon of Anglo.Sa'on ci, ili,. 'ioo \\ "h "$ pr"""" i,. membra,,,, to-okVOUnd. w ..., I.., en,hu"a>!" .• 11 .", •. ,,' facl. 'h3m!
of Con",,,,,, law" "",n)" of the u>.'"P""'" of the po5l11\ '" soc:i.1o" •. Iii. f"heT wa. a
C""", Ind G.n'ilo bmpoonod ,he self-""".fitd .,ol""om,.. of ,ho ra,lwa) nun. "nd .I,hough hi' ramily life ...." unlul'l')'. be l.UotCeeded. he
Socuoh'l Palt) AI'hough boclt ,m'Io»oriltrs had been "'lr3cIN to Itt.lled. ,n man"..1 ""rio:; for Ibt "",,,.r."), T,...,o ha,IN from
\I.",i'm .. a So;'''''',fic doctrine ,n ,he 1890;, by ,he early 1"100$ 'hoy ,he \r.1de un'on cullu", of.hr; -k,lIod ,,00". "h"h f<ll'lll<'<l,hr;
bmcrl} 0J>p<IKd 'I> ",,1t'lCal '*""'",'., 'rn..e '''0 rhil"""lll1ers ,lured of Torines.e reform,,,,,. b,,, a, I Chap''' Two, "orkin,..,I_
Gl'IIlnIC", of "'lIld ralhor Ilia" poll,IC. I, rna) be arguN ,ha, reform."n " •• not ,;.ol.,ed from 1ho libeNnani sm of the ' "",(Ind cullu",'
,.,." '''ll<i s"" <lfpoll! I' I>m w.'" adap'N by GranllC' who" he be(l,lln t" Tasca's fun .... ,i,. ,...ding inclt><\ed Armro Labriola. he P""" "'I"" ..! "",,,ely
1()"'lUlaI' h,s .,In'mely ,"oluma n, tlC n""OOd"lolI)' and polit ical philo•. in Ihe JoiJo soMato .nll·mil".ns, \\, 1,,01, led "p 10 Ihe R(J
uphy, 110\\"\,'"" ,h, •• ubrl. "'p'r.>lion of ...d"mitt, ",,,,om, from I"rti''''' Week in 1914, he w.s S<Jmething or. Alf,edo Polledro (,n<
pol lhe, Oe'"r wom down w.1I ""hin ,he It. h. " """alist "",".mon'. "nd ,ynd,o.I", Jomnall" d,>cu»ed in Chapto' Two).• nd when Polled",
i. ,oems d im,"11 '0 ho" d'g.Sled lIOcame an ""en'onli",,i" T.",a ,ned 10 preHn. h', c<pul.>011 from lhe
<ommen ...y .1Id ""'''''Iogirs of Gen"I. ItId ("roc•. "h'eh be pubhshed pany From hI< Sludonl da)1 To"," ..... ained • f''''''''''>011
in Tonnesc durin!! "'" " .. t_ W. do l ........ Ib,,, tduca1N 1I'lIdd1o. ..-"h.be ul"","n rooo.: ... h>b, and "ilhln .be I.. h.n ronl." part",ul3Jly
r...-- "
da" <ad," and leader;. w;.h,n 1ho party deI.IIM h,m for 'I, ar;"u';"l.llllm b) ,be h."ory of,b< Fim 1I1,."",lIooII.nd.hr; Panno .........
of,.,. ,in, of',6o"II,m' and., "" "0flC 'Borg""",onl>m·. in tdCK!ICO to T."". 'nlrod .... '" (ira""", '0 the lorill(se labou' "",,-omen'. and e' on
I". ,nl'"e$I,n Il>QIhcr am'·pDSI",·i".liIt FlmCh lie"" Ikrpoo, before he joined the P,'"y ,n Gram",i IICc<)mp.o.n,C'Ii T.",.,o lh.
"0', f"r. 'hOI ,,,,,lie, did (iram",,', break" ilh pol"" iq \I"" i,m ... de., ""'ially mi"," Socialist Pan), '""y c.,It", >«1Ion ! or. ,,,,,ns ,,,,dlce ....1
h,m '0 I),.,d","" ... nll .narehi" inte lk",uaJ, "00 nol 'ory ,IIIYere"' ,he", "c'" i"""",'n1, pcrn,!» more for ,he "IlP""u".'l)' to
in ,,,llu'al f<lnnotion f"'m Ihe" pol ilic. 1cuml"" 'lOrs w" hin the 1'51 10 yO\lng .. dio. li ,eJ wor\;.", ,h. .. IS i1l1olloo' u.1 <I"nu l.toon ]h'c sr
Ideal"m .lIo"od G'am",i 10 lr' n"'end 'he !>ollnda"e, of s.,cond G mm!.<' "", present d',mug lhe 'wo lIlea, I"' .OS in 1912 I J . ",1 .he
In,em>lionah>1 soc: ,ali,m, Thi, "rand ,n 'he pre" or furopoan ''''' Lell RN W.. ,n 10)14 These e,'.nl> left. '" id ,ml""""'o" upon h,m, ra""''''
"",,,.d <po",one"y, YO\I.h, """,me Keplki,,,, IOIO-afds ,.,. '!>Ie .nd bri)' in ,/Ie l. ,c. "","'011$ /Ie "'",,Id odor"o"""t, "OIling..,lass

"
 h" IItlolI<'l:,".1 '">lot""""
OUl,i<k (h. p.any tndilt""., A. od·t", of A"lnli.'
.nd hts ,lI«Ir.", al "",mal L 'Onpia. a specl'" of anll-CmlC" 50('10/••
played host 10 ,hc 1,,""ICca n,. the "ildcr Sorcltan'. Iynd",.,,,,
OIl"ni""flo. aoo tlte ",di'·ldllllis,a...,rch<$». I I. was .... "'hing f"''''''icall)
for a I., ... from v.hoch he could o'enutn ,he domina,iOft of 'he pany by
,he 1"0,""," oftt>e 1890s Bu, hIS unfocuscd ""ti,-ism would ha,. tT>de<.I
IIlconseq_".lly, jllSt as il rnded for thl:: I}'ndlraltst prof.""r. Anum
la\lnollind the _,ah" Enneo Fem. Ifw refomust Gf'S had
no, been ,om lpan bef"", ,he ""' Gram",i plactd a gnoat dell of hi,
youlhful toopes "" \'u.soltn" Ind '" I'll j ,,-ben be mll<,d to hI< bool.5.
and osp« .. lly III< ... '(ri..or A _ Laobnola. he bepn to rtahu III. errors
Demogop: poi;ues. e'en of!be tn' en",e kIfI. ""' ... attrac,ed him again
.... e kim from hlJ earl)' "'IItIlJ.tI,hal Tasca he. 100. had bttn LOken In
by Tu"n', 'Imle MusS<)liniJ' '""ni, Polled", and G>Oda.. lhe
.nlI",hlS1. ",,"Ilhey J'Olnod lhe In,OI\ enbOfl'SI camp_'
_nd Jownalisrn for thIS f.... l ""her hunchbtock. <fO.,ed hi' profile
""h,,, ,he t« .. hSlIOOl en...,.. alii for """'"' <"IIrious nro-id<alt>l t:owge.>t<
Gr.mSCi'. doc'SIOI'IIO drop.ooc of In 191 S and fors.tke hi. I"""", .,:lIdo.Ito,·J ibid hl=l) "too k""w and pnuSC<l hi m' """ e ptnc 'hrough
fdesree. maned hI' """""11<11,
full·"",.. 1n,·ol"n1...",lo soclalt" pol"ic" JOOrna lilm GromSCI cu, h'J .""m,... do,," '0 .i,e. On ,he o,her hand.
aoo IIIe rewlull"" of. "ety senoul meIl") collapse. "'hich. unfortunalely altl>ough hI> JOltm. ".m "., public. he ... met! '0 .nJOY eduonal a non-
only one of >CHI'III on h,. Itf<Hme , Just as hi. """'ro"" Palmiru ) P<.haps hts ill.f.."" fI ,n.""" " " h \'l1>sohm" poli,ics a nd hi'
n,
1<IS, .. "'1OS 011,")'1 proud orhis .sooci.""" "','h ,Ite Un"."i" ,ng p)'roI",hn,cal )OIImah"n le ll hun pem\OllOndy ch ... toned,
of I unn, 000 el.ptt, •.ll y he; ,wo "'hlCh we.., di'p l'yed S<) """,,;. Gr.",,,,i', fiN I""''''''''' v. 0.., '" I""mber of ,h. editori . 1board of Am",i,
{""nlly In the poi'·"",.",d .... 1wo ltalta n "-

.. m"n", IIho,' II'
"0. so Plod,,,,,,,,o;c I.. go. ",i, ina local no"', and the.tre .." I."' •. "' wtltriboJ,or
""oSle" ofh ,s d eClSIO!I 10 enter poli,,,> "i. journ. 'ism." to ,he loco l SO<:131 'SI ""WSJ'lI'<'. /I GdJo del POp<N{) (f'um Seplember
I he..,f.x..\ Gran,ISCI', joumah'tic C'r«r C.n be "",d lO have cO!nmel>C(,1 '0
19 17 1918 ," «h'(>f·m.,h,d). and cOI,,,ibu,or 'he nrwl}, '0
In [x';.",ber 191 I1><rc "'c'I'C SO"'Oearlie, uni"",,,y rl"'''' 011 fUI.lIism crc",od I' I00hoom cd lllOn of fll1m ,"" elld of 19 18, DI"ing 'hose
atld of ",urs. (,mmsCl·'\ ,hSllSII'QU, bllef foroy inlO thc war ),""ri G",m"" , dc'oI<l\IOJ hi, ch'''I<::,erist ically pun gent style. crtticwng
'" ,h. aU I"",. of 19 14, "'hen"" co",e '·e .... close '0 a com I, tho Io<al clo,i,. 'l y domiMted city couoc il . his .",while inton etl ll"" '"
."J ",...,mCnt o f "hal he con"de rC1lIO be Mu,sol ,n;'s poo" ion, . nd "Jd.1ii' .,,<ilibenan.," com""'« and the notionol", 'fII Il ' genorally. 1110
elf",;:, ely OSIr;sclled hIm from ,Ite am ,·v..r Torinese p.n)' for 'Ile ""xt f<,iblos of ,I>< ".n",,, Italt.n pe,ite bottrp:eoi"o .• nd ,he COInlp1l0n and
>car \lullol,nt. of cou....,. "as more ,mpcKtant '0 Gram",i Ite mighl "",fIkl.""> of ,he I,.!i.n !I"e.:;'
. . ,o "","toJ 10 adm" L .. ot "'.,wllnl rq>re>er,tod GnulI",i', duu of III 1918. ,,"h 1 good deal of ,It.r I<><al .",,,.,,., lc.dotsh,p Jailed d""
oub'm.,,·e SOC,,!,sm· ..... t bef"", I'll S he" .... oma;"i'-e because h.o brolo to ,It.r (n01» .n Augul,. 191 7 and ,he mihtas)' """ at Capon:lIo that
011 ,he 1\110. oflh" lI,me populari,y ",,-ed a g..,at de.1 to the OU,UIl\l1, Grarnsci ran II GriJ() <kI Pop<JIo "inually , ingkhandetll y_ lit ,
,nIOIl<'l:'"31 aoo monol $I.Ippot1 he mobililtd ""(,,de the pally proper Ilc ""U\ ity ..... Intense, ",,, " nll'\\'o or an,do, a do)': ,hoaltt
n,ncd ""h ,"" lllaf<h,.to. ,he "'publtcans aM the Unl""" Sindacak . lie "",011; and ed"ma • r.e..,.-'papor uttdef eMmnely d iffICult circumstaoc ...
• 10 younS'" ,mp.auont "ori<c ... lhal filS' gc ....ran"" ra.sed in lhe Tasca 1tt,lIed 1ft h I, diar)' a man of prodIgIOUS ac,,"lty, mfirm
""" ef and drabb<.r suburbs Of",bn Ind TUnn. lie became .he poli'i<:ian OOdy and .n tron ",II :. .... l,h Lhe compl.. ed cnucal edltl"" of G I'8.J>t><J·s
of The _lIl.SI )'QUth /MOl Omenl became 10).'01 PO"'''' b.1;e, early" "'lOgs tI nov. _mi «nal" \lIll Gr.ornsc, "''IS ... ther """'" "idely
""'"",.,<> """gh, (I"" """"'u;"",,
..
pro IdllljIO.OOO """ soc",li,m ",th'n • r"" ) .... IS !Ie k"""'''' than to<l>ly lteltc,""''' One ofth< """" !,,",nung
 ,!w,
i, (;ram ... ,. '" """",n,na • ,hcoKtieian. cmplo}w ,he da,') con 10 cul,urt. and poh,,,,., "'ll. ni.alton U the I<:.hYa"OIt of
cems of Tmin 's laoou, and COOJ'<rDTI\. ",owmcn" a, I.bora,o';o, 10 Snera l h... dcm<>n,,,,,od 110", L.bnola·, ido", ,,,,,,,formNl
de,'dop and ill u",",c n.. O1IOre eomplox Ihtorctic.1 lllCSt (ir."".,,,i·, u,li., GrltHk"" poh"o.' inlo h,; more 'TUlerilli>!
aoidC'S demon"""e """ many of ,he ,hc:me< of l of the "',,' . ... and the ""','0. 1
V..."". '" hich h'ahligtll the (adm,"<dly J)O\<Of MOniong 'oG .... .,..,i. cultural hegtmOtl} rrttcdcd tTUjo< molu·
of ,he fac'''') cou""ils. "'ere ongJllally dndopcd dunnll a d, ... us.ion of ,ion "had be.n lhe , ... b,hl, and un" ilh"g".., of Itlh.n intellec,uals '0
tha, ,..,fun .. ,,, in\.l"u" <)II. 'he COOf><',a'I\'o. in 1916 -Oil' or ",,' yo ... aba"d"" ,heir d·"" co,nlOpolol ..",m. ,,·h,e h S<l1O ,,,''''k.
G,""",.; '0
beg.n rwm",. the ' SO' """,'. W."cm (urope.n i""'r'.nt OJ heiWlbS. L," Labnol •. Gram .. i on work,ns·<:I ... in'HI""ons
Torln"'" '."""" of cou"",1 COmmun,.m imrnrrwd ,n duly hf•. "'" direc"Y controllo<l by ,he "", i.'i" pan).!O
In pre' """') unlllO\fl" wicks '" nnm bon>-een ,be IWO ,,,oIu. "'". popul.r hel .. f, \0 a u"".1').I1 .. i.",iHe "'orId "",," Labnola',
I,ons, (;r1lm<;e, "all openly .nli·J""ob." and .nll-stall". H. e'OI,c"ed .uppott of'he h.sci Sieiloan, on ,he 18900 be.rs SiKn,rtCa",
00Il0<l0' Second Im.rnauon.h" .oci. li ,m nOt OIlly fo, il. ,,,,,,,,,,1 .ITO.. ""h GrOln'e,'s .",Io"conoo' of ",o\,oment. in TO II "e>.
"."oml'p""i",ic corrup'ion (Len in's li"c) t>ul more import.n,'y its indu,'f)' during ."d.n., '0
,he waT l\orh. ant;"ip.t. Iny argumen t. ,,,rc
po<L,,,,,.n, and >1a''''''. wh"h "'.re coosidered by GtaIllS< L!O able 10 ,,00 "i,h ptOICl>rL1n anurh,SlS Grarmc,. Labriola d,lT.ren·
Ix .Iitn 10 ,he spont. 'f flo)! .1" I ) ' \be ktIC'f. of Karl \Ian ·unes. But" " ,,310<1 btl" ...... Jacob,nl(:2.l ,he ,'po<lali d<'l'" 11!ouri"'"
an ,!une II .. n ,1teore1ocally lO ,he ,rad"'011 of anal<:h,sm • drop",",,). lhe ,",011«,,,,,, !,mk,.,,,".• nd th. ",nk·and-fiic anan:h",
Mo"", onll '13'i,m. I<:1)i<>& he .. ily upon An'onio I.abriola -. in,cll«ru,1 " hom Labnol. had holpcJ during a Rom.n builde .. ill ,,,.
I.. .. y, before I ' urn to a di.scu»",n of h.. urly .n ides 0" ... Iy 1890> AI,h<.>ugh he was c'p:>bl. of d,ffcrtnll " ong be,wcon ,n.
coopcr;l'''''' "h,ch flin'-"">dow h" 1.,Of cou",,;I:o, ""i"np.. b"t{ d,i-rtS' ·,... sonablc· of \1.1.,.", Ind ,h. '.!TOf",,' bomb,ng.nd
soon '. ,n ....-de. '0 unJcr.;<>nd ,he hnuSO' """' ..... An'"" ,o LabnoLa .nd _,,,,,,IOn <''''PO'arts. he tIe'.r could ",L. ,he ,n .. ll«'UJll""ml>CS of
Gram«, anarch,,", '<ry ",",,"sl)', JJ
(;ramsci·s and I abnol o's Man,sm can b<: co""dored unonhooox
A"totlj" Gramsd an d ,\ 1\10,,10 Labriola of. "",'.1 inlcrprtt:o""" ofpnL' ''' both me" ha>c<llh" , uporionl)'
of Ma"'Sm ow. Otl'lcr fonn< of"",,.Ii,m "" II> 10 fOfXC' ",,,,Id
(;",,,,,,,,', discU5>"'" of L.bnoLllP'"'" out of h.. m"i.1 I<:"C'a!UJ'oon of ,;"" lhat noqu,r«I no i:>t.>rro»lnl! from ",her ph"osophica' S) "'''''' •. If,hi.
,h. and if Iny of lhe .1<: . . n d«.m culoaiC'S. eausN Labnola Ind (ir.>mSCIIO fiaJ" OW""" tho "","iogo of poli", ..",
,hey art Ih. in,elleclual, of,he "''''"'' " (',he hi.'o,ie right'). ",,,I and ,ho'ct»' tam ,",001",101 in 00' <lay •• "pm-."ded \IOn;,b,
who.e emph.". "n 'he pedagogical of Ih< nl()Ojcm ,1"," '\ patl,.- 'ItC) al"" ,,,,,.led '0 Jeny ,nl. ll .e'"al "alidiIY of ",ltcr »''0"" of
menl),,), .)'Steln .tId h<>r.est and effic,.n' c", ,I >tn ,,;mula,,", ,he "",ialt"n.
... ,"-. P'''''c'p"'''''' of ell'Len. in II. lIT.!", i. "I,m,lalr.! ""0 """,altst 110""", C'f. G"'",""I', ,,,\roIho;;'ion IQ the of An'''''io Lobnola
'i>eof),:O Lab",,'. "ii, In "",llee"'" link bc\"cctI Sp"'.nla. I)c Sa"",i, ""y h... come fro", a h,,,,,rodol<. SOUrt •. 1)",,,,,,, (j.-.msci's los, It
and ,he _iali" ""'Hme"' . R«,,,«, opinion P'CWrt, L"bn"la .. a u""e,,"Y 1\ <i\ 5). Umberto Bartoli. hi' lingui"ics pn:)fc'>o<. ,nl roducw
'" ,.und(f,I<)j)j1 g.mus. ,,/oose ,\ f.r> i,m would ha .. ","od h,n, 10' pn:)fc>>or of phi losophy. AII",bak !'."ore. In I.,., hr. pa.t",."
lhe soclalim f,om lhei' posi,i, 1>1 buffoonery ,f ""'y hii mcssase
l\e<:Jc.J Hut i, "as JIIII Labriola •.. ubslra.um of "".pol".n Hog.han"",
"*' bccl'o 'ook crc<li. for ,utdong (jnom><i fn.>m G.ntil. 10 Labriola_ Accordi", 10
[U8""'0 Garin .nd r-.ori>e1lO BobbKI,hi, is probably "Uggcra,N. bul
. nd h" profe<>ion ofun'""",,,y prof"""", l!tat joms. ""her llt.an "pi""." il "as dunng l'a,lore', tutori.ls lhal Gr.>m>c, met ."",het "udrn, of
h.. '""''''011 of pol"'c ... pedagogy 'o!oO "",ny "'hrr l",h!i,ilc.J intrll ec_ 1'.'''''''''' 'he .... rehlSl lechno ".n. """" 10 be "an",,,, a,i"or, Pielro
' "" I, " ,- hi. em.'" CharI., Two) wOO 'upply C;"'''\$<i Wilh Llllp<>rlan,
\Ian ism h.d fou, "1111" "spe<tS 10 II; politi<... m.,.n.) Ta)IonSm ,n 1919.nd 19M. and ,n many re",,"C1S pla)ed an
ontellec,,,,,I •• , "'arJln. as ,he br..,,,, 'f not ,he ptJbl", I.odonhip behind ob!oluldy .-i,.1 ",Ie in roncocltng ,ha, eurioul oocL... ,] of libe",rian
soc,ah., >1II.0i)'; I un" ..... philoooplty tha, 1m! cohcr'fflCe I""d..,,,,, i'm tha' chatll(lerizcd ""'i""".10 ,deoIog) (""" (1upiC'f r"t)."
Coope rwlion Inri SocIMU.m: Oril:, n < of Cnm>d 'j a,,",uh ' m lhe , m.lll but 'alher make KCcpl.ble ,,",,,,a lly. a nd
Cmnldl I>or<fully. I J«taJist-coolrolied "holep lmg as.ney. Ihercb; breaking Of
""utral izing lilt Inll"""". of ,kne.1 or nationalist po/"tC, upon them,
n" T<>nDC'>C sociall.. coop<:,.,,,e m",'<'menl cmcl'$:N from politically d"c",ng h".oticany penmen! ""lbu",,, of populI' ug... (to .-roccur. as
m"dt ..... mul""llld <O<IC' ''' In lhe 1,10 n,nrlttnlh century. It was ,he "e ,hall ltCC " , Ch. p' O< Four. In the n Ol' in th •• prmg of
01""" ami o ne of the city', moSt consi"ent ly ,isib le wOfking_ 19 I 9) . ".y froln !hc>-< mo.t \1,inc .. Ind 000,'."'0'" laTgCts 10 a mo,e
dau ,""i'utOon The AJlcall2a Coop<:r.ll,,'a (ACT I ran retail d'llkul ...... idcn"!Y or cOntcplu>il .... carillliS! marl<t1 n",d"url$tn.
_hops and phannarlC$ lho. JlfO' ,okd a ,..elfkmg Ind Iov. ... middle...:I... I/OIt,,; /I(}"1:arl It he lrl\all .hopI.ttJIt:T In dial«l). Ora"",,;
clten,.I. ,,"h fairly <hear, detenl pr<>d""" Wllb rr'l<»Oof lhe T(>f"",,,, "l'OI. In an 311ick in 191 7, caughl bel"o ....... hul.,.le, and
,el.il t""" lOS '" Ilaly . . lt y) ,ubd"' IJc,l lntO innulll<mble ' Ill.IIII\ops , coopera ll\'e5. '''os a lraYle "<><II.-amitI11 SOCIal ""lor.)' but as socialist
its coocCm"'tN po" cr ha<l1lOl.blc elf...,ls upon lhe local mark.t . llhough eoop<:.-ali' C$ could DOl """"""...-Illt mar\C1 ''''''''''3"""",I)'.lbe gradu>lIy
no< "lib lhe "'''''' elfcct -s the la'lle "hok53.l .... ,,"" slapcd the t"",," dl"[lpelIl1na ,mart .oopt...epn, "ilb "ah'tned bell .1Id plIlCbtd podet-
bel\\ttn prod"" .... and ohopkC<'J"'f'," booI:. " ... c'on worthy of iO<t'" c<:trt1pti$IotI On tho one hand ill< ht>loncal
\\ nh the on.. t of llle .nd the mam fe .. i""ap.1Clly o f the local or pauem oflhe c'pnali" rnfill .. t;un o f tho Gra ,ns"i wrOle in
n' liollal alJlflo<i llC; 10 pm' Ide UIDan "Of I..,. wilh Of October 1916. "hiCh hod been olTe<!ing prot!uc,ioo for lilt p.Sl CenlW')l.
n:liable <II""lIti ofNsIC n«n>itlC$. the ACT', role InerrasN and btc' ''1C " •• beBiMinglo bt felt "ith in di'lribunon ""h lho ,ub.lI1u!;on of
lhe: llIrge1 for Ittach in lhe deric.llnd lnlor"en,i""i.1 prns TIle grnle.l IIftIi3rU.l or COllage industry by lilt i",,"'lnal en"fJlri .. ,"
Ihr.al '" thoe ACI "a, surmounled In Scptel]'ob(T 1917 "he:n ,n",,'onllOOlSt On tho OIh.r h,nd . as he "l'OIe ;0 tho f.mo us anld. on Ihe RUSlia n
soc ialists wen: ",uoo ly Ix'ien dunng d<Ctlon< he ld fOf Ihe admln istlal". OIU""'I. '1'ho RnolulI"" ap"''' Cap""I'. Iho of
b<.>:>rd. '" th.l JUSI a f .... "ttlo.t lfi., lilt nots of 191 7 Ind III' SS """'S!$ of olpnal ism ha.J beett "",ccmte-d by lr.e of lilt "otid
III lead•..t"p. the J<lCiah,,, «maine<! finn!}' ,n rontrol ofthi. ,ilaJ ...ming_
das.organizallon " In 1916. "" .... "e •. 0 .... d,d no! hI"c 10 odopI Ruui . n H.
G.-a m",i·, '"I<i", 00 cOOpo:ration a polem Ic in hi, col umn not.d, f'" i, .. ",""c . lhat tbe G.rman f1Iliomng lyltC ,n ralher than IIl lta n
'Sotlo I. Mole'. ag. in" Ihc ratbe, I,me clerical of ,o)unlary "",cord. and '-')'311CC upon Ihe n"""''''plac. llad tllOK tqu"ably
I""filecnnll .. nd lrading '" 'Ih Gc-r1IWII'IIam, x""lIcal oompanl'" ott lilt dls.nbuiN rare ".111>, Ie> on Brin ... ellal" SlOJ'e!> I/o ore pn;sed as modem
AC I ., 1"'" " Rapodl} GralTlS\;l ",dtned lbe focu, from jlOl"ical i"'<cli,'. n""",,1 cap".r.>l .It."",,, , •• 10 lho Italian reli.nce upon "",meicnt a nd
I"ith Gram",,', so",osm ., liS ,,,,,,1po''''''''''')''' • selIC",1 dl",u"i"" o f ·p.lm,ilic.l· " " ( Ilnc''''''e, al1 J retallcl$_"
I _ i. tist c",,!,"mll"e 3110"",m-" t<> lhe mo. "olplac •. and Il\()rc broad ly Gr.>ms.:;', In lho debate ot. 0001"""'"'' Iii dim"-'
obo,"'t """ lbe Imn<ilioo from eapnahsm 10 K>CiaJism "'&5 en, l<;aged, r 11\ a """ Iy allnoolN ar11C1<:. ·Sor.. I,OlIO c Coop<:llLoIlOnO' \ 'Soo .. h<m ond
of all. GntmK' » rt'<pOOdtng 10 man ... of loca l O'SpC'C,.Uy lilt Coop<:rallon'} (JO Ocooller 19 16) I"'bli,bed In lh. ACT'. JOUrnal.
."y COI.I""']'I """ bul ""lie. po"-t:TIC$' ,r>dc boord. c"ablt,lItd I. CWp'-'mln'"'' ller. Cmmi<1 'ooapl ll" . le. hi. of
IQ C!Jrb profileering ."d ,ron_out problom, of d"triOllllOO _Thi •. Graln":l "",,,. 11,1 <oop<:r.ti .., bUI a1"" la un<bes into I con,ple, lhcortllC. 1 d,,-
argu.:d. lme lled o f dtm. gogie monipul.tloo. as lbe COIhohc ""ny cooid oussion. "",ph lied for lbe Coop<:f1IlOlS. by ther,c comprchon>lblc
In .,Tord to _hcna!e local ,hopLttpcrs .nOJ "hok.. bu' ••• lbe .."'"
lit,",. desired 10 popular amongst 5«1I0n, o f rllt G""nsc; •• it abundantly clear .lIat WIll be prodtICti"i"
yrunl lcd wOfking d,,,, Of C"n,umcr 0(>0f>I''"' ' ' \\ el\: not. no< ooulJ lhey be. "''''ra l
(irnm"'II"'<lp<>'iO<l lh;n lbe board', puwers bt bo-oadtne<! from oW.c" a- to 'hc>-< polilieS, Sooi.lts,n. lit """0, ''-1 not ."",,1 , 10 ;;01,_ tile probl.m
.ion and monl 10 reptoc ing the "hoIcsakn IS lbe City', ohlCf of d"lnbut ..... o(finlShed pro.Iuca On.be con''''!)'. the rnoraI J... llflCliion
_gcnl, In err« •. v"""",,i adopted a commonly IItld rro- of """trugs.le. ar>d fot' tilt 1\:\'01",00II lhlHlrugglc",1I hring Oboul. '<>rrIC$
anmme o f , InOl.l' pre"'" modtrale European mun ":lpal "",iali>!,. and. froln lho . ... b; lho prol o", ;.. Ihrough Il, ,rili'I'>O o f lh.
I,\. o ' he 1MI an<I "ale' rc(on!llm. he d id not intend to launcb • d lrccl ., iSling of pr<)ll"""00, that COlll'<li"i,m "ill Kf"e to accelerale

- iO
"
 Gra-rue, alld 'he ,!na"h,s/>

the rhythln of p roducMn ",elf. by elim;nall ng all lho", .ni fLci.1 factors but i{ was al so cemrallo ,h. &fon i{;on of hIS fonn of soc ..h,m Al lho
", hlch limil prOOlI<l i" IIy''' Moo,m cop ;t, lisrn had t>ccn " >eh" p, oou,'" wry end of 'he "'ar Gr:1m",i " r l,ine(l his free-'radi, m on ralher

"i" ' '''''kmiZlnS agent. ''''ttJ'lng awk ' k"dal v"tiges'. rq>locing small.". IOne,_ Cotnpanng I"S programme '00 I'J-ej;id;;nt Wilson',. he C'p lai""d 'hat
indu,trial by j oinHlotk compan ;.s th.l f= (1'3& was pan oof >oeiali , rn 's min""al prollJ'lmnte

"'. oothmg <>In.r inO u>tri.1",.".,...t,,«, fonned with !he "0' of ",plou Soc ..)i,,, are (000), f""'_ tr:><ic", bee,"," 'h. " d""',,oe 'hat in ,J.:
Ing e' r i,,1 roc>fC .. bl}' ...1 ",i' 8 ;t !nOro err;" ,,,, ly, r<prc><nt(Lng) 'he f= ,\t:,dopmcn,,,f c, plt.li " """iet)' f"", t.-adc ". ,,'volu,ionary for<:< 'go'""
'im l><" tho, ,he bwrgw;, 'y>!om c.n go 'ow><d, . I,mir."ing the cop;""" the oU'mOOo<i for",s of proouotoQn ,nd o,d" nge '00 th.{ i" "".bli,I><,
"""".d. «",... '<I"',ating the Uclm iml <lemont In 1'<00 "";00 from thc i",I,,,,,, 1<tn"" "'.'!nOn: , "".bl" f,-" ,I>< d«·, lopmon, of i" potcn, i.1 w"bout
pro'''ioo of capi,al" liberty, politico) libeny " • G,oli," . n ,w IOOlo.'"

Gf3mSCI tho producti vi'l, ti>e Of OS wme have arguiOd, the Proud- Th IS i, "h; Gf3m", i was . ttra c,od '00 'he Engli'h rad lcal lit>l;ral, "ho
honi ,n moralist. was ' '''<)IJraSO<J by ,i>e emerge",e of a mechanized ltl li'<n founded Union for Dent"","li, Control .•, nci particu)arly Norman
' futu ," eily' Mooom capila h,l ent<rpri'" wa, Ange ll. ,,·hose w"' Lngs, G ram",i ct .. med, showcd that protec-
,ioonist Sl,lo socia"sm oor cap i{.lism wa, a uni",,,,1 e,il ",,,,ng from
• "",,,I "'rorimcn' of S"'''''' In' O',,,, fof "",..IL"n. bee,"", (i' ",,,cJ) tho inherent de m., nd, of tho conflict itself, Thi, re" asil'e Pru"i. nlSnt .
to demonstrate ow' _,. cle.rly tbe truth tho, 'he " pi" li"" b), DO m,,, ,,, Gramscl felt. lhrca!oned <km"" .. tlc li bertie, "'on \>o fo,o lhe war Froe
''''''''''f)'C ,I>< of mit .. ,,,· •. tbe , i,.1 moo"", for" of ,J.: erooom)' lraJo w", nool oonly • guaran{oor of e n II nght• . howe'·eT. il , 1'0 as a
i, 001 de.dc"<d oy f... , ,he m.on.gm , "d ,econicol ",ffof. firm aco onoto rhor foor Gram", i's ,"v., ima/iS!
m<re ".I.",d """"". wi thou, , 1"',,,,,,,1 ;"'c"", In ,Ot: rrof"', 00" 0 '0 'Il< Th. previousl}' ment ioned ' Soc ial ism and Coore ra{ion' i< oone of the
)",
fin, tc'atnp les ofGTam>ei 's you,h ful 'f,c<: ,rade ' a"t i-' tatism Throughout
,i>e war ye . r.; hI> fea r.; of i'ru,,,an l>'" m.d, hlll' cau""" <OClaliSIS aga inst
Gra ",,,; a,,{i"p"Ic<1how coopora{ ;\e forms o f P'OO U<"011 "ou l<lix moore
, ll ying the m",h-., " i,h the int.",. ,tti onist ,,",-(imo state. [(II' bot amo
p roduct"'e t ha n c" pnalo,' prcde<cssor.; but he cautioned h is re.ders [ha,
e' l>«iall ), pronuu""ed <lUring the deb"o 0"" ",!>e,her or not >oeiah'ls
COn'u"'''r " hil" a neces",ry ingrtdi,nt in {he soci. li"
prog,a"m'". were not central . II 0wo" eT, Ihey func tioned both as a mini -
should join {he B'" C"",mission ()n I'o'lwar ReconStn lctioon.
csta blished by Pri"", l>h nist<r O rl, nJu. <0
ma l;5[ J emand moo il il ing many [l" n->lX' .. lists agai nsl gl1)SleT fo rms
He helinc<! ,h,t . refoorm from , bo"e ' Of "{Ole social ism' had too long
of ' p"cu la! ;on , and a, .. B\C iill m«han;,rn In $OC ial ist d; sttibu""n. esre -
ix-<:n un,:n[ieally """'-'Ptod n en wilhin pTew." sociali, m and MUrl(ist theory
( ia) ly ,n a " ,lIot, '" ha ly w h< ", shupkccp"r.; a nd rea.anl\ "Of 0
n,elf Th is botoomes '" idctH in a n a rticle w," " " n On 8 April 191 7,
" "I'<,""n , bc' o" in [I" , nt arket_p l", •. Soclalo'l cooperative, m",l. he
Gm msei argued
fro m f, •• act;, il)' "f proiota,ial , ooulside 'he
lomo a nd coorrup [i ng intluence s o f bourgC<)i, iogislatio n Or lhe stare,
Mony of "", com,aJ<> ore ,,,II Imbued wtth doc"""" coneemons 'he Sta«
.. IiS1 cool'<'ra'i, es "e re s<",ially usefu l '0 the lower c b sse, . OIherwi<;e
' hot ""'" '''ry fa,lu"Mble '" ,I>< of "",;,1"" 'went}' }'0lI" Th=
th<y Gram",i ,,'rote, prO!cc"OIllS{_OOPO"''''',"" para"",,1organiza- doct,, "", were ",""u",,,ed ;o Ve""'n)" >nO ",,,I,.p> in Gmnony miV-' >1 ill
" un, 'h 'l S"'e ri<;<o '0' group oof pri"llegO<J worlc". who we re ' ""co"fu l "". lhe" ) "" il'<"ioo It" " .. t in I ..)y.• ooo ntf)' .>e" 1«, I'"<{ " -
at fr.'el ng partl3l1y from COp il.l;st <xplon., 'ion, but "bo,e mm<>ry Go"",n' . duo to t''''') '''g fIOlo"", 1OI'''''p<ion ondlll< I><k of
.c,ioon , h'TT1l fn) '" t he" cia» and cos,ly to prod uc"oon generally" p.>rh.m<n" f)' <on« ,oo,,,,,,,. , no " " , " ,J.: 11"" " <" <n<my of '''!'lOn, (of
Tho ge neral tenoo, of' he di scu" ion is linked to h is c'mnectioons ,he m'J"'i'y of c;' ;,en'j.nO "<'Y 11"'" th of It, po" ..... of its >e' i" IIy. of II,
w i,h frtt_lraoc , ,,,,i.,,sts .nd syndical"" in Sardima and Tu rin . 1're' ·loosly. f' ""iorl>.• I",,\,> <Quo l, • iI,ow,h of <omrpw o. of "","' y ,0.- oi,i «"" of 0
Sah em; " , h.d t>I;,,, • majoor infl""""<, a nd during " ar Gmmsci org" " g<"ornllowcri" g of ,he In <1of p"ok «OnOO'tI, ",,,,,,I lifo"
"ed an "'ue of /I G,ido del I'op% dt ' O{od '0 fn;e ".de and .IOCial ism
f"" t raM. Gmm"" bolie"ed . " ould hei r to I.ssen lhc north'SO" lh J ,,·idc

-n
 Gmm.ci', Inll-1'anWl I. 'hrOOlil< h,. Il'fIRlI'rialioo . •! _ ....1) bul ... InW' of ,..."IIS ...... n.coon. r"" at by JU"
SO ....I". ooban of a !Ch,.1n. a ocpo.nuion oh.o<l"n,..:I... from bowjroi. • f... po<os>I. o.nd !at..- by • ,,1IoJ. cotol",o." ." ..
d ..... atJiI .. hy C«UI'" ond
and hfe.,) Ie" "'U1loot him '"..,r fully r renchman',
""". _ ... """,.., ,"" foa. of ''''_laa< '..... ''''' ... "",1. of n:belli"" .nd
Th"
_i.1 m=>I tha, ,'cry .. '""uI!"" I>u I:>c<n r<=d«I hy
en,i", ,fGlam",;,n lang""",, i. drt,..,h<'tI ,,"h Son:h.n
ley """t,. "! Su.:h "nul'n".5 'nd differe,,,e ... ith Son:I ...... "dm' in
..' ,."... labour of w,,,,,,.... bj 'ho d;(f.,_ of c.I'u",.nd ,t,: ,P<Ud of

·Soc .. I"", ,"d ("""l1em"",,'

C"".'" ,nd tho 'f<"OAd ofia<" omon,,, ""'.... 0(""'" Vo'ho '''' .. fi", "".",m.
thm' OtIly of 101""8 ,""or ,mmcd.."
own "0.01'1'" 000 roliliool 1"001"",
S ip, il ";,, •• '" th." .h 'trod be"d In, n"n,)'cob.n ,cal 'ra n, ;.ion ,0
_ iali,m "J>OI' the {J,;l y c'pe';'''''.' of ".. ""'or. in thrir o" n .rade
f('Of 'Oom ... "" '0' ' ' hove ",,1 ",f ..,l iJ.""y ""h o,hm in " .• "m.

uni,,", on.l..oop<"""cs. ,,"h Gram",i o!lud.ng to highly inll"..,t ..1

,ondll'''''', "
bool.. L ·A, ....." '(I("IO/ISfI' .ynd,eal.l. <i",ul.,1'd by Il3lian loti· .. "'I! F<>< Cl"'mfC' II>< henoh Enliglurnmcn' " .... just web. period
socialiS! .nd'j nd,,-ali..c ""';, i>t. before the ....... j n"" book ' •• ignili....". a popula...,clunon"r), uphea,·ol. 'Tho bojonel' of'apoIeoo's :urn,..,'.
'00, " Sorel'" dopanu ... ,nto m),"'"",l,nl! and .he I>< "rote, . foul'ld .he .. road liread) .moothod by "" "'"I>C,blc Inny of
erlobra1'("1<1 of violence. and " Ii"",y pounded ,n htl encoun"" "lib boo,," .nd pamphlct. that had ,,,.TTJ>O<l cu. of Pili. from the firs' half of
Eduard aom,t.,n. '\"",,,io labnol. and ,he fO<me' ana ... hi" Sa,en" 1bc c.&htttnth century Ind h.d P"'P"rN both men aM .""ilUt'oo. fOO" ,he
\Io.hno dUMa ,he lo<Kaliod ,," ",on,.t deb.. ... t tbe 'urn of,he oentury_ ........ "'ry .. n<"al·" Gra""CI'. cullural 'p",foguraIlOfl' denied from
All three th " ,. e" "e......", hlng for m,","!iOn!" "h'" .i, ,I " hOch """",os Ollie' 'hon Sorci. ,lie pre,-;ou, passage .. n",N (lie . ,... dy oo!ed
"" g ht temper Or iUrr'e" _ iali,. ' tamm ,'" A nti '0 complct •• \'Cry . ... ofh,,,,,e-!CO Dc Sa""ti,.nd Gram>c; publ;,hc<l .n"xcerr' from
cirele of ,e.;'!'f<x.1influ.""e •• ,,"""Img to Alfonso Leonc" i. hll SlOrw in /I Cr,,/o dd Pop<>/o fou, mon.hs
G.-am«, 1"1$ In .n,hu".,". ",.do, of the \\cbbs' HIJI(;£)' of Trado. late •. "hlCh bears "m,I.,,'.es ,0 and Culture', "
and ,hell othe. """'sc 'he "<'1}" . . . mplos Solrd u>cd 10 bull"'" Gr.ont,.,i cnHsallod ,he euhu",1 cri'iqu¢ 0<' eapl1,lism .r;.ing "ithin
his 0'llumon1, ,n i. socloiisli' dl'J ',·""KOI>." .11< in,I I1""O"5 Tho. . . nl"'O'. he IKII., in
Gr.lmr.cI'S 'Sorel" .. I. from the maj""'Y of P"""... r ·Soxll".m and tOo.>JlC"'''oo· .......... a Ionk bel" .... prcsoml1Jd futur<_ AI'Id
Ilal .. n OJ n,he.hSI!" Tho Gram«,.n UlInsillon to """ .. lism ... lied upon in lhi. Other ley uti) anide of 1916 Gram;.., once 19a,n ...... an
,h. coo",i"", ..... KKI«l ,n,M'I <nn"" of SIX"I ac •.,... r.I.her than m)ths; from ,he Fr<,..,h Re,,,lLnioo,
and Gr.lm<.<i. "cedi.,., 10 "y, "PI'""".tNthe role of ed...:.uoo and ""If.
N u<atioo, .'On t"ough . .s "e 'h"1 ><...,. had 1.,,1 . ti,"e tt)f the offorts ... nd J." " " wo. the =""", 1'11>01., "'hlOlI ""Cfll00 t><forc
of III< Un" ersl1" Porol • .-e." Rother lhan sha ri "l1 some: .yndirali, t ,nlelk e' . 1"'''1)1 r<><,.,"lIy •• pi<>.I,,'i<. bu, .. lfoutoo by ,II< '."'''"' of f,,,,!.ol,,,"
IU.I, ' fa",,,,.t'OI'1 .. ,th lbe ,magel)' of nHk. "'od.... mtt ll«'uaj, 0<""""'' '
.. h",h ,oud< the 11.-.1 b.-e>t;loe; i" tI,e f,",,-I 'l'''"",; .... .. lIy, ,be
ba'he .... Clram!Ci i1fu«<l ,h. impOfUOCe of lhe ilk of II>r ""nd f".
.11 mon and '","",n Gnu"..,i "rot. a fa""",,! ufiy ""'elo of 1916
"""lI:i c... too ..d nurtur,d by oh< proI ...., ... f... II, ..... " Clas> .nd,. "",,,"
.... 1>< ... ofboutp<>" ..,.0<1). mal bo«>m<. po>OCfful k><r r", onRlbat
·Soc.. h,m and - ,n d;=t respon .. Iu Ennco Leon< ,be holia" '"''I<'Y'P'''
syndicail>t ' ' ' '1'1' .nd [he ,ran"a'or of Sorel', i. <In J,-"dical!,
Ho .. e, <t. In h .. """ogy" IIh !be r ... ,..,h R..-olutlOl'l G"""",i nOt
l1Jd "",,,,,,II} uni'-ersity prof• ....,." "h 0 fl..,"I111"" for
, ,tt...:, He .... s liso """ of"", oh.ef conlnhut"'" and ffl""" .. f'he
5tt • dirtC1 ",1.,oQIUh.p be' ......,n rapillhSln and ,ho cour« of the
the"""I-'.,. CapO/ali'm " ... , a. much . "ullllral as. m,,,.rial phooommoo
'nn,,,, ... and """ largely a ..",hi,,- o'1lon of ' he USl. do C/g ..
of" hKh Grum.<" appa",""y "-OS a 0105< rcaJo.
kk"d<,. e,p.LO [' ,." " oot. on ," ""'01'",., ....,"'•.•
oo" gooi' phtnOII .."""
K.. h". " LS • """'i...." ",,,....,..,..,,;<ure '0. COf,,"'''' f""" " , en by «"""mi.
Thc f."" .h.ol only degrees. """ ""'< .. . tom •. h.. hUm.lMy de,.'''f''''<'''at ""'" lim< oftcr ,he ,,",W d ... ·• n .. '" ro"'''. ",,,,1""1 f"""
e""",'"'''''''' Qf ilJ 0"'" ' .. ,,,,, 0..0 WOfI r", the ngll' 10 'h""" off lbe il> "",ule !O ....1>1, ... " • ..-. "Of """" firmly ,n ,I>< ",.ri,l "
p....... ..r "" ..."..,_ impo>o<d "" " by mi'''.''' ..... P'.""'u, p:riod ,n
h''''''Y And III, . """",kJumeg .. . , f""""" """ untie, ,'''' brutal rooJ of

-"
 Grmn<Cl and the Anarch;</s
Laler. of course. Ihi' interr",lation. mo", ful ly dndo!,cd a nd ca,t 11\ tlIOI'e
pc<> imi;tlc ond locobinical ligh'. sc,m, 10 I"". I.d Grall l>C1 to quali fied
suppo" , or allc"S! S}, mpa,h"li, 'PPTCci., ion for t he Stallni'l ""'ol utlo ,,
from abO\c" In 19 J6. ho",c,cr. hi, larg'ts were thw; po'liti ,;>! soci, li >!s
a,,,i sy" dical im ..... ho persisted III ... ' "e cconom ic ba", from the
socio·pohllCal octo" a"d in<';lUt ions lhot .mbodied Ihe pre",nt historical
.p..xh, And Gra:""" ,', unders'and ing of ,he 'IarxiSl conception of pr',,"s
111,erod G.mM. m"'lI fted by hi! reading of Anton;o L.brio la,
rceei"d its f,rst '[fing in hi, symbollcall; appo,i<c an iclc, ' 11 No>!ro
Marx TOur Ma" ') in 19 18," 11>e "oxt d,y GramSCI pub li,"':d c'Ccrpts
fro m Labnola that ""cal hIS knowlcdge of Labriola's """yl on his"'rical
mate ri , l"m,
I" Ihe excerpt. 'Le id eologie nd d"e"irc "or;co·. Labriola d ,,,,us,.,1
,he rel.tionsh ip be"' .. n the Reformallon and the omorge nce of c.pitallSm
much ;" the same fas h ion as Gramsci d ,,,,us,od 'he rol. ti Oll'lh,p of Ihe
r",nch Rc""lu1LOn to ,he emergonce of e. pltalist hegemon) in France,
ror Labfiok anti cipatmg Webe r, Lu'her . nd particular l} Ca l" n. were
'he UnCO"SC 'OU, .gents of a capitalist rc,olutlon ,OJ
If'he c<onomic base could nOT be separ.ted from 'he c ultu ral super-
Sltuctu,,,, neIt her for 'he yOlm8 Gramsci co"l.! a sc;cnce of we i" lis", be
detachod fro m l"Conomie p",figurat ive in'II1Ul io", ofci';1 """iC1y,
Somehow the supe rior;ly o f MalXlsm would be show" w ithout either
full·blow n rolafi"i'm or embracing a diCtatorial leadersh ,p 0,," '
thost '1X'lal nKI' emon'S that "e", \'ital for tho [ron'''lton '0 socialism.
The r,,\)I<l>n" i, n« on .""y,;t 00;, 001 I,.-e oft" ,cc>, i"n...,,- <'O<pOtaI.
and ",1o;,,,, TIS <o ll"", i"e life c.n '"'''' ,n ,I>< 1<»1 bc compared to ,he
collect i,'< iLfo of." .,m,. ( I s.;..;"Ii>l'"'' _ offieers of the 1'.-01.,.,;..,
""'y, tb<,. ' ... p.n of,1t< prole!>ri". thoy .r< p"rhops ." '""I<i...""",,, bu,
J"" as '''''I<i".,,,,,,, co"nOl be "'1"T:l",d from ," ,no,, ;o",I, '" """i.l i""
,re no! placrd 10 con",,' .,h II .. prolow i.. TheY.T< ono .• Iw.,., 00< , ,,,,I
J"""
'hey do ,,01 bUI Ii,'" ", ;,h ,he prole!>"". hi""" ""',<> . r.d
co",o l""" in t.... ,, ;,., of. ""'-iy.nd i. 001 .bl< to I"e ,nd 010'" ;,h,n ro\>bcr
'TOO""•
luI><. corps< They li,'o ," the [><ol.,.rial. and the" ,"cng,h
i, in t'" p<rfw.d r.e,ioo ,'"'
So for in 'h is cha)l!" J shown how GTant",i 's Hry lie" art;( los
"' a "",ial'" journal ist ont icipate key oonceptS limnd in L 'Omi"e NUOH!
Equa lly. GraHl",i', no'ion of prefiguralion pw:<xlcd hi, cn<Ol!"tor "i, h
L<n in. ,he !lo lsh" ik .nd Wc>! Europe." COUIl,,1 corll",un i,,,,,
l'h;; idoa that "",i, I" m', futurc ",st iIU!;Olb we", fOUlhl in tooay', lobou r
"as al",ad,. 8elllO" ledged by Gramsc, befo", the fev i".1
ofth" faclory i",.",.1 commi,,;o", "",I, ;",I<:cd, ",a, I"""'ed In t lo"", ,ery
tT,Jil io"o l and rCfOfw ;'t m"nib,.ti"n, of SC"Co,," In tcmatlOM I"t soc .. l·
i<m. Ihe coopcrat i,'c',
t-.ow I wun, 1o the broad.. s"" .. Ii>! .nd I. bour movemcnt d Urin g
tl,,' wa r. The raui (r;OT'\ ,orre red by Turi n ,,, the end of '\ " gust 1917 an;
ofc,uci.1 ,mrona"c" ond "ill be «.m ined In ,k'ail , The rok of tile
anarch"" a"J <;-n dl"a ll>h L1I !taly, on general. and Tu ri n i" ponic"I ...
", II bc cnarted so as to in eo,no" Gram",i', "I' i",on, .bo" t w.rtime
allempl>", soc i.It" li bertarian .Ilia"c"' , Grams<: i', op inion, On ,hlS
subje<:1 "'ere mado just os cn,ounterod hI< oo tura l conSfi,""nc;, in The
,uburb" It "as 'ho anor<hlS!> an J soc;.h,ts in the,., industr i.1 suburb,
" ho were prominent in the Wit h,n this conlo" Gra m", i <laTli;e<1
1",l iti c.1 ideology anJ lactics , The peculiarities oIG"""", ,', "ere Jus
"""isten' attemptS to c",ate a ,nord cu llural ;n" il","on of the "", i.list
mowmonl 10 a"glll" '" lhe 1"0 "'ber pi Ila" o f pan,. and e<:O<1ol1l ie instilu-
tLOnS, Iil s re"ultanl l"" il;on r l,lcoJ him ",,!>ide the go neral <O"to" of
, Ioc ", funn,,1, Ill "i n» lisr or lib<rtor ian politi col ,uheul,urc, ()f Itahan
I War a1l(J Ihe L.bo u r ""d SOC i3 liSl L915-18
The F,r.., \\u<IJ \\,. h,J profound "'p"rc,,,,ion, upolT the itail. n oconomy,
tI.., "C," ' fOfce. lhe lrade umoos .00 poiLt i,,1a<g.n il'tion, ,hal rep,-.,,,,n'ed
"ooers and r<a$.1nts" tho '''xkplatc "nd m pan l.1Tncnl. \\'.1rtnne " ,11""0"'
re'ohll lo ni7'<:'! ;OClal ", I.tl on, h, p< m parI> of the count!)"J<. ","'''a, ;ng
,he ntlln bcr ()f 'mall prupnetof> and ,hare""r"pp"" ,,10M further depres,ing
the li,mg >!.ndanls ofl,,,dloss labourors and Ih. ir fam ilies , The "'ar
was f"ughl by p""ant infan,!)' w ho were promISed la"d "nd soci,, 1
justice o n Iho ir ""Uf" home , The combined effectS of ch,ngc> In TUm l
Italy duri ng 'ho blemllQ NiS'<O produce,! m""i" I"nd OC<up"tlOn; I.d
b, "'SOCial ions on parts of lhe forme rly qu ie",.n' sou,h and
sri"," I01o<l 'he lunhcr IIn iom7"tion of land Ie" la bou",rs In 'he Po \ '" Iley
"nd Apu lt "
110" 0' Of. t he most immediate and d ra ma(oc re,u lts of the" or WeTC
secn in mih,",)' induccJ ,h a'. In it; lum " imul"tcd the "'p ,d
gro" 'h "00 ,h. ,ert ic.1 'Old hotllOIHai ,on""I",t ion of the grcat Slco l.
iron .• u1<Mnoll"c and nlb!><r (I h a. '\n",III". Hmb. Fi", and 1'1",11i)
Wh ile Piedmont. Lombardy arid Liguria be<ame hea",ly indu >!roallzod.
tho sotlt h conti ntled 10 I' g sign ifoca"tl}' behi" d"
 Til< war boom was accomp"niod by ,he fi", mass i"e ,,[>Crimen! in Ira n<lotc .\llomnt ic.ll y inlo rapid scien,ific ralionali"li"" or Tayl<>ri <ali"n
slate mte,,'cntion io the economy_ The ,,,.bli,hmeno of a r,gnne of (s", Chap"r r " '0 for a brooder di >tuss;on). L,'<" ,n Tum'. ",dust"all'"
1"<lustri "1 Mobillmlio" meant Iha, induSl')' al>d labour sal re li ed upon a ''''w ph},ical di,i, ion of I.boor wilhin Ihe ir faclOr;e, 10
00 joint producti"" OOard, ."" II . Iso me,nt ,h., ," 'aux ili.ry' . d, ;eve higher proouclion Thi, resulled In the . Ircody me ntioned 'ignifi -
Iho,c d"med associOied " ilh war wor', worker> \upc"'iscd by c. nt incre.sc in Ihe of " omeo and <mployed in he,,,y
soldie" and 10 Ihe rlgours of a modified form ofmaniall .w. If induilry. ben III 'ruml, ,,· here man;· skiliN crofls",en "ere ...,empled
".-,,"me CO'l"'JallS," pr<xluc"d .mbiguou, political effects, o"e ,,'Ust slill from consc,"plion, '·eletlln workers were promoled 10 i"stl"llClO" or forc -
agree wilh Clark", hen he writos ,h.,. 'The war noI only "imu l"ed men fornewcome", ' I
- alld d'Slo rtcd Itail ." Indu",)', bOI did so in pan.eu lar wafs Ihal Women (.nd minors) pl ,yed pO lili<ally sign,(,,,nl role< ,,' f"",o,) "nd
unMrm llled m,"y of Ihe ",ump"ons of Ihc pre.war Libem l Regime'," neighbourhood protests from 1916 to 1918. As Ihey "e.-c "e"he r , ubi",,1
IIlJuSi ,i al "'Ob,Ii7.3Iioo p.rticularly affe"ed Turi o All be end of 191 8 10 <on><rip"on 110' u, ually imprison<d due 10 "IIOmc;al industrial ncnon"
Italy h.d 1976 .ux!li,ry firm, bUI762 oflhom we", eogaged ,n mctal. ill 'au, iIi, 'Y· eng i"eori"g .",1 meta lwork ing f.c torle, prOle", we", oflen
m"k ing or eogi"""rmg. Tunn waS lhe",fore eXI.-cmc, C,'cn ano""lou, In,tI"",1 by Iho",. and bolh USI and orgaml.cr> r""ognl1N Ihe",
examp lo of ".-.rt irne mob;iizahon ."d SI'1e intorve",IOI' ISm. but 100 .stound- lattl <al ulillly in IhlS .-cSpetL S<condly. Mlh Iho rnp,d and relenlloss
ing grov,lh of Fi3l wos CO"trallo Iho ",art'me etOnOmv. It, ,,'" ,n Ihe cosl of I" 'ng . • nd Ihe ellOnno<JS ioc rease in "ork,,'g hours,
omployee, m"e.sed from 4,OQ() i" 1915 1040.0Q() in 19 18. st imulated Womo" 10 demonslmle in Ihe ir nelgltboorboo<! ""rkel-plnces,
"",.-cased fro m 25.5 mil lion 1I .-c in 191" 10125 m, llI on lire in 19 18, In I" T,,, in lhe "'orage ''' "''01 <ons""'pl ion of meal pcr inhab ilanl fell from
19 14" pro<luced 3,300 ",hlCle' but by 1918 Ihi' had grown 10 70,862, 68.18 kg in 19 12 I to 7, n kg in 191 S; ,ugar COnSllmplion fell from
"early 95 poer Ce nt of which we.-c by the Italian armed fore.s "n J 16.45 kg It> kg . Ily mid, 1917 • badly org.nized ')-,Slcm of rationing
i" .11i",.'" for bread a lld paS!. h.d b<"en ,nltoduced . Oil lOp of pressure.
Turi n expcl"lo,>ee<i • "gn,f,,,n t ''"'''''''' in miSrnli"" fi-om ,,'ral Piedmonl poor housing ' lid high .-cnts mob ilized "omen IhroughoUllhe illdustr ial
fueil ed by I'<'a,anl Wome" and m,norS In ..a",h of '" ork 10 replace lhe Iri."glo ."
10" e,rn ins> of conscri pled h",b. "d , Or falhe"_ The c ily • K«enl "mph . ,IS on Ihe relatlOns l"p hel"'e"n 'au"lIa,)' fa",o'Y' aTld
p,,>klam n metropol" due to Ihe W.lf. In 19 11. 19 pcr cent oflhe 10la l ,,,,ighboorllOod I",inllo lhe "nportall<;<; of kinship a"d lies
pofIulalion weTC workers. b) 1\/ 1 Ih ,s h,d risen 10.n extrHor<lin , ry 30 ill de<pening prole". Howe,'''. Ihi' r< laliomh'p can be romami-
pcr « "I. m<anmg thai til< city COIllai,,,..! .lIghll} ,"'-"" dun 150.oc.:l fac,,,,,, ,ized. n<>r can il <,plain whether or not prole,. a,qli ired a particular
workers in a 101a1 5 I 3,OQ()'" - pO lI l""1 Ulll m.'o ly local po"tlcal Ir.l<lilion, an,l 'he abili ly 10
During ,ho Wof I'allan 'y,"cm of industri,1 ",I"'ion, ",poerien<ed main,am prewar why I.'gunan .nd Tonocse
\'aSi change' yet Wme of its unu,ual ch.racteristic,. pre' ,ou;ly dl<"",.w war prole,ts had , igni flcantly diffe,.. nt mi., of d.-, .. Iopmont and diffe.-cnl
In Ch.1plers 0".. and Two , rema ioed presen!. COIl"nu ities were certamly Iype' <>1' l'articipa"IS ,'J For our purpo,." Ihe most rele'-'n' e'a n'ple of
"idenl in the high poercenl.ge of Slrih' caused by p'c<o-r.1Ie dISpule< Ihc of fac lory cullures and I'<'rSOnnel wore Ihose )-,()·ung ,elf
and Ihe adm", i"rali,," of fines, Eq ually. One ca n also dctcel the gro"'lh ed"cated Torinese "orke", Ihe members oflhe seneml ion of 1910 "·e
of egalitarian "'.ge dernand< ,ulv.nccd by ,I1,",><e> <>1'" illed .. t<l unsxi ll«1 en('ounle.-cd in Ihc la!l chapler
"orke",; and . lthough Ih".., WCIT more conunon in Ihe \li la"."e "TId In Tu rin lhe bac kbone of Ihe rc"i,'ed sY>lem of I1liern, 1(011\11\1",0",.
Ligllri.n hlnle rl 'nd. by 1916---17, Ihe} aIT remioisce", of similar mO\'O - wh ich look a promi nen, role i" local di'pute, fro m la'e 19 15 to the en,l
mon!> during 'synd:cal i'<! I1PS" '&'" of 1912 13_10 These, I ""ouk! of Iho ""r. "cre roprc,cntati,'o, of lhe generatl"" of 191 n, or <omNimo,
"ere not merely fom, ilou, rco,:e-u",,,ce,, IIOr did a <ertai" ciass mixlure o,'on Iheir elders, If lhi' i. indicative ofa continuity wilh Ihe p..,war world.
rro<l, ..;e 5I><h )no,-cm,nlS. Allhouglt previou, .rgumeIH' aboUllhe 'deskill. Iho ",k uf HOM within Industrial Mobili7.ali<>n was m<>,. dclinild; a
mg' effecl< of technolog,oal inno\'Olion le,dmg 10' ",dioall,ed ,killed rup'" '" " ilh .\en lhe mOSi aJ """ed aSl'<'cl' of prewar <on·
workforce shou ld not be di,m issed. Ittonl em pir ically base,l ( il i,Ii,,". All h<>ugh Indust ri . 1 Mohil ization was "'ce<<tingly "'press;'-e.
f.cto ry Ie,'el studie> ,kmonSl... e Ihal ",artime mdUSl"alWition did nOI "e",,,he les, ,I <oul d nol dl>peTl'" eTllirely wilh frtt Irado unions; indeed
 il ,,,,,...;cd ,'''',, ,rnp<lIt.!"". lrod",' nal could 001 span"',...,... 'Ulko hmke ou, ,n mil" )" To"' .... f.. ,ori.,.
followed four
"'"'0'""
I>c 11. .... solely through d,acon,.n " ...... " ..... " al"" rr<juo . . \()<I\C d do)" !al.... by an ufficlII g"n ... 1"'nLe "h..:h IUI<:(] unl il the 18 \lay, Just
(orm "(.on",",,.. bel"'=" irodu"nO"'15.rod ...·od..... Although Bruno a. in lhe pte''''''' ..... dLlnnl the Red \\(,(,k. largc <",,,'ds assembled
IiIlO.<LI and lire flO'!'. other Ioadc.-r<. could "'" c, CCSS<:'!. lrodu<lnal 011""'" ,he OIamber ofLabow and """ hurolml tboo.<....-.d dtmonr.t"""'"
' lob,hzallOfl d id gtl3<3rl1('(' Coll« lI\. bIrp,nll'i 10 ... ",,"".I.JlI of dcgret' '. "",,,,bed In an illopl procOSI"'" 10 lhe CeI"" ufTunn " I-.. .. 11-..\ "Oft
..
E'm iflhe sys,= of 1.0,10<1> undor Induslnal dlSjl<1'S«l by co,a"y Sorne of lhe 01&11 d "",hod on IS fa. II:'! Piazza San
... a sign ificant d• .-·pa""", from II" practlCCS of "", .... , lu ly. a good <It. 1 -\lJ Mlno. In ,he \0,), ceNrt' 01' Tunn. "hr:,n! • llyn ,hop "a-, 1oot«l. I
of nOM's stral. g lC chotcos.nd ""roI1' l'"'ny, nll "'lla ni""li"",,1 ""'Ihods banicade erccIOd • • nd on ..dun", of gunfiT< lxt"""" ,he crowd
"as (OfCsh.Jo".d m lhe prt'" sm kos d lKusJ.<il in Chap'''r T"0- While .nd ' '''''P'' oo:; , un-od. ,,1>,,1> ... ,,, Itod ,n ,I" <ltat h of On e )'oung onaJoh!>t
I"" .... i"".1 sccrclJnal of FIO \t ,.mpaiglted 00 n. , i"",,1 " , ''OS ''''' h a, h' lhe aflcnn >th uf ,h" """d enl the AGO "., "'n"",ked by ", Id ;crs and
an wage , I.u", (Ihe " ,,I,, . • min imum " .ge. ' he .'11.1" . Jo,O"' of dcmonst"ltot"S """"od ,'·
w
ho ur <by .. unemplo y",.nl in sur.,,,,, •. IlUUIZI lefl l<' ,,,,,.1 Inlt iot ;" . Ihe O n B May 19 15 luly <ntem ' he "·ar. and the 1<>c. 1Soc" !,,,
u f d ispul •• 0' or eO>H,f·" , Ing 000"$0', I',«e-""., a n,l fi ne" l'al1)' "" er c",ttded 500 ",.",t.c" dutlng ,he "or. i" increas ingly rad;ca l
Thus. duri flg the "-ar. boIh lhe I""al bronches a nd inlen,al CUmnllS\lon \ Ie""""hip did exen I notable ",n... noe "JIOrl 1c.. <:<>m milled hut i"" ",os,ng
lJ«an)( i""lUSi ngl)' impo""nl ""'on. al ,!lese di'puleo <It, elop«l frum ".r·"eary ...-oo..e ... a nd hou.c\\;'..... ,he <onr.1C1 1'1>= on,ran,,·
shop,loor problems on'O Oa.hpolnll di"""ly ",I.I<:(]10 ."her ... ighbour. genii. or a, II>c} "ort' l nown In 1916. lhe ·ngt<h·. "'0" control ofthc
hood prot....ts or ,he broadc-r .nll· .... r mu\On)(nL A tadicallocah"". COrYU'"" " ofll .. 1oea1 bron.ch ,n June 191 In , ,,,-ember 1916,
i"'[>Im! by you"8 and 001 '" YDUrIi >ocw">ls. """,,,hIS" and $yndlClbse .. a """'" pragma,ic. ,f tadic.!. group ohodali sts "u.,cd cootrol from lhe
bo<:am. an inc=singly.moo. problom for lhe n OM nallOOl.l S<'<marial pro, ..... , ("",ioo_ 001 ,,'i,hou, olr,,"1 1'00l1",n. mhlblllnl! lbe or ..,,"'" In
A, 1ll>U.ll' ond ",hers bccIn)( ITl<'rt' <I_ly aSSOC"'t«l " ith lhe ,)"em of 191 • th<y ".,.. :obl.,o ongage In)eI more .,lftn)( ,hclor1c and cui", ""
Indu<lnal MobdlZallOfl. roo 100 d id local tad.,.ls aottu .. them of coIlabora. olil...,....",ilt lire <ui>urban ........ h"'" ·Rlgld· tdtolog) "-all chara<1erim
tiOn " itb tho d ... entm). 0w0""00 10 tho Cornm O:; SIOlll"i ma (,he b) • "".r lenon!>1 "ne 00 OfJI)OSI1U)11 ,o .he ".r.nd Luwmbu'1li<l·hk.
(" Unlln""on OIl Recorult\l<t ion) may h. \C been <ltnouoc«l hy I"''''"'''' 00 I
nalional ism 'DotrIe$Iicolly. tt.: ·ri&!do· <ltm:mdod cornplelo
("mllns", a, lht<>r.,Il", II) I""""""t (or man)· "un.o.. " nptJ l,.. ooyco<t by $O<la""$ of l",tultn.1 M<>b,lmtllOll a nd I mel<>ncaJ ,upport.
"en: more obntnlal; Ono m od 10 kttp dc'''nll' w ith , he " .." 10 a ml m II' "cry reI' "Uempt< . • ! "f lhe w., elron . A llhough boIh lhe
tI,u tl,. "" "''' l<3oclS and .wei. I;', P"' li.mon.. , i"", who <ngag.d lit ' a nd d,e I"" " ,,1"' '' 1,"J 'cals "ere ikplcloJ by cOlt"''' ption. ul<ltr
.""h ,,,, Ai< wore ,'iowed ,,; Ih 1I,.al , u;p"",n t-.., Ol1 heleSI. JUSI I ike the $O<i. li m. ",nle uf " 'hom hild cilhrr be-on q'''c, or . ppare nt ly more mo(ler,,'o
rad,e"l , " f 19 12 13 (woo. in Turi n. ".re ItIOfC o lk" Ihon Ih. $an)( I. b"""re 191 S. c. m< to the fure ,
,n 1917 1918 a ,""" "joe' i"n by mil '''ntS of Bruno Il"oa; " "" hi.,. One uf the mO;[ Import.nl ' no" 'I)" a".k,'"cd· "-><: I.h, ,,, was P, N",
'1\(n" could ",arcely be cOlllcmplJIO<!. IUbbcll.1lla, a comm"".l <Icrl. "00 II ,he age of fony ..."" el«t«l "",mal)
of the b",<><:h ;n ,he aulumn u f 191 An ana",hi .. In h .. )'outh, he main-
Thr Sod a l i., Parry In Turi n Ih o Grn t \hr ""nod de,;.; .""tactS ... llh "",i<al tqlYb"clns and had fuught under .he
anarchl>! ("W'" Ganbald ,an ·co"""'l of lhe Pan. Amik4' c
In 1915 T""nt.sc: """ iali.. s " .. rt' anll ·,nl<TIrnlioniSi and ("'ptian,. at DomoI;"" dunnl lhe C .... n ",,-oIl of 1897_ A•• prominenl
p;te:'/"t 11'I<k...t. Tunn ",as. cllY of _""se .. dmcal. and Goo!!",,,,,, "", ...1", dunng the " lr. be hllnself II ••" .ral Junctu"" In
arod the«fore. Paolu Spn."o <..... Iudo•• """,.i,·"'y hoseile to the "a," anarcl!oJj·nd"a"S! I.rms .• Ckher nt" fa<:es in<ludood Gio,-anni Botro.1
\\ hlle .nll-ml"".n"""'>m " .. IlOl flO ckar eu' in the e. rly 'ulumn o( n"," 'wm« 01><1 1>«"", ,he ""r • Morpn ..... n. At lhe ag" of 35 he """
191 4. when ",pu bl ican F "'n<" . pp"'m! '0 I>< in ohnga o ( be ing o,·.,run lhe Bu nh ga and boc."", • k . d,nll radteal flK"'" " ith in FlO, t.
II)- II", Germ.ns. by • • rl )· 191 o. I I,. lemat. de, d oped On ,be W.... lom r""" ing \'CI). clO5e ,>0. "'I,h ,he 3M n:hl't$ Ftrt'rTO and Ganno,'" Another
hUnl .• nd balll .. " ,,]. ,n'o" ·onllO,,..1 .,uJ on" beea m. nlO,.. f' NJuonl, $O<,ali .. lrode "uion lig" lO. Clrlo n ontti. p",,,dtd. di lIT' li nkage with
Ih. , .... maJo,ity "f tho left m ill ed 10 oppos< Ihe war On 12 M.y. lbe Tonne.. a n. ",h;S! mov ..... n, o(the 1890s He had been ••;( ". 31 II>c

"
 Grom,.(t; __ !PfH'f"I'"u.hip and 1M It"r I,,,,.
'urn "f,he cen,ur} in Tunn. ,hen Incd in an.! b,.". london, ..-heR 10110" .nl!: hal},', entry InW the "or, !be atII",hi" "",,'emem "'" ra,
he .. role for ''''.. ne".pope"'. lIId had n!lUmcd '" Tunn ,·i. le,< .."i,e than Pf'" The ferre, C"de " .... ,."'P""'ril} d.",.,d dllC
S.. ","rlaM ,n 1914. """ lng as the secr.tar}' of Ihe local """"'h of lhe I" lad of fund, .nd '!w: doplttloo of ruppon .... e"u>Cd by
SH.>"l Th" I.",io Llbert"io I"" i" head<j u.rt. rs in 1916. ",any
They ""ere joi""" by local .. omen \<X i. 1i,h "ho b«arne promment onareh"., "ere alIT,'ed .nd do .. ined Aft.". the nOl. In May 191 S. C.ntl(}
as plOIesl b«al11e f""l""nllmongsl female ""n.." In<! house",,,, •• , Of ICHral month. In J.. L Allhough e\Ont .... lly ,elc»cd occaulC
1"'''><ul3f ,mpoftII"'........ l:.iyim Zocra. I delli.. aod ,h. Apullan ",bool· of ill>ufficienl i""rimi ... ,ina c,KIe"". _Ga"no h.od been b",nded 0'.
'ea.:h<r and """bet of .'gl1l ch'ldren. \1.,.;" GUIdIce ... he> 1$ edi,,,.. of 1/ radkal due 10 hi, l<1i, iu., in 1914 and 191 S_
GnJo<kl Popol<> bcf<>IT Augusl 1917, (;ro",.." 's in,.II<:CtUa1 ,,)'10 GanrlO hekl fiftct,n d'lT..... n. jobs durin;1be ,,-at lie "'os ..empltd
ofjoumah,rn" A, Ill< .... ,ghhourhood I" .1Il10 IIC"""fIlicn o f 191 0- \tano rrom eOlllCnp""" !Itt.use oh becon. SQ he cnJO)",d Ihe f!«dom .. ,
M(IOI,!:""na. S"""a S""h,i\ un<! otlters - relnamed In ,n"mal. CO<1I":1 and Ahhough he was «wn I""".,
","h ,h • ..:ti,c .n. ", I"" grou P! in FlO\ ' and l'lamtra d LMilano_ ,he """,.nd fo r hi, ,b lls ... as luch In" he was "e..' ""e"'ployed, Dun"iI
Ily 1917, when 'he relOm" '1> retallled control of no\!. 'he c<X>ile'" lhe "ar hi: ,,". p.'Ild W.""rous ly. recal ling .h., wide wlge differen.ials
and ,hi: p:>rh.rr>rnl.l!)' (VCIJp. ,n. local .,h"011 of A,,,mi' Ind fI Gn,,", pem>le.! ""h,n ,ndu"ry; II Off",n. dl So, 'ah.no. "here he ,,""'ed In
,}"oJ P"p% !lttame ''''''''3m,,)' 110'<10' eI. one of the dri' in!! 1916. he ""S poid one"re hour ho. cOOKn",td ,,'orkm corned ,hrt-e
po"""",1 ,,,., bechind ,h,. Iobd'! " ... AntOlIK> GI'1I!l'I>C', ooJ he for from h... a day"
beln; 011 cond te"... ",th the ·l1gld,· and an"· .... ' ... fonn",, _tie openl)' lIy urly 1916 the a""",hi", began 10 ... ""we.! ,igns of hfo
do, ... te.! an old work.rist ""'I<a!. II>" carle, Fro""",,,o Barben •. nor d.d Ann·" ••• ""reh,m .tId """.hst! eoorum .. ed p.h'.,. prole," againSt ,lie
lI is ",I.'io". " " h Mana Gludke 'n-.pro ... o"on ,file wrote. comf'l";",,,te ". il I'rime Mu""., Sal.nd .... 10 T unn In Jan".!), 1916 , In the lumme,
(1)11,,"1)' for 1>", hu,bond. ki lie<! •• ,he fronl m 191 S. of 1916 lite Ferrcr C,rel. re<>pcllCd it> doors, The =st.b lish",.nl
re,'.al. a '''IT'r i,ing 5C1I.I11I""y "'.... rd' ido.lislle ' I.v.lLm.n suppoflfn ""n.e,,· ,hea"" group. I. bIOOr_rnm. "ca Eden. broughl "."
of the " .. th>! irlCluded hll da; ...... p.lrn,,,, TOiII,,!!;'" '«filII> ond the ) ""ng pol"'" ,,.. onarrh,>I. (;,UOCf'!'C Motnbclti. prt$IJtd
C;,."...,,·.pll llll$O]>h ,cal deab"" aod hIS Socm,e melhodofpohll"al 0' or , re ..... "'d proanmme '" AnlI",h,;I> IISQ reappeared
cdtlCaIicn "ere """he! romprebend<d nor 1flIII'O<'' '''''' by many ref"""'iI> In ,Ire.' demon$l"'''OII,.Dd II publk forums, On [by in 1916
oroldo, r:odical. Rathe,. tl ",.. ,he gef><f1'1icn of 1910.• ubtlrban ooci.I" .. . • he anan.-h',1 \tl'lllI>'" .nd """,.1 )'OI'ng wortm ........
""h hlVo "".< o f .,.mpll"n fro'" coo«ri",io" an.! kmjl._Ia;lIng 1IC$ "ith • ,re;I.d d"n"g an 'liegal In lu,,,, ,oIHmrl! n."..,.te.Ilha,'!w: la,r,"
. ,weh .. l<. "''''' h Im 10 1'01',,1., Tonncse ooci.li" poli l"" 0"., gIQ""",/e of Borgo San Pao lo h.d called for a ulilled forn \ of ,,,,,,,,11,1>
Krou P ",thi n Ih" , ,,beull,,re. the .. "",1\"". !Itt.me more .nd "ben.ri.ns, Although Ihi, was dcno,mced by (ir.",,,,,. i. "as &en",,!
IS ,he "'a, progrt"sed, I " .11 no" 'urn to I diloCU',lIln of !heir poil1ioo, ,mportan. 10 he dueuS$<d a' lhe Piedmomese FGS tong ...... held

Th f T nr lncl" 1915--18 P.>o;>Io's I.ad ".f.

00 I luI)·. "here call. by oomc T<>riTlC$< OOCiali,., '0 follovo' Borgo San
rq""h.-.lI,.P· n.e ",.<1I0Il by .he pro,-;ncial c""W""
of )'''''"11 "", i.hStS may h.... been I"'n .. lI) n'IO." ... J tJ,.•he pubh.'
The "'or did nor c"",,, as , great >tJlJIfi", rot Ganno.
Hc =.11ed dose",,,,, of }ounll 10 ,hi:: .""",h"IO. 5C,,,,,,1 of whom
Ihe Ferno' CI",'e during thc \\.rs. ".minw of.n wmlld . , .n con,iderablo on ,,,"tI" In 1917 and during the
Impend "8 catastrophe H""e\'cr. wi"," "'0' dId hre.k 0<11 ",veral To"",.,,,, hio"",,, ",.,, ,," II,. the <11m me, the pr.f..:t als.o noti'ed Iho ItI<",a"" !
o". rehi,l. JOlll"d Ih< rc,'olcl l,,,,.ry int."'.nti",, i... T"o of 'lu.soli"i·, ":"'''Y o f II .... nard".'1 .nd wrotc to Rome on 26 ""gu" thaI II 'IS
e3thes.! '»<>Clale< "IT< \ " no G inda and M",\'nlI) RQC<'. In. .}'nd;c.h'15 rominllJlI), dcHlopinllln )'ouna "",,,,I,,,, cl",l.. Ihrough the publk
P"lIodro Ind "'aM' "'ere ,,,,,ife",,,,, inl."enllOlli ... , OIhers, ""'h I I ",nd. tamed out by the more capabl. lnareh»ll aod .hrough " .. kl)
Ganno·, fdl"" rnodclmakns. I'a,ooi and lUlgi 1.llh. I Ars<tII1 pm",c ...... ,n@ •• ho.are becoming By!ht 'umrner the
... ""'er a.c"w In.be: r.""", Ubcnano. left for r nrlCe 10 ,,"h .he I .",io I.ibcnario "'as ":"'t _8aln , On 25 June 10 members ga'hered 10
g,mnmdm1on'be Marne" d,s.cu» !he" rosi""" .fter ,II< rec.nt of "" _"li·,ntcr"",",iO"'"
LSI in FIOftro<. In lhe ."Iu"",, Ihc r""",,, L,bcnano (no" n"mbtn", T bt FOil; of 22126 A" \:Ui ! 1911: O rigin'
f,,,)' 1 "OS .norM .' 'ht socllll",>' !Itt""'I1, ...
"f,hI; \ "iNc an" ·\ut .«i\ ")' ,n Tunn ,n 1916 an.1 19 1 1TQ5C r...,r maIn cau,n ha,·. bt"" ..ho"".<1 10 upllin ,1>0 riOl,ng of 12
fro", m""d ifOUl" of atld sociali'lS. On. of lhe" 26 AugUloI 1917." The fl,.." .md musl impor"'"' ,,'" !he b;gh
,,,,,n PO'"!> the ,u",mer and autumn of 1916 ofb:l,oe nee.,..;"", ,n '!"unn. an.1lht collapse of dfte"'.prm,;,Kln·
cern,d lhc imm"",nl <'teU",'" ", ,he \\oN:>l} (m.,.-mbcr In. of no,,, ond bread ,n 1911, In lhe SUIIlIl1<1 G",m",i had OOlN
"r 'ho ,'\m""'l3n Indu>lIl.1 of 'he \\.",1.1 I .- Carl" T"'<.c3 h, ,,,,,,,,= olonmng .. nde""ioo and had "arnc-d u,"""""
fll< d,,,,
of \be
'hc ".1< of de""",,, ... ,,,,", "ha, "'" w,<kl) '''''>«1"<'''''''', Wh,1e hos 131'" us..noO!U 'M' G;ol;ltlan d""",m. sabotaged
I '" U "0",,,,1 ,.,,'''''') "ore fhe 'he p",,',,;on,ng SYllem ro u to d;«rc<l" ,h'It opponc"" in Rom.
g"'cmtm"' "atu",II), tl>o "''''''h''l> rla)'oJ prom",cn, .01" in Rom, n»y ht ..."I.tId"h, h,' oi,'Itc""" of absurd"i", and in<:qu,h"", "ere
\I,b" .,,<1 Tu rin I t W", a" ,x"" i,," f," the I"f. '" rail ) ICC""'C c,""'gh" h><kcd. the f'flt signs of P!O!Cs' were " match of a
Ihe "M. and "n"r a f", T",," (In 2 Se r ,c," hocr. of SIll,1I group of womc n to fhe oflh. e;,y.• ,",p,,,","d by ,he lonll
"x iol"" ,,,,d "".. "h i,,, 11\" "okn' i"" i.1"n' i" ,hoc ci" q""".... '0
. ., On. oflhc ru,,,,,,,rs lh .. >eemed deepen ,he ",01""".
,'cntrc, Ten do" Ialcr, afl<1 • ..."IIe, p, "" ,e """·W", ",,,c'ing of the ,"" i. 1 " •• • renee""" of )'Nrs of SlOKJ-Up re<entm.",.
.. Jd"·,,,,,d by 'he "-'< 'JI,\, J'put) I .......''''"'0 Cit.:oni, m.,r. J"furban,,·, The mQ>! common ",'ole<.! men"",OS of Iht Fre""h Rnol,,!ion Wh,k
"",. pi""" On 20 Scl"l.:mt>:r ."."IIe, ",o«,"g b) ,hoc aT\O",h"1 P"S'>,ng a II"""!' of her tu • ..,. mol'" oar, Dwe.lthy w"",,,n
I :'3 .nJ the "",i.]i", .....M·a. Go,J,,'. and Rabbou,,,,, ... " ".s "'"posed '0 halO ••h ised ,ht hunlU}' fM' lhe) oould
.n.",h,,, .n"·war dl>onbulod • "'l"""""" (;rupp" .II It.Iog",." ...1 If bread .. ", no IofI&e1I'a,lablc' Thore os ",de;.pre3<l cireum·
"""'" L'f It, mnn""'-' ,d.""" •• \H'" 'I",dl) "" •• 1.-.1 ... Slan"al '" tdence '0 "'1\&'" IN" nour "as bti., dil ened from populu
On. of ,he I!1ffi1 p,,,,,,,nCTU mom""" "., C"""'<ll Qu:.gl,no. a )"""1 .uburban '0 """" pa"!}' ,n t1>o c;ry «lIlre.
"ude", '" the 1,lItuto T",,"ioo Soonn""I., Ib IIJ'OU ,n Tunn! The pOllo< Indeed. pa.!!) si'lors ""'" a '""'S'" of Iooomg dUllng ,he fi ...
l""tId .1.000 oOp,c> Oflhe group', le.n ... dunnll a ,.id earnc"<l oul on 2 <by', nolong."n.: authon, .., !'CCOlIn;«d \be of ,,,,,,,,mud< ;n cht"
°
(,)o"\t,,r, On 15 (kwbe, a g'''''p "(t"ch ""'-' arres'cd Th", »>I<:n! ofpro";.iOllmg Ind noodod 'Il< Ira ,,!th /lour and bread. bu, Ih"
"'er. e"he, \ ery y{>U"g 01 qu"" lO,ddl,· atld "'''''pi /i>r . • 11 '00 late w pre, "m ".r;ous blood'hcd,
",IT manual "o,h"," Ifthc d()Sure sp,rked offrioung. lite second ,"usc. ,nd uo·
, 11<'or 'unou' n,,,,,,, 10')' <lori'od fro'" , ""' ngo ''''path) r",. tr;, ' unr"" ooupled "ar w,"nne». workcrs' 'CllIP<:'" Mot io
g""' p of Y<Kl "g miIi..", OI";·,,.r ('.I I", I, ,, ".ro currently holdong \ I"nl.gnan. rec,lled hl> foi l"" "O!"km:"", " ' ho O,ano plan' qu iokly
.1i"""io", "'oth G''Inse, "' ,1>0 cdlt,,,,.1 "mil'> "U I Gnd" dd P"!,,,I,,," I",n,formed , bre.d prol"" ,n lOan ,nn·wnr <k(t\()ll"",.ion ,"
I he gmup', I•• nc' .wule<.! '0 s.o lJ,ers 10 Je.crt . 'Hj !<, ""n. n.,i,,,,.1 Ily the 'pring of I'l l 7 an all ,anco of _ .. hil> .nd anarchist. ,,,
"" "II tt> Inal on 1'117. " 'Y,rn •. Cherub,n, and Elia n,,,en ,-..I oun c"",idcn.ble . .u", upon Buo", .tId Colomb;no, &0"", of II",
,h",c·; car priS<'ll seOl,,,,,.,. Qu.gh"". .tId Allolio r""e"ed I'", P"''"'u" arose from !he incre' ''"11 ''''p"n'''''' of!ht US I and it> Sindac.,o
)t ..",. All ,he ,mp,,-<Qned wore rek»N by <301) 1919 dier 3 ... 1 \ 1... in Lilluna ... ,><Ioub1tdly lhe ocriou. nOl,ng ,n s..tri P{lflC1l!<
'","".f) ""> dtcl"ored ., in July h3d nurt.ed .ffee15 upoo !he O'!T1O>p/'lcn" ,n Turin', -",burtn dunng
B) ,he <Um"",r of I 'I161M al'\lO!<h,,,, ""'. (>romi"en1 in ,he " .... , kading up 10 ,he tls,ng,- 110...,...-. Ill< probl""'" of
d,,,·u.,,,,,,, and ,ltttt d,.,um."" ••. and ,heir """""e> .oem'" k>nJ """n. 1i"",:meI 1he """ d,,,,,plin.ary rod< ,,"hm ,he fxtori", began
of a1'''''''"11 Its, pohlllali. ",)m,mt",d Of ,he l().l !o dim"" ,he PN"" 1lIal faotonc> had I\nm 191) to 1916
,nd" ,Ju.l. an=ed dUllng ,Il< 1',\11"">. 'bony "eTC untkT 1'1 ho", C'atly \Iatch 1916 "''''''' brol. 0,," In Oetobet Gar;no ,001<
)""" Qf age and • furthtt <() "ndor I"cn,y""" .' you.h. too. "uuld pia) pan ,n an ,tId\lSln.1 d"l'Ule at Sa"lIhano .,;"n8 from ",'omen's demand.
a do;;"", rok in 'ho I"", 4'W"I of I Q I 7. fo,. higher wageo, A slIO!t 8f\Onie,al "'as .. compamed by • m<e1,ng
af lhe ms" dcl popt>lll ,n 1l0'1lo V,nona Garino w"' <M . ed ' ''.r 'hc
dema",!, of ,h. m;kers w('" "."ilily "'c" More 01"" <.000 w",\ers

"'
 001 ,n "lth him, and ano<htr """ beld al,"""gIo broke 001 ,n lhe aulomobile pl...... _On 5 JUIlC SOO"odeB """'k a. San
.h" had no effec. "" Glnno 's postl"'" "" G'O<'];IO-F .. , 0'"<'1 dIK;pltne_ "·00 lbelt poinl .f,.,. • particularly
Other al\lln;h.ru '"'''' ,nc"'-"Lnlll)· prom"'".... "nhm factories: San,,", =Iott, fun:man "u from July 1,000 ".or\..s
0..
or Du""",,, lb. 1888,n AleWndnl) "·,,nm r iot F......,,,, \800 mctI and 200 "ornen) ..... lhd out al Rap,d, The" dem;onch lneluded
W", ,ncr.u.ngly pl\l""nenl "ithin nO\1 "hhough lie "orkcd in til< • 10) P'" co'" ,ise for .he ",,,,,,,,n and f.... r disrrilm.i"" of picee ,,<>rio., "'
Arsen.l. ""'" ,mp'"'' 'n', p"map<, ....,to Mano (b. 1882 a' Valle Allhough ,he", ........" ,lion Ii, ed, .hoOf FilSt,
S." Nicol" the' ·orce llcse). L, •• so many olh", Tori"." anarchi,a ho in Augu" "orkel'S from Rap id . ",1 San O,org.o "'",,Idoc panicul..ly
m igrol<d from tn" ,'oredlt",. ,\"1". bulh 'n 1110 Piedmont... and 'Ncr, '''I'.. ,n Ih. n"", S«oodly, lhe {)Ider anan:h ••1 OWOS"'OII of 1911 12
appeamt one. 19atn '0 ,,,,,,a •.,, B..ou.'HOOrrol of "";""i,ed car ... or\..."
n•• i"".1 "",,,,hi., """.,nc"" .inc. ,he 18'X)\,'n (he 19()()s he h.J I,,·c'{)
," Lond<.n onJ. "or\..ed ." "h all"""gIo Ihl< dMl noc n.: R"!oS'''' Ito,olu""" ,n F.bru:tl) " ... lhe Ih.nle.a", of ,he ,.,
h.m 110m .... p.u1 m """"'!>S! poll"'" earl.O'I', dUI1n8 Ih. in Uere, 100, lhe .,,-,reh,'" pl.yed • prom",..." n*, pilnictollriy ;n int<:rpI'CI-
"""hem 1....1) r...,.., 1915 he " -,,, ... ..,UH lnatth,., on Turin and panil;u. on, ,ts ,he ,ubttrtw> In rhe fi .... pi"". Tonn ..,Ied
larIy prom"'('f\1 ""h.n FlaM as On nrpnLlO'l' both ,n L,guria and Tunn U I "",n:. for Inan;h,,, 1""""1,,'" ago"''' .he ".r and ,n ... ppon of
II. " .. an od,OClI'C of uni'al) syndIC,I", and ",o."ali" (r.o<lc Un","" .nd ,he R".,iln R.,olu"""_ Local anarch"" jlC',n,ed .wo of Luigi rlbbfi'l
oecmcd to h.... mo, ""h lOme 'IKee» ,n Scs ... Pooe" •• and Bol.. ",:I'o Il"mphl .... (r.bbr, "a, M.I"escl's I.a.dlnll ,hc<I",lici.nj. The fil'>' WOS
He "''' cd aj a condu" of tnfoomatoon bot"""n .he 'pJ<!;e.l i" S,ndatalO ."Iolled La g"c,ra gil Q"Q,.-hld (Tloe E;urop.'''" liar Qml
Mct.I"nl! ico 1.><1 subu rba n "narch"i> ."J """ .. hslO 'n Turi n, Se,'cr.1 A"anhi>/.<) Ind ",n pubh,iIcJ Ln Jun. 1916 I, WI. "'nnon by F.bb,i 01
.rloc le> ,n 110\1'. , rade Joumal, .d,oca'lna a u""cd front of 1Il0,al \ 1. latesca" bd",,, '" onkr '0 denootIC. lhe ,{) •• m.It"",,1 pro,,, . r "oa,chisc
,,<>rIo.CI'> ""'y h",c bo"" wntlen by h,,,,_ Ik wo. 11.,,«1 coolly by m,n ifo"o ,.."ed.n ron, i" March 1916, n.: loCCood ".,,, a ""n if••10
leadc",hip a"" "p"lled from ,he "Wlonal tx>ord ILig"na) of ,he
100".1".1 MobohL"'",n in ,he au'umn of 1915 Ill .. 'ng. si, mon.h
£ppwr $' ,",m'.. (G. ld ... ', f.moos <Ior",nl d",(um 'And )'<1" "",,·c,'),
published 1<"5 thon I lear Ia..... "" 15 Apr;1 1917. and one of the firsl
"""mc.-c III",,) fo. am,-"", in lhe "·,nln and SjlnTt&of 1918_ ' ltali ... al\llrehlll acrounts of the febnoal)· Re"\1)lulion, ,..
G .... 'cr Ind """" cwnul •• i'-e on 13"""';1 Ind h" lsooci ... > Th< 1916 1>0...Ue'l. anticipales the April ma",f..to Fabbri ...." conllCC-
cam. lrom .he (j'''oo-F.t'I'rn)-Boero alha",. "i"'on Tunn', 'IIIronan, to""> ocl"""" ''''Il''nal"m .nd ,ap"alosm, "eleOO>ed ",'h """"-I'OOns
FlaM bro",h lIuou, 'ried 10 "'al some oflh'ir .honlkT by II"rI<h,ng ,he Zitnme", .IJ Mo".tnen. and •.Ltd .he need for • uni.ed .,,11
.n .Ighl- """r da), dunns .1Ie sp"ns of 1917 b<J, he anJ oillor "ar fro,,' of an.rehi". and .o,,,.lisc,. P""ifill •• well .. call.
members of'h, Ir.d'l1>h,p "cr. ,u "JccI"d '0 "' ..... <1)' me."",&> .hat 'P""II for a nego"'''.'' """ ',menl bet" .en wcr. "'J«.,d_ R"'IIo"
'he "or
."d , LlnUner, An ngonl of hodu\ttial MohLh>.."o" d.nned ,loa' .he anan;h i", "'.\ scc n ". oceuion for "",i.1 1'C,·olul;on, . nd Fabbri (u nder 'he
"on' ,"'''''''s, ng 11>:" """,i,dand""ine P'1lI,,!!.nda " ,Ih,n Ii.ll)' f"",IOriO!< Od"orJ,o Agnelli (')1, look hean "( ,h.
recent Sinn FCIn
and one C"<.n'pk "f'lIe 5) nlpWhy ,hey .,·oIced.:an be <Io1llOOlSUa.ed up(ist"8 ,n Dublin. In April 1917 il seemed u,f Fabbri's w"he. had
b) ",,.IIL"'" ) 10\1 mteI'''g held on.ll M.y 1917 w hen 0'" 1,000 meIlIl 1>«" fulfilled ,n RUSJLI .. '"
"-01 ern".led ,n'o .he CharnhcT oflaboor to ,lie "","$I on ,he n.: monl drown from Fabbri'$ J'Il'Ple prOS( ..... ,h.a, only m,h",,"
f.c.on." Gi.. "" <pOLe for .he lefh"na Of'pUO,,,on and <Iomanded a ,mi.".. , JIfO'JI'> !lad profned frolll ,he R"!oS"" Re"\oIu'K>r>, ,n "h,<h.
g<'ne,al .rnle agllLn>l '''''uSlnll MoMlu, ..", and aj?m .. d.. rna., ot "",l eI pta,.."' "'ldi.... "oold !IOOd ",mum a " ..l 8m'omme"'
1""''''.0 of .end,ng rroubk",me ,,<>rIo.en '0 pan"ulariy 1<1h.a1 oeclol'> of of hbr",l! and liOC,ali,,,. Thi. broad,hee' ... med .0 hI'''
,he " ar fmn. Th. FIO\l e_, ""u.i, e cotn"'''''e .llmed the .. med crowd a ",(Ie .",ulotion in nonhem and cen.ral Italy, g..... "ll .he
bu, on 23 J"ne I bin" confront. " "" eroJ'led OIIC. "8"''' oc, ......," " Ferre"" ,moonlit! some eousc for "1.rm'" C.".,nly by ,he su",mer of 1917,
G."no .nd £l.ocro, o n lhe "ne , ide. and lhe ("'(UI;'. comm a,e.." on Ihe when • cI< kill''''''' of M"".he, ,ks .. ><I s.x
i.1 is! RcvolUlionane, "'J""5<1 L1ing
o' her. '" lh. So,iel ,ourod lilly, Ihc o".rel,,"" had adop' ed a pro,
m«""¥'
'I bo .. f..... u" ... ,,,,"uned ju'>! IS ,lion u""m, ,al Bohhe,·;k pc»ilK>r> ",.,
>Ink .. (" h"'h neHtlhek" had the op<n 'uppott of!he I.n·" 'ng of FtO\1l J"",,, ,he •• mpa,sn in 1916 ,JI"",ro fo. publ,c demonsua"""s

 aga''''tthe "'a. "', too. did the", mIlCh IlIgOT OUl<1oor ... offe.".", .... or!< In ra<:roOcs. G .",oo d.",'S ,h" the 10.... Circle arod lhe Grupp<>
oppoMun,ucs. DIonna , .... l<C'Cond ".,..,,,na in Tunn of'he II,,><-oan •Agro- Barrien dl \Iil...., Ioclped , RI,I".. )"""" for I!OOd """""'" ,,= palilCub!ly
fOf Pe3U' on IJ '"'"aus'.IAe. Semo,i had ,nattu"ucly t.... "'la'ed
tlot of the Gokknbe'l 10 orpea, au eMir"m
"",i,'c, A loadIng leli-" in, ",",,"IoSl. ,.... '.,.polltan I rato<cs<o \Ii"."".
w .. ""uglood to S"lllcrlind and I. 1<2>1 <!w,ng the "-"'. lu be
of the "'or. local 'rig ,d' _ial"1:5 _rod the anarch,,, ,o,=Im<> Acu,i. (..-c 'oOITIC1h1"l! of. linl btl".." Ton...,. _ .. I"... the 1/ R;.,,"'8/'" irouP
Cbaple. T",'o) rcitcn:ed ohc ",. and desert"r.; in I,aly.h) .
The au th",mcs may adnolOledged the role of bre.d How"'=, a Tori ..... pol;"c IJI)' "'m, "'ntot<.rod clllmttl In an uns,gned
1homoS'" in ""ung off 'he ,\ugu., nou, hu" c.. , ,to.)' "ere nol< ..-n1t<n in Julv 1917, that the Sf!. Ren"nl. tilt Intemanon.1 C"m,
co,,,,,.rocd aOOon ,he pan pl.yed by an.",h"t '''>!lg'' otS, The f"""h C'u'" miU« ."d the T"";".,,,, ana"h'Sl5 I.'
en .. ,II< Gruppo Barriera dl
of tilt .iO!>. 'he role of Ihe aM",hi,ls, i5 clo .. the most <(})"en"",,, M,I.",,) werc plOlttng an In,unc<"on , Gramsc, may ha,'. alS(> nOlffl the
"" "h ,he fum ",,<ulTing leu th.n a fonn lght .t\e , Acu,;, 's in'ononllon. eel>o of ,he", cl."". III s..plomh<r 19 17, "lten ,I><y wcro Jl'OS"bly le"l.ed
h. wa, clea,ly marked out •• _ 5Capesoat, Iiu"'..... r, at h i, tr;a l in 1918 'u .he cnn,en'ati, 0 p re .. , La'e •. in January 'S," ' IO gave. 'pooc h
to llo" mg his arre51 in Stplembe. 19 1?, Acull. walacquitted of.1I cha,¥", ,n lund, deferodmg the/um. "hlCn conflrrn«l ln til.. mind, o f.1>< oudoon'
rel.t ing to tto. jaill. Funl><nn<)ft, ,he I ... rchim doc,_lwo ",,'.r claImed ,i<l the correet ..... of ,he &P}'"I p""hCllonS, 1101' C\ c•. other rcpOflS by
'Ilty organized ,he mi 'ial demonstl1lll0'"" In hi s old G.ri"" on "',.nd til< >arne I!'Y show lh.u !be R"""," Inan:h,S!. Tomn",,,, \lon.; .. III, wnung
oceanoos agreed '0 thl< prop<»ition, ".. ClO$<"r ' 0 the owot!. on ,he fir>! on behalf of the [r....-nation.1 Commo:reo.1t1pp(at'nI rrnJaJ1<ably In·,nfon-ned
.nni' ....... I)·. L ",4"'..ni", A1UI,...h=, and in ,to. Tonn(Se ooditi<ln of C""'''''<I of To... ".,. t'en1. dunn, tbe: .UI'JII'I'IC' l It ""flIC<tffl inf""""'ion from
s.,"'",i, .. ,n 1920. the Ton".", ,nd"'tdl>llt" Kiln" C ...", Sobnto ,to. Tori...,.., romf3dcs obouI """'"' in Tun .. \hl ... Ind Liguria. and wood
,-"'" Cha", .. T",,,) c!O!!nood ,he nOli Wm: complo,.1y 'p<>ntarocou5. ,II<on for ,ugg..,<iI anlH'''. proJIOgand:a "boc" ,he Cumm"''''' mi&ht
1110".'''- ,hi. sIIottld DOl be: ronli.krtd ,II< t1>O>l di.in,o..,,<iI SOUrc. of prcparc. buI he only p .. vag ... Indeed.. TOfi !>e5C
c"dence "nee- both jon"",I, "C'" t(fltood by . .. etUmOurcd of a .. rc",0;1 '0 \ 1""'ocelll ,n Qc,obt-•. 191 7 lanttnll"l! tbe looLouon
Ipono"",,")"1 Humncal !"CCOIt>Ul>CI""", how''''''' rc",f"",. the COItiCn\.U$.'" "fTunn before. dunns.nd .n•• ,he . • nd .... ood the In'cmal''''''''
It" inil ,."d 'hI>. " "'"lClh"'l! to ,he .u'honu ... • Concerns. rm,'. Cornrn in« ' 0 coli ... , 300 Ii", for the of pnsoncr.;. 'Ilt "oundtd
.nJ"h IS" d id ha,. a clearly deflocd no:1"or\; of ""m. In "nd the dead , '" P",.in.unc.:tiona.y pl.""mll ",.m<d mmllnal ,Ite
foctot->C. and ncighboul"hood<, I . Irudy noted ,toeir i""oa"nll ,mpoll' o."ho,;uo, had confu ..d th is "'I,h a ",,1"'00<. ,ha, dlllnbute<ll •• l1o ... nd
oncc ,, ;t!ltn FIO\l. bu, in the AI,,,,.,.i' rI.'f'011e<1 progre>si, 'cly larg.r h,J or ,,,,,,,ported, (pcrh.p.) "Mu ilicant "umber of de .. nor.;. l low..-cr.
""",Is at meeting. of the: Fo""o L,b<n.no he ld ."1,,, lQC ialjm' b<erh"1I <'nco ,h. riN;ng <omn\eoced dunnM the ofle""",n o f 22 Augu>! 1917.
,nd ,n ,h.ir ,ub..rban 'lrongheld5, ". s.x:ondly.• Ithough thcy "'". "", .naIThl s!S sought '0 impose la<'ic.1 and ""I;lll)" lI"i,l.:Jncc On ,Ioe unfoldmg
."",,,,ely dTeC1t"., members of ,he I\on," based Com""".. of Inter. de\'doptnen1S
"'''on.,1 Anarchis, Action dId '''PI'ly tl:<- local an.",hi51' with antH"U
Ie.ll.". For imtanc<. G.ri"" anJ anotll<. ana",I"" W<re ca"ght ",nding
,,,lI·mllo,,,",, 10.11..,,, (pr.,..,ou.l\ by ,he polore in ""pl"l '0 a
f]"(KItI,,,. >OId1C'l" (GOo'lInnl \ mon. b, 1891 ,n T uri ... "arp<"IIlCTl in \Ioy Wben bai.eries ",ma.lned cl<»c<J on the ..-..'nB of22 Au,,,, •• group of
1917. '
fifty ".-omen II<adeJ fOf ,Ite unt"" nlan:bcd IU tlte Palaao <.Itl
\lost of the .ub-I ....,. literatim and eorrcspondc""o btl"""" Torinc>c
Popok> "I><tt the Chunbtl oflabour and the AGO toad the" headquaric,.;
"""",hlS!S. ooId,..... deocnrn and lhe Commin"" "<rc tram- In' ...... ptil\i ,bc con&"," of lh. SF!. CUITCn,ly be,ng beld ,n TUTln.
m.UN through Giu",ppe Ranmcrro'i lb. 1867 ,n CUlIC'(>j ".,..• lioslr. ,n
,he "'0""'". by""" JOined t>,.. la'¥e. c"",d of Iltl.! .n
Vi, 'lUll. B.r;>ttoro lnolnt:linc<i ,00'1<1:5 ,,"h ,he h.. lo-Sw;., f"end mprumpln prolC<l mcC1'"g, R)' mHlll)' tto. Arsenal wor\m In Borgo Dora
of M.la''''I>. LUIgi Ikrtoni. ,hi: Ion&-Jlarod,ng cd""" of /I RUl'eg/o" In had " alhd 0.' .rod "or!<er; fro," Borso Paolo, and otlters from
Gene", It ..em. de. r .h., !la",,, •• o .rId «her a n.",hi" •• ",uu,lcd
OIf>einc di D' 3"0 of B.rrie,. J, C>!l>u.."" millood in ,II< ,treet; QUl,ide
delcn"" '0 S"'L<.rlaoo or h tJ 'hem ,n l un" by >ccu''''i' fal"" P'p'rS 10 thl: Pal.uo, "The mco"nH wu .""""sed by 'Ilt ",crct.ry of lilt Ch.ambe.

so
 of Llbour. and lbe .. 'Y o( lbe 1",,1e WlI<ln. Olber end of,..., boule"anla (onnldable bamcadt of ",mumcd dec-tnfled
Borghi Ik,.. II lbe blod"" III from Inm c:an. lhe ma," "",Ie north ' 0 Barri .... d, Lanzo, [qually.'o
buildin, "lid IIThl"" Borgh,. l)'Albeno ,nd doleg .... from the SF! lbe oortlt. IJ.Imm d, M,I.no """ iwl.,ed (rom ,he cenlre b) bam·
eon"",>! ( .. 110 Immediatdy rclea><ill "'IS <)nO oftbe cades, 0.-.:. on CI.'IW \'m:elh. was composrd Qf dow".d trees. I\w: other.
"hy III<: proIe'l 'pread '" quicUy, I'hrougho"r tilt d"l"rWlI<e. d"",r to IIIe 'ITy <entre on Corso Ponte M=a. b1JlII by work,,,, from
Ie.dc" o( .<ocilhsr rany and Ir><\c umOM "'ore eilher am:<lcd or fj >l San G;"'IIIO and I .., Dre.. ,,;. wos <"ml'O"''<I o(,rees ... leV"ph poles
prt\< nl<d from ,o",,,,unic,' ing ""Iril II", ,, fo ll",,'ers. B"o" i. for IlISrorICC. and O"ctTumed $.,nd·fl iled roilw, y ,amaHel. takon ,t.. n<arby Ccrie
" a, pre'ellled froln "'""'&. ma"ife",,, a.suring ... ol x.n Ihal bread h:>d Lanzo line
am,ed ' Furtll<:nn<n. rhe sec,."",')' of rhe COL. Rin:lldo Rlgo/a. ' .... alloo. On H "'uHu>!lnll..:le-rnoal i"",<itm. OOmIl'L:llcd ,he ri01i"l!., 1lK:
'0
In!! In O,dl •. ,"'c"<I1(; ,lid "hen Serra" am,'wln of San (kmanllno In San Paolo .... as burn, down .nd 11$
TUl'ln he WIS immt<!I.,.ly .=>Ied_ had 10 floe (Of lhelr h, ... aft",. a <ro ..-d or '.000 Im,rd '0
n", p<H"'Y sccnu '" be In ,haIp conU'lSl WIth pm.-arOiolinian !"XI"''' ..... ng from "" Incidon, In 1916 ,,-brn lhe monh Il.oi!JICd "" ml )0Ilf\'
dunn, JlCncrll .. ri .... "h<1I the ... ,ionJl Icadcr<hlp ofrt.. Soci .. li" Pany bo)" c.ught Slca"nl pean; from the .. golden, \leon .. hile. police oprned
and 11-00 Ir.dc unoons "-ere encooragnl '0 ,""imaln Ii .... of commWlicllion fire .nd 'hree demon""""", In \lador".. di C.mpagna. ,be ch""'h
"'Ih Rome.1Id liS prefecl', In Tunn. !>o'.>'CHr. Prt(ec\ Verdiool' ,,'a! o(L. """n Slgnon Iklll Poc. wa. oacked.nd. mI flag planlN In ill
prepared 10 <""Tinlte O,oll"i', older p""'''.c. bUI the harder bdllo" or r n",ged ci"ilia " , opened lire (""" " •• rb,' house. I. il li ng "n,1
line "00 IIIC ,u'Y, FInally. Ih. """"Ity of Tunn·. "'.Y"" ca .. on ly be d<;",ribcd ,evonl l "ole/$_
'" IrlCQRlpelcn, and ,=spoIISlble " " om plS IQ r.""h Ih. ce",re of ,he <ity on Tile H .nd 24 " ug"" "ere
"n,,,,,,,»f"1. bu, """" flgh'i"g did rexh os (.... P'OZ2.l J<I C""ellQ
Oy ,be aflernoon of 22 Augu" .. noo, dasbel bc1w«n police and
dcm"n,If,,"''''l-prud around !he .'n:m ..J)""en"o ,he Palalro d<l PopoIo .. here ,h. prefeclure was 1"'"led. The crQ"ds "ere dri"cn b""k by
machine.!:un lire and armoored ca .. On <be c,-cn,", of Augu>I ,he
do"IOO>!"''''''' attempted 10 man:h on "'"m)' barrack> buc were
bea .. n off b) Ry or 5 p_1l>. .1I "-oo-l t..d c.,. .. d in the army and and marched on It.. ... burbs In
''''If'''
lac..,...,., Shor<- ..... re 1"",\j!.1oootd IOrdothlng. fuod and gun<_ Tram
ceased and mU"l<lpIIl polioe ",mons m ,he of Vlochll,(h. w=
a"oeked by mob>, The cil} h.1I "as surrounded by demonstMurs.
b)' ""iing. ,i,.down In tIw: .=1.
one ,,,,,,<itnt. howe""". "omrn >lopped !heIr (Of\< ..d march te""""",nl)'
IJ) 24 ""gUll rhe .uth"""e... m:
bewmmK al3rrncd. a, 1M "'"re pre,'oollng III<
"hlle .nned 'I'00I>' a .... ion of lbe <<>UOCII. and ' he nllyO< p""'"iutlltlg "I' Ill" "<nil' of lhe cot }', It ca"", •• a gr• ., relief whe"
fea .. Ii". hi. life, By ,he cycni n8 0(22 Aug"" Tt.. fl JS! bam,ade. armoorM smashed through 11K: I3>T bame," un Ih" Allgust, 0,&""·
"en: h" il! .nd hea,'y gunfire ",'erbe",,,d ,hmughou, 'he Cl II' " nlil ized ",.istl""e col l"psc<! On ""g"S!,
. M"", ac.ount> of 'he up"''''g emphasiu il$ 'pontancily. }'''' C<juJlly
Wilh lhe ''';OP'''''' of 5On"" "OI1'lCJI .nd yoo,hs. ""'" <it"""'Slra'OI'S and ra,h.... c<>n,,,,t,,,,,,ily .13,m ,ha, lbe noters bad bull' elabora,e bam·
'''''Ie d",'e" fl'Oln ,he oen're of,he cITy .n.t 22 AUSU>I and ac,ion ""nod cades. ') .. tmlI!ally Iooord gun st.op. and "'lI.'''.:«I marches 00 !he ,i'l
'" lhe ."bum..... n uoo/f", ...! g<T><"'! .1rIle " •• decl .. rd on n ""nl"" ('nlllnly. lhe .uthonr .... """" caughl off!:uud by tile ferocl1Y of
.nd e'e" thou", bre..J ....... 'allabl •. the: "",0IId of riOlinS .. 1lR<'$Srd the "ollng Ind tlen the """ilhSlI in the ,enlre orthe oi'y ..,..,.,... 10 be I,
.,'en . ."" ,iolene •. 50 lhal mart .. III" "I> decla.w tha' aflcmooo, a I.,.. IS ' 0 whal coo ... 'Q (olio", OS not"''' >pnd ,hn>usOOu' lhe suburbs
The o( d,.,um".. w., localrd in Uorgo San 1'0010. Bame", dl M",o \lonla"nan. rec.lIrd thaI
)\;aa andllamen di M,I .oo, All"'"P" on !1Ie 2J and 24 Augu.lto reach
Ihe Cen1fe of Turi n "ere repol,;« 1by .nd alpi" ,- f ierce ba nlos M 00<. . . " h.. 10' "fom"," 00( ,Iu: .. \'o l,,"o,,",,<, {i ndoolnll my>tlf.
"ere fough' .t Pona Mo,,,,. Port. Pal.'11lQ and H-orgo Vil1ori,,_ f o r til< .Iopn' '"
""",,II,') !LallO 00. hot ,,,,,,mun,,,,,, to the rn ..." •. "he
""11" 0 dly< Ihe ",burb, rema ined Th. In, .. (orn-....., WO/1,«I '" ond lhe ... . ,.lId .... lhe "'QI.""". bUI ,.. d,Jn't !La,'< 1M
To lhe """,h· ..... 6orgo San P""Io" at 'u' orrby w""'en' baIT",ade • >I,I ...... Ide> ....... , mc-thod> '0 oclop! 0
..,I '0 ,he om, ,,'" term,-jene on (-I.'IW ""lIClpe 0d.I0nt ... hik. on ,he

"
 Ilo",.,tt. a docadc alier ,he t,..,nts ,h. ,hc-ort:'icll Journal of the lLalian
C""""un .. , Pan},. W S/alO o,x-rail>. M:a lled ,1>01 'here ."'''ed.
;n Ra""",
d. \hl.orlO. '. rell "'Pn",," C.rUre of'he re,alL d",x,.d I» a JTOUP of
..... "'hl...· . "
n..... ,,>ntfllSj;ng p.«es of ."dene. an: rn:on."led once "t m:all
lhe Pltletn'! of proo.,ulready f/SLabh>hcd in 1914.nd 1915. Larg. groupo
of 1''8<ly apohncal or 1= polln.ally comnnnod demons,,,,,.,,.. 'HIT
gu,ded 1»' compac' grt>ur< of subumn \«ialim and ..... rchlSl'. Ga n""
"'Ii"'>les. rot" ins........ th. "hcrc "'.re po,ha", 10.000 •• ,i,.. ri",.rs .nd
1111>.11 wcll.organl"d groups of .".",him. and «<i3Ii<1< " ,Ih
100 rnolnfS .nd flfloen rille!; at the ir di!PMaI . ," Althoog h ho may h.v •
• ,aBRomlCd Iho .mOunl ofwca pons '''" lob lc, ,I .. police do ...,"'" '"'per
fire on lhe 23 and H A ugu s•. anu ' Llca>! one omeer W'; 51>01 de.d and"
'""her '''0 ""Idio" "'OI.Oded by I i"'flltd. Lbrt>wn by I nOler. I.,
According 10 GII'llIO_ lhe Ilarri ... dl .l.1ila"" group US<:<!lhe Forrer
(tide as a pi .... li e t""nltroed SIx 10 eight acll"!t' as Lhe
<Kp1t,zers. Affinll> gr\lUr<ofTuscan. Vro:elle..-and Bielle..-
mililanI.< "'= essen".I. I\mons the """" prGmtntnz ana",hi,,, 1111..,1",'"
In the riob. besides h,,,,,,,lhnd his brotJt,o,. ,"',", \ ,"CC"nZO Bonaghl "ho
led hundreds of)outh. buildIng Ntn<:adts on CQrXI \trttlh. Giolan",
Lutgt Ikrr.o (a shop as,'5l:1nl bom tn Tunn in 188i) who org'l1Iled ,he
.k<:,rified IrIm NlTica&:. I'lelro Il.'ITCnl who mobIhzed ,he fi"t groop
or prot." ... ,rom ,h. A""",,,,! .nd II>c Ve",.n ... nl<.. han;, ,\nI011l0
(b. 1900. fUnn) who mobtllzed ,he w<>rk.fS off"t Il"" .. n; Ind
Fial S. " GIorgio Sobn.", "OS oN""tly :octile. bu. his .010 i. hord
10 I",en.in. Fina lly. Gann" .1.10 me'"",,n •• Mil . no", i",·ol.,<-..I In Ih.
,,,,,,II in"" r " i" ·ie. ,\crordlltg '0 pol ire report, •• hlS may haw beon Umbcrto
Min1grucci o f tit. 'n' i-in""·tn'i"".,, US!, 11O The a narohi,,, "0' on ly
Otpt"'-N rudimtm"zy armed , o."ta"". Ih-I-y also P<i nlM and ctroulated
10.llets appolhng 10 ""Id,,,,,, 10 cIt..,n, ,,&,in lhe GruJ>PO di Rehgl<>li
made 11$ appeara""e and i., le.O." ""re found In wburllan '''-eelS. ""iLb,n
harrx ... factories and mllilazy """""3Is .. "
n...., II.,... f.... ,ncid...,II, of b)' ''''''P>. oUhough "" 23 Augu ..
all'i"i refus<:d '0 shoot I t demortslralot'l tn Ram ... di \1,1100. Ho"·.\,,,-.
=
Ittording IOdomonsI.. lOrlo. ffIO$I '1'OOpIo and poIic. II In fae, d,;.guiS<:<!
om""", or ca&:t<_ lillie inOucnced 1»' IlIltrch.)I or SOCIalist propagan.lo.
Ind«<l,n On. tncident in RoriQ San P:aoIo four ''''ilions 11...-0 shot d.3d
1.-----
----
., point·blank .. ng. ali.. d",y implored ,,/pml nol 10 use their " •• poIIS,
R"'lSIanc. ""as crushed dC(11.Hly Ille 'ubutto.. In ilorgo San Paolo
• m""h .,., fun " as pl3<<"<l . "he com ... of ,''''I<gt< Pio:ua !'<-schwa. and
ooJoinlnS 51r... " liOn: ,pro}' ....! "lin bull.:!,. whIle inlh. fIl ,i n "IU3n: of J .t. T unn: J Fa,,; til AI:O-I'o (21 26 1917) "

- 92
 CramJt'i and the Anatt:Msts
Bamera (\i Mi lano re"''"",e e"ded after eight ri oters ",'e", , hoI <Ie.d , III
Gartno', brot her was ,nd Coriuo <>tlly 10 be arrested with Gram",i and flnl>!1 by e»m inlng Gmm",i', con tnbution to {he debMe
in the pro"L U"e< In Septeml,,''', .nd according to IllS te'limony nearly
\lImmarily ex",u".,1 by carabinieri. only 10 be spaml when hi' caplors
lea,,'ed thot his fa{her had been pan Oflh. fo"e for. quarter of a centu",
Ja il ed brteny, byea rly 1918 Garino was act i", wi th m HOM onCe
Fony_one ("'ilian" w ldiers and po li ce Wefe h lJ ed during the "otS_ On ly
{hrcc "ere members of II>e =uri{y forces, but mOre than forty other
,old"" or roliccmen hO'pitahzed. SOllie wi.h gun,hot "ounds_
Eigln hu n(lrcd'and-t"'-en!y" ",o ci,-ilian, were a"<stod alld " 'oil 0"" 300
,u, ili ary workers "ere >em d,reCt ly to Ihe fro nt 'nd placed in ,solaled
punishmem battallon,_ t" Be<au>e oIll>e riots Coporetto .nd a good deal
of ll,. Ic.:al and n.tional "",;a list "nd an.{(h;st leadership ".-ere det. ined
Llmillate 19 18 or earl y 1919
A lthough G'rino claims 10 recall iron discipline ,n factorie, dur ing
191 S, " 1S .Iso clear thaI employ"" de>lml peace and \0 Colomb i""
and Buoui won gel'lOrous wag" i""r.. s."from Agne lli dunng 'he 'pring
\>",&''''''"g round, r-ievenh.le», the Booro---G.riTl()-hrrcro left" ing "Pr><>-
''',on mOLln,ed a ,u"amcd campaIgn within FlOM to d efend imp"SOlltd
demons!r.ltors ,,"" '"won be"'a\'ed families. ' 0 push (as ,lie SH (II:man<\ed)
f01." eighl.hour day <lIrcct aclio" to oppuse collaooration
with the C(JrnrnIJSi<>niJSinw , Boow had been ,"<cessful, In fact, at ea'mg
m Lill"T)' dlsc'plin< In f"Nones, get1Lng mOrt "'Iisfactory pro"i,ion ing of
food a"d ",'en h"" ing some sa<ked ,,"orkers ",in,tated, L" Yet ""tn if Ihe
FlO\1 leadership h,w bee" ,urpri'ingly successful "t achie' illS reforms,
'he left oppu,it;on. and .n allied gcnOfle di'lrus{ among" Ie", pul;{;c i£cd
",or' trs, were not "nll"l)-, disSll"'tc,j, Meanwh il e, the 'trtnglheni:lg of
th. factory mtemal commls, ions from 19 16 ga\'e lIIe I,ft a fi,rm;dable
power base withm the facton", lhtmseh e" In 100e 1918 the"" "'''ed as a
'prmghoo rd for tht "narchi'" .nd fL{urt aldi,wl'i,,, , The memo", of ' he
biller >trcct ",arfare of Augu" 1917, [00, would be recalled du;ing tho
popular prot"'l of Ihe mlSO, Til< unh.ppy rci.t ionshlp btlw•• n
offiCIal laoou, in,{i{ution •• nd suburban md ,coli'm, had been
pre>em befure II>e war ond in 1917, wou ld rcappo.r on« .g.in "'htn
peace " turned
Gram_.cI . "lIlhe \\ o rki ng CI. ss
So for I have exammed in th i' ,hapterthe evolution of Gramscl 's polit ical
through Ihc war, J hay. also discu<scJ the n. ,u" o f tile Torincw
working .. la" mO,cmor.t and the roles of t hc .n"rchis!s In it during the
Gramsci s App",",;ceship and the War Year,<
sam. p<rioo Now I will tum '0 'he inte .. ct;on oftl>e suburban rodical,
between an "{(lum and "",i.l ists o"er the quo," on of fOfming all ;anccs
GrlI",sci ', prt"'OO: within the T()",,,,,,, labour mo'-emcnt during ",anu"e
is fOl,nd at Ihfl-"C Ieycl;: f,rstl;. I", iournali'lic impact alro,dy c,"milltd:
s<'"," dly. h" le"ure, to "",i,II'1 cl ub>; in 'he .uburus. flna ll y, hi' curious
'Club of Moral Life", Oral to"imony <l<n",,,,,,.t., that many " t' hi\ do<est
working-cl.ss foll o",er' ofth. biennia ",s<o t, rS! made III' acquJlntan("e
at II>e editon"1 office, of II Grioo dd Popolo, It "'" Gnu"",i', intell igcoo:,
mode<'), alld sang-froid that attrac{ed the ,mall follow ing ot' worktrs.
teehn ici,,"., SluOen" and "'{tliertu"l, I>e de\'eloped in these year<, Antomo
Oh<u i re<.lIs Geom"" durmg the 19 17 ri' ing (which was "hen
MaU"210 Ganno fi r<t nlet him), when ' he Sc.:lall,{ Party ""ct ion w,s
o",,,,,helmed by ma" am." of ,ts leaJership, edit ing a manifesto. moSl
prob,bly 'Le C inque Giomi del Proletari. to'("The Fi\'O Day, of the
I'rolctariafl. and ha"ng 11 typed .. the eng inoer', studto of GIUseppe
Rom""'"
\',",enzo Bi.nco, then a leeMgo worker. mel Gram",i at the edi{Orlal
omc", of /I G"dv del Popolo ,,"'hen he tlcll'ered ,,,,"'spaper rub"'n pflOl"
from the ,u burbs
The ",lItori.1 office. "ere important for h" mtel lectu.1 and pulili<al
de, e lopmont,' The)' be,ame " foc. 1po,nt for his circ le of lower Inlddle·
and working.e l".' aco lyte" but also Ihe rocial sp.e" where th05e of
diITe"n{ Ideological .nd sp intual p<fiua>l<>n$. ,udt as young Catholic<.
'" Gem ile intellectlt,ls, fu,u"m and .n.{(him could engagt 111
an,," '{c.i but the ed,lOn.1 office. "Ofe alw impunant f..,,-
pcrson,1 "nd em"lIonallif<. lI is own cromped ",eommod"lIo,,, wc re not
f", cn!cnaining friend" I !e would oflen mee{ [llem .! the editori.1
ot1i«,_at • mil . bar ""ar his dilt' (Ioca,.d 10 1', = San Martino oPllO'ite
• headqu"nefS of til< carahmi ..n). or "ou ld d ine: w ilh a'''I'tainlan"", '" 110
includcd the Huoni family, which ,how, that ideologl"" 1 dIfferences in
tl>e.., eorly ),e.rs did not pre",'" [><""n.1 lies, (JndetJ pc""", 1'nn"", ities
debye<1Gmm"i from pol itical ' lI iaoo:s with ,uch r.ldi'al "''''lers
.. G io,.nn i Although m hIS in" .. 1years in T ", in hisci"k of
fri ond, \\'a< ",,{riu"" to "",,'ersi!), prof",,,,,, and "",k,,{,. """. I.. became
, recO£nized """ialist joum:>list dunng {he \lar.• 11 of Tll r; " was at h IS
feet. For e'en If Gram",i li ked to dewribe Tu ri n . . . hug. machine
;n het in many w'Y" it rcta ined a "", Ii -IO\\ n qu,r,t}'. A,
of his cI"""" """-·i,,., bet" .. " 191 S ,nd 1920 (Andrea V;glungo)
"",ailed, 'T1O ri" the n w", mLl<h ,ma llcr, almost a lorge .own and ;n CO"",,-
quenc. con lac", ",'en [><r>onai cont.cts, we re .as ie r' ,N
 l k "ortcrs "" '!U'8<.cd '0 hi' dis<us>1On ., "'" nAi...,. nf Gndo dd porn'j. l k ",il""""'! ,h;rl he " .. I "'" • spelibinder.lId "'as , .......
Popolo nr a particular They ""'''' generaUy highly .k,11N '" fo", ronsodered by con,·..,,,,_1 SlanJ.>rd,.. poor "",oker: bu, he In far,
ttl"" •• ttl. and <=n.ttl .he I,n .he "h,lC"""lIar _lid mlollttru>J <:!as>es of ,he", "",,'en'iom of _,alb' onlO<)' ,n orde, 10 thcil d,scussion
Tunn »Ill on. GIC>Ii1O Carre110 tb 1891 ,n Tunn) 0 young r ..., "mcr, 'rom hIS oooi..-.:<:. Ih. tC$p<'C' foo- hI! audience·, intelligence 'M>QlttllO
.."". m ,he faciO<)' cOIUIClli In 1919 20 and an Impon .... <,mall irQIJpi of and.oo- It"lf-cducated "',,",<n. 1l>ey orpm:l1l1ttl
,n L "OrJin.: .\'"",,,. =all, .he sulln! In"udo of hIS \HlIkm""" I""ards h,. ""'PtC' for !heir ,echnical and pDCI".I,ndu$lnol """" Itdge; 3nd obey
T""""", poht< OO<I"'y ber"", 1915 I 10 recall, a f:>clOry protffi : "'OR paniculorly al1rac:lttl 10 hI! prod""''''I!! """one.nd p""". 10 hi'
iden'i fICa';"" of U Iho prod"" .... , 'll
tkf"", the Fir>! W..-kI WM. . ....ookm " .... h.""" .. «l .... <,ploi,«l Of Ibc m3J1y ", nl1<n ','amples .. he", Gr;lm\Ci', .nr;>C1 ion to ,II< subutbo
". ooun'«l fOf T>CHh,.,. "'. Oad e,·ery_ '1""""
sbopt<<<p<f. the '"Y <'«,._.
e'"C1}"O<l<. " ..
,he 00;s. Ih«kri. .....
'i""" .,.
Wo often len
lhe f.e'or l<$ " " "",,' .ny "'Pn,,,,,,,,,. that ". ,pOl" ,noou,ly . . "rally ' ..
.. 1'''''''''1. ". M .. hIS of'he 5"",,_leg. 1 \I.y D.y demOln·
"m,; """ of 19 16. \\ hieh un<lcrlon," ,I.. "'pt't",..,y ofthe ,'"bums in "hlCh
I><: kCIU",J. ", ,I><: eny cern", ;n whICh he h,.J, The Firs, o f May had
"",nl "" "';,<fOf .mo,,, "'..Oil< ('i><", "'m plm!)" of '''''''''). Bu t " ..,
d,d "t 00" Firs'. ". '.ro"
"on,,. .. ,I>< "l'«tlo;l1" 'nd sOOp ... indo"s, and 'n1I",J 10 the ,ub<Jms·. ," na'u",1 hom<::. 11\0 home of the factOry chimneys.

ti><n '.. o,."ornod the r,,,, 'ram ,,< <1><0',"1<1'«1 in the ,,=.
and ,lien ... ." Ih. day hefon: ,he mach,nc, Ih.nden:d', \\ he", ,he wOlrtlng·da"
"<n' "" 10 .'r«k .... marl« .1,,11, ,net "'",">',hIOI ,ha, "'< foond "'. [fled '" sub<"b;; ·Iil. a ,ing Olf ,ndUII!), and lI<:1;",y' .n"",IN 'he unS(Crious
"""fOlI Bo' "'II)" 8«-0... ,'''' ,,=
Ii"",. tq>tnen'ed !he """""""" ..... _ . 'cami ,·.1 of ,he old ari$lox""" hollieS. lhe greal car... ,he ,he.,reo and
OUr <nmI'" and ,n),h .. , ,.., C<lUId dc>tfOll ..... 'Of
!he hesr.'" lhe '11
Ihs ,ision "''' therefore j><::f$(lftlII) u"lfyina '0 1f\MI\I3-1 "ort.... ,,'ho
Th .. ""''"' ofhumilia,ion ,.-as poniculatly kll by ,,"Oft ....... h as Corm'o fel, >flUbbed by polite !IOCiCly. bu, "",mSCI ....... "'" JLl>' 10 !he
... ;,h,n ,he '''''tOry i,..lf H.1ad othe, on'cn"on;.. Ihl IIny Club of \ tonl Life 'I'P"....
'0 1'Ia,..., be= ,he modt;l,h.&, he " .... ttllO u'"' '0 mould ,he '.ri"", friend·
Tho <kf\; • .",.tal 'he "<>rkJhop!ell ",,""'OS t>ef"",.nd .. ,.. "'",01« .ft..- .nd polo,,,.1 end", ,h.! he culli' .,ttl in ,he ".,.,. yea ...
"' .. not 10 n><eIll>< ..-otft: .... ood ,,""" 'hey tn<1 ",'hey <ro<.<cd '" the otht-t
,-.Ie of II>< 511<'<' There "<TO ,,<rl. ..... mj,.,lf, ""1>0 hod dooe j""" .00 rh e Club (If MOlral Ufe 'j.O
j't... of 'f't"""n'.,e<h,p b<f"", ..... mol ",II«l ",otft:"". 'Il>o) "'<fI1 '0 n,gII,
,.,I>00I. ,nor ten hOOf< ofr'ClOf)' "'or.
for j'U" "W ye." '0 lurn Lio>Il>" '00
1. . Club loral 1.11" ",", G",msci', Im. 11d".e""ion 8rooP ,h., ";,,ttl
become coraMe [0 "Or. In. mnd.rn "wu"ry...'h ile mony der" (f om "'"
.. lkinS .boo, ,I>< m.na!!,,·,) o.ptf'Ilthe , ",; ", d:ly "''''''t'LlI.
for!lut tOO", Ih." 100 from ,he .nd of 19 17 ' 0 'he b<ginning of
191 gI l. had ' hr« other Club m.mb<l1. all of whom "ere quite J,lT,renl
,he ..",. "'ord. on [oo...",od, , I,!» of f>Of><' . ,hI' ..... 'he ir <lil ly joIl. 80' '0
• , ,hey 8"'" <I<»gn ,nd ..id 'Try '" <UT)';' ou,' WOO,. dltTereocel And from h " suburban audience.: ""'ho Ca",,,. (b I ,n Tur; n) . • phil.,. •
tbe;... = hlg/ll) ,·.IUN! >nd ........ despiocd"" ophy .Itxknl. enamoured of Genlliun J)C,,..lism aoxl of middle-
d ... origin; Carlo Bocc.rdo (b 19()O ,n Tunn). a monlclpal rnoplojec uf
G"""",,'$ obihoy 10 '" down ""h such ,ncn 100 talk "'Iwall}'. w"hot:l worting_d ... ""g,n,.nd ""d.... \'Slongo (b. 19()O in Tunn). a dnk
pre'en'IOn and ",i,hou, fIond ""'","", endeared h,m '0 ,hem. G"'msci ..:I corrtSp<lIIdem f.... the FGS·. I ·1I,,,'W"'nJ,,,. II" broily "'en' mIg""">
...... one of ·,hem·. one "h". h>r><h. >'" he..-2O ,"o,h ·u,·. from 11\0 Vercel10sc and lad been lYwtwntJ but In Tunn hI> f.,her bec-amt
G",m,<>'s lbili')" '0 ,"1m lhe less cduca,ttl is dcrnonsnaied ,he can:takn ofa big<' pnmary ;..;Il001 II "hich 5OII1t of lhe meelings of
by .Ioose recalling hIS ron;! I""",.., 10 lubutbon clubs ,n 1916 !he Club of ,I.I"",ll,f. "'OR ht-Id Gnrms<i des.:ribed ,he Club', mi .. ion
17. On 1..\ Augu," 1916 G,.,,,,,sci spoko ., the FIISCio Gio'''nile Alnttlc<> in • icn"-'Olhc Gen,ile." "-:lr in'cn""IIOIl'SI and ttlllCl.bonahS1. GillSl"Jlll<'
Canl.l,"" in Bo<go San Pook> on ROITI)ft Rolland. Other inlpOrt3TJllecruros Lomturdo Radltt.
",eluded ,hose.,., ,he r ... ""h Remlu.;"n. on lhe Pari. Cornmunc .1Id
\'",nan 'lid Socialism ("hich usc.! lbstn·s I Doll. IfQUU a, a A, Tunn we bell ..·• ,ha, 1""I'00h,nl'00\I> the Ilfi"";rk< 00<1 """"I .... , ;""
wh"h s/IOO ld ",-,<:."",,,I} l>e<<lItIO .."IlI"lICd "'"h ,he <Om ing of. "",;"11"

.. -97-
 r<e.-.qu"i'<, for Gram",i', M." .. m {ha! ... ""ra(rd;{ from ma;n,{ream
"",iali"" and >rIlITChL$m,

Gr:o on ",i. W o rki 0lt-Class ldllcalio n a lld Ihf Anart hislS

[I)" KCond 113"''''. Gromie; lhoogh. o( "'ClaliSI polit><:$" an n'''''.'on of

. . l."lighle"men{ DurinjJ!he """. Jt.. nude hIS mark and ' ...... ,rd
Gramoc(s Club member; 10'N 10 on Otnblca n II, nlOde dccpanimo<"ic'" "hin {oc n.{""",1 and Ionl <><i.nW.lIons O(,be Soc,.h!.!
of """"'''on. a:'ld • moddiN of "Isyll'bus. "as ", t>c p.ny Ihrough hi. rd ,{orsh", of II GrMo del P<>pol<>. but
10 olh« rrot"'YP" fo,"se in Ihc iuoorbs, ,,. Gram",; of oou .... WII. 'ho before hi' a>sumpl 'OII of maJOt .... f!<>IIlll!)ll ity. hi, .,""-off broad,het!. l.a
rloo«r group', SacraIC;. hut il> "as mo..., the prOIOly,," fOT • Sf'C"'" Curci FUfura. "",ci'ed • cool from lite young Journalim of
<;or dccen{r.lo « d socia l", p.l1y school: " "'1 also a deeply personal f 'Al'llllguu,dia, and \,CI<r"nS suth u Ma,i. Giudice and France,eo
.!ld,,",ou,. w,,1t {he SlIrd,nlan. a """ade older 'han the ' hm: OIJt..r pa'''"i. Ilarb<n', Gram«1 ,"m,, ,,led unperturl:>«l, Lo CiuJ f-uIl,ra h,d beef, aimed
pants. """ng.s Ihc bf<>!Jt..,. ,onlly guid,ng hi' di"',pl .. to 8ftalor "' •• pecific ludietICe of highly skilled and moli,'a{rd work"rs ","" "tre
sci f-"!\demandlng_ ambniou, enough '0 aneoo night .«1>00110 f"nhe. th"mselv",_ ," Whon
In tho .had} ci{cd le{{ .. to Lombardo Radleo Grlm..,i des<nt.es "".. lie dl'«u$So«l hIS a.iOCI3l10n 01 popula, tul,"", he ah.ay, "'fem:d '0
II< nn {he Club ,II< of (I>< luhan rdlO<:Jll()r\II1 sy"cm. panicularly I"'I"'la,
rd"","{ion, Tunn. he lraued. • organ,nllon COrl.rolird 11)'
I, .. """, "'" <hi,- L .. flo """" had ...«<pI .... 10k or .. <Ubi,,,,, bra""" and acting on behalf of ".,.le... Thc t:nl'crsl1i. Popolare (Peoplc',
J,bel":" .....",.,,".,_ ""P a pam .. """" )_11_: a <""pier of Unn ..... ,Iy). ttho.ng ohc enll, ';rT>S of{ho lno",hi5!' of (he Fom:, Ci",lo.
(ro<. > -C.I""". II .. ",...... .. $oh..",o,', 'Probitmi nl""'",i < "", .. t, '. "al. purel) bourgeois buman"arwI ,.,,"'''', On .... «MIlra,). "'"
'" h" Frrnch [(..-oJ",Oon or 'C.II,.... Iat, .. •..... C""""""i .. Mm.(""" or .!lon of Culture ",,,,,Id h:I\ e had {he e>l ....1\ of supp/);ng {.., .....
II>< (ommen",), ore"",< in _,n.
or "ie....-h,ch. InlelllXl""l, ,.."h a ;,u"able I.... ""11m {he soci.l;5! """... m'ml , Although
.. Ilcao .... ''''',nK ;&01,01 """<mOIl!: ,ben I or ..."..,.,. .{oo repll .... m I>< did not q""'c Roo.,,{ "lIchtls dirttrly, he "-as moSl tcn 'lnly Ihmkm8
of hi' prewa r ,{udy of 1I,Ii.n """'Ah"", p. nlculatly hIS descr,pl ioo of
In lhe ,uburbs, howen,. whttt hi, ","I tnc .. u.""lIy numbcTed npp""'m. how """k" inldlre' .... I' lhe obJec! of.n unl><ai{hy hero w"rshlp
",ely ("en .)" the me{i>OO "'os d ,llh"n{ , ViKIoIJg<> ",.,., 11 , {ital Gram",i .. kc.1 ",lh, ,, {I>< 1.0 AUI IIOfiI, ,; ,nls nl ","h, n ,he mo,'""",n' " a, Ihcn:
(he )'0\'"8 h,{tnors of thc "Ie,ah" tircle of Ran"'ra di M il .M I" I fOfC ''Gua{ed by G,am« i w ith {he &e"" .. llo" le'tl of « Iuc"{wn ""j"yeJ
>u,nmary ofh" IIX'\I,e "hlth he "ould co ll""t altd COrrIX{, 'In fact', by {he rank .nd tile, An rdll<'l{N pany "ould be mon: Jen"",ra{;c aoo
\ Iglongo eon" """s. "he WOl an ,mJ'lOr1.n{ (",. , l"'r1ieub,ly hbenariln lI«.usc i, ...""Id funclion (hrooSh • <pootanoou, ,"'iorulily
lI«"u,," L{ ",.. done ""h added pe.-.onal ,mprco,ions ar.d r,,.,,,,,,ing' " Ing.r:>lnN In socII micro-I"'{;'"';"'" as !be 'C1ubs of \lora I Lifc'_ I"-'dlre-
\ 'Slungo and hIS follow members "'''''' '00 ad'''ncrd 'Ulb "'<>uk! important but clearly dtfinod tbk >t1'<',n8 as "",,,obe,.
'0 he obIlJ!<'d to 1'I"l<'ll'"te. ho added. O(,ho: ..,.,iali.,,' 'hink· ... nl
One: can """,Iude. thtttf"",. !lull Gr&rru.ci <II' i>qed. '-ariery of'C"","
ofMorallifc·. some for "h.Jlo<Oll ... "cd.....: ",hen for ;killod "cd"rs, " ...... 'I<'III..ty .."U·l"",," '" ....
land. ...... Fabian Soc;.,y....biol!
Ibc 'Clubs ofMonlllfc' "'-nt. In fact. al'lOl"'" of that ClJI,ural ., • """"bn- of .... Soc,.II" tlUn'l.lIHlnal_ n .. ,,"" of .... Soc><ty IS ""', of
'hlnl r,ll", or !he iOCialj,. lhat "'Ould "'pplemrnl ,he trade _""' . ." ..,,<I) .r>.! ," dq>oll. .11 ..""""'''' and monI pmblrn>l .. "'<II
and !he pa")"_ II and<> Jrl Popu/<> aoo L 'Ord'M the pro!<Wtat bas cnooo.>nl..-od '" ... ,11 CfICO"rtkr In ,ho: of ilt lif< .r>.!
\"010 """,,<!ere<! the olJl3nl of {I"llh,rd '"""U'ioo of'he "",iali;'
mO"emen'_ It " m lhe "",,"mg "",ods of hi. l{jng dcbalC o... r an ' <5O<i.
IlIon of workor ', cul!ure thai "c d,>(oHr '"me of IOC inte llect uAl ,,',nd, '
.".0..".
" hu ,,,,,,,«o.d ," ..""""ng • "1)' ..""r"',n' "'limen' of .... hgh<h
,"",1«,... 1 ,00 ,n ,hi. " ... of Ol\ ,I, .. """. of 111>0"""1

98
 GIld 1M Anarchi,'"
Grnmsci'< cQRCcpt ion of soci" liS! Muca,ion and culture" as democm' ic,
I'<,rt icipmory 'lid ILbert"i"n il h.d liule In common wilh rotioMh>!
(re" d.,>OJght During d<Nn, Owr the ,\"""ialloo of Cu ilure. Gnm",i',
chlcf,argct< of « iliei,m "ha , he belie,,,,1 '0 be ."a",hm Or ,,,cialist
ple-In. t! .... 'ky utopian ISm Nov. he" i, ti, i, IllOK e\'ident thon in I", vllriolic
hatred of prewar . IIard"'m·, and "",i.li,m·, favQurltc sh ibbc>lolh
h pcran'o
Es!"'ru ""o "a, • P"I'ula' course al 'he Uni"crsila Popolare and 'he
Ferrer Circle. Gram",i 'houghl it stuffalld nolbellK EziQ B.tt" linl, Ihe
editor of the pacifist La of La Sp<;,ia, "lid" man" i,h d"", lics w'lh
lhe .narc hist,. w", .Iso friendly 10 Gruln",i in 1916" hen h' was billeled
,n Turm . He "".Iled Grum",i" long d'i;<uSS ion, aoout IingulS!i<s .nd hi,
f"", inm ion "i,h hen as" f" II-lime Journalist Gram",i remam ...1
i" cont<l<l '" ilh hl> Ilnguls'ies profeswr, Umber", Co<mo. woo had ,augh ,
him Ihm l,nBuages lhe u"iquc represe"'ation ofa ""tional or ,cgion.1
OUh fO. Altempts, II><ref"re, 10 creme .nilici.1 wor ld languages were Ie"
Ihan ""lhelle , they w. ' e pernicioos becaule 'hey e' ineed an "b","ct
cosmopolilani,m ch'metc' ist ic of many "",i.I " , .nd anarchist mili ,anl>
1I"Ii.n socialism could only be grou"dcd in I,allan condition,: a"if,e,al
cosmopolitanISm ,elarded Ihe omorgence of. lrue and reails,ic "",i.iI"
i",<ma'lOnail'm . ,,'
,\, • marginal Sardinian studem GranlSCi had do,-e1oped an appreci.1I01l
i(" the powe, and dignilY lhal natlon-bo,lding I.tlguagos could '''1'1'11' to
oppre\>c<l group" and he was. lhereTOre •• keen crille .n,1 histo,i,n of
'h< Imgulitic hi,\Or)' and con'm'-ersi.. the and
lallguasc . He was >cn.itiv. to lhe 10n>lOn ne"'cd between m"'topol ilan
language. and their coun"y bu"'pkm dialeel COU>lllS. I.ang"'ges !ltld Ihe
' ''Y '0 ewe,. and Ihese COOts W<:T'C translated into poWCT. As. sociali sl
an d re""lu1lonary he was ,ory .boul 110" ortiin"ry prople
of Italy ""gin come '0 ,ha", in. Q{ 10lally displ,ce. the 01igarthl<'al e1i'e"
munopo ly. Indeed .. r ru"feS<O Lo r i""fO show. in In; in'crest ing book
Ihe 'ery rcl3 11un,hlp b<;tween high'p"'>t ige and lower-p'e'" ge sp<;ec h
cummun itles m.y h,,,, "'rwd as • n' e,"phor for the coneept .on of
hegemony. " Gram", i Ih"efore F'peranlo. but Esp<;ranto was
J0st pan and pareel of the broader 'yndrom. of ' free loougl\l , IllS re.l
,arget
,\, • folio" or ofooth Croce .nd Sorel. who "ere ",. 11 known for 'he ir
altack, on ""'''lie fltt ,hought. il i, not ,urpn<ing that Gram",i "ould
be hoslile '0 one of the h. li an left" .no," long.cheri,hed
b<;licf,. I.. Th. free thmke' 11."", fOI Cru",,,, i 'he mirror image oflhe losu il.
In Mareh 1918 Gram",i-, Ideal .typi,,1 Ihink« happ<ned 10 be Ihe
' 00-
anarchi>! etlit!), or Milan'S I. Pop<>I",.". Luigi Moli nari. who
had pub l"hod '" pamph lor form. a lOCI"" he gave in 1917 on the Pari,
{II dra"1"1a della Com",,". MIlan. 1918). Cran,<,el dismISsed
Molinari', pa mphlet as lacking any hiSlorical "n.I),,,,. of l>e ing an
hi"ori,al "'m"O(:o," p),rotec hllical en!er1alnmom, Moli nari Icft his
audlcl"'c ,,"hOOI any <"Iie. l .. nse of e.usc a,ld cffccI; without an edu,,·
1Ional ,al ue "hatso<,er, Molin.ri 's lecture was a 1"'nicularly dcpre" ing
e,omple of Ihe cducaliooal wcaknc" of !Tee thought"
The 'narchi, .. were ",andalizcd .nd JU$' before his own deolh In 1918.
rtsponded pc,>onaily 10 Grnm",i, ," BUI neare, to home. young
"",i. IISt .rrived from "Plliia. AIfon'" Leo"""i, felt lh a' Gra m""
may h"c been unduly h.f<h toward, Molmari Accordmg 10 Leonelli
lol inari had helped enormously", lh< "o lgarization anJ di,sem,nalion
of and hlSlory. Molinari "as exnemely popula, in Apu li a, and
""ked Mo li n. ri had he lped Leo"e " i in hi, StopS ,ow.rd,. <orcer ,,'
sociali" jouma li ,m . '" What 'he >uburban >""i.IL". or .n.r"hh" mod.
of Gro",,,, i"s im 0"' 1\'0 IS nQ] kilO" I\; bul he did no! relenl I n June 19 18
he summarilN his cril icism of thoughl in an .noeie ent itkd 'Lib<;ro
e rensiero L,bero' where Crocea n and Genl1lcan ove"oncs
predom,".te_ Af«, hi; drubb mg m lhe anarthlSl press. Gram",i di rected
his article at tho aSWnl p' lOn; h< belle'od h.d bc<n b<;hind
pamphkt Molm.ri " '"wld 't''''' ,,'a, 'Iibero peo"",o' (free thought).
"h,ch W", a " phi lis""". bollrg""is and "as <au>ed bj' Jocob",
i"d iy,du.ilSm : ,hal is why we grouped aro",1d i, I "",,,,,,sons, Radical,
lI""flanans' Froe 'hooghl "a, therefo r. the mindsel of 01<1-
f.,hwncd prew.r bloc{'(frnismo, bUI hi; Marxi$l 'peo'iero libero' instead
"as. fonn of libenarian hislmic i,m Ih'l little in commOn wilh ,hI;
nadillon .nd looked 10 Croce arid An'omo Labriol" fur it> In'plfalion_
Indeed. Gr.. ms<i ad, anted Ihe op, n,on thatth. anarc hi,,,_or , t least
lhe" le"ders an,j ,hCOr< ,i,ians. wore less llbenarian 'han Marxist soc iali m
of hisloriclSt stamp A$ lhese ""'ial ist, ""ere able 10 think 'freely' and
'h'sto ' ist ically·. ' hey ",·cr. ablc to ta' e on contradi"ol)' argum<nL< and
<nrich lhoir o,,'n thought by o"ercommg ,bent, On 'he other h."d ' in.s
much as lIie libertarian, arc inlolera nt dogmati,,... sl.yos 10 'heir own
panicular opinion,'. they ' steriilzo' deb"!e wilh lhm PC "" argumenl,. '"
Gra,n",,'> o"oounto" "'llh Ihe free ,bmkers more de.,ly 10
hI> unusual position wilhin 1t.loa" sociali" polotical culturc_ In """t
re'p«:tS he waS ou"idc it. OOundario, . Graml-(;i w", nevcr
10 accopt Ihe forte-feMing of ,ulture. idoo logy or langu.ge to
,he worki ng d.,,_ No<, fo' Ih " matter. did he occept a nai,c P"I'uli Sl
<:ciobrullon of lhe panlc ol.",," of lhe proYm"e Or Ihe vanIshing ;m"lI
""aieoommun,')' He dl<l no! pra;'" the ,implic,tyofthe commo<I It>\o-Amcnc: ... \\otobly, Carlo T",SC:&. ,,"'" hopeful "",,,lor-
1""'1"."" belle,cd ,10:0, ,he more f""unal. dana ,n ,,,,) !>ad for 100 mM1!lo_ " II""., .... Gl"lrnI<'i poltltclily I"""ml united fro,n. of
long P""">$<d • 011 '..,Ir I,,' ..
n .nd liS hu""'",,, code, "'k"'k an.archms and SOC',"'''' ,n Turin or In Ital), Sttw«o 1<)16 and early 1918.
con,rollcd o«ondaty and lenia,), cduc .."",_ He "al of Mohnori 'I G raltOsc:i tool; pon on " deb3le in the Italilln SOC,.">! pre.. "" thIS ,ubi":',
effort •• , '-Ulgln/AUGn bc<:.ll>e tky d ,d no! '''PIli)' ,he 1o",,, cI>ssc\ "'" k ,park ed ,)ffby I""j, ale .nd public ... hanl!<" I><:t"'ecn Lltigi Fabbri for ,I><:
,I>< menl.1 eq u'pmen' "'''h Il>ty cOl/ld con,bu,,1Ic dominan<c <:>f . ",rch"" ..", Semltl for Ihe I'SI. '" Indeed tl>< rtorentme max,""lt S,
'he hu ,n.n;'! m,dd le ci ..se •. nO' only in soc,e,y genera ll y bill "'''hi'' 'he ""'tahsi. 5po1l,a<0 L.,"sn ini. propo.ltd a Third Inlt'·
rSI """f. n"ion,l L",lll;n,m ",os "" "cry goOO tcnns ,,>In the a narchi,. !c. de, of
In • o(,.. n,me ."icles "" lilt sIIonrom,ngs of,he It.lian educa· II>< ",.,nnne USI. Annando Borghi . ..u'" ito ne" ;.paper, Guerra Ii,
"00.1 Grams.;, poin,ed to its f.il"", .0 ."""e In . doquale f""" of " •• publoshcd In FIOttnce in 1917-18 La"agn,n, In<l M.rio T/OZl,. I
,e<Ohme.1 ed"". """. Its d,lu1IOIl of the menlOCralic inlm' oflhe Iocall"",)'",.nd 1cp1 counsel for II>< SF!, both "mle for II>< syndt.ali ..
1859 CIl$ll1l Law, !(I ,he (nSuong <kJm,nol'l(:C by the """'I><m human .. , joumal In<l " ..... Trozzi', I.pl \tudy tha, ..... "..cd for a """"in, oftllc
gradwtl. of "hich ,n rum led 10 an incompc1Cn' and In"- soc,a".t ·"Sldti· on No\ember 1917 at "h,ch Gnmsr:I "'.. denounced
<lefmcral'" COfpS of.",1 "e,""rus ,.. Garruc,', tonn ofuni' .....1 Moo"""", by.he Flo""n",,", for hI> neo-id •• list phil050plnllng ,s. La,agnini'l
would ",inst •••• he mentocrntic prom,se 1hrouah con"'lIM<.ll d''',plu.... inte,,".nlio" il .Iso. good exampl. o f the p"'\,iou.ly mentioned ,ntc' ·
,I-.. "'''''''''Ill' oc«pted d,""'p lll'" ofa highly t1l';1>N and au'onomou, mHld, n.1IQnal not"on, ohn,,-w", rebel" H"lnici. h,d bee n inS\>l",d by"
Of COlt,.,. Ihere is more Ih.n I "'h,ff of Gent il e , II 811 o f th". I)ut to t he lott", f",,,, L!TIN ,\ lalal< >I' sen, fro", his e, ,1 0 on Lond on 10 Bo'l!h' "ud
e"cnt to "hich he ",anled .he com"IOI' poopl. '0 be .bl'lo<on'rolll><i, I""iuted 101 CW'r", Iii ", M.I .. oSI. propo:>SCd. ne", 11,,,,,...,,,,,.1
<ontroll.rs .• h.re ".' )/)m.,hng 110'
ooly libell",",n .bout ,to (La \1011<1;.1,,) "k,ch ,",,,,,lJ hll" i",,'OOo.Iall .nl'·... . ' soci. lisH.
but "'lU:lUl' rropho.ic In .,1OI1'ttt ","nome In;de Gramscl looked forvo.nl, In<l .... "'h ;lt. lind " ""Id Io:o'c ttnll,. ly not been b3sct1 on lhe
10. soc",lo>l ;.oclC1y Ind feamllha. ,t m'atlt be di, ,ded belw.. n I ma.. """.. n/ed d';c'l'ione of l<:nm·, We' Th,nlln •• ""'tlOn.1
of pa .. i,. In<l"'d,,,,'s .nd • nevo "'hng cl3$$_ If the Grams..i";. 'nten tnllOn ,n the deba .. ".,; I"tchcd "' ''' Q 10, 01 •. Firs.,
c,p<n, Ind ,..,Im",.... offully rncall'l of prod"". Gram"L " .. nlcd '0 conte" ,he .000000001y I-..Id OI',nMln ,ha, .... ",hi"s or
lion an<l renuin 'a rtarro\Oo m,nOflly', due '0 .he wnd",ahse> "'ere """" re"oMio",,,y tlilln soc;"li"s - an opinion thaI,"
Iogi. oftltingi. 'they r>ece!; . . rily" 'll become and ",11 impo!>C I h.,. <k,non>l<1"ed ,n Chap''' T"'0. WI., qu'le ",i<\c'pread in the suburbs
Iheir ow n dl<.alor!h,p. "'" of luti n Re'olui"""ry pohne; . "'Wle. shunl,1 no, be equ.ted w ,th
pollu,ong ()f ",th "'iolen! language', a. 'he ht<lory o f ita li""
Conclu,iotl: on ,yndi<oI ;lrtI h.d de rtlOl15tral.d the pilf.lIl of this "I'Proach. ' .... G,a m"i
alw w"nltd 10 d,sta"". hi' "",i.li"" from L.,'lIllnin,·, NOI
W"hm 1t>ly.nd Ihrouv<>u' Europe "'''' "'< ... '''''Icd by lhe onl)' d,d the "nllporl"ment>n.",om Qf . n<llhe " """,hi", pose
Slnnn. of ,he " .. , This mtcrntltlonal ""kliidt """" from I comb'""tI"" In f.;ormal lh<-or men .. I,.), (h<:re Gram$i "'l"'aI$ ,deQ
ofinhermlly multllily hostik gro"p,"gs: _ "<to pile'''''' _
socIII 3<l,'artced ,n hil d,,,,,,,,,,,,,, offrcc tboughtl "'III alu5lOfJCal .n<l doctn"''''''
democrl" some: IDl:Ch'SI or s,-n<licaIiSl_ Gnu""",
i. an ""0<11",,, cump!. 1,,',,",,"Qnlll11,.I'I(:'" .uch t i l.1 Mondiak uridcrntit>cd
ofhov. oboef\..... .-ad",.[. COI/k! t>p ,nto. ncI ...«t. lhal " ... "",:e
magmfied Gnt",«i·, e,"",<pIton o f "",;"Ii,. polU;':I, u1c"",1 d,sc,ptulC throogh
and then rap;dly d lmmi,1lcd by lhe ""1w:>do<y of II-.. UohllC,;ik R.,.-oI.l1I""_ w.brelia ,,-a; /lOt sun"'ien'l(l keep pany members tQgt:tllC'
AllhoI'gh 'nllr<:h'lil. 'IOC .. lists and pac,fists in an une",y o. l} In i.,cm, 1 di« ipli oo Ihat ".s tl><: re;.ull of 1><''''0"0
'g.m" ".,0 ""press,on durmg the war. onee JIClhticinn, or imc!tectu,l, "",l acH"'" nnd by the <ohe .."". be,W..,. 'ge neral p';t",ipios
allcmpted 10 ltOoY ld nH". movemenl, frum ,,,,, iOl1 ial radi<>li,.rion of the . ,1<1 II1C ;IO"'1'«WI.,'" of panOc ul", """ " "11<"";0" ",,,,lid ' ,;UIT "IC<ClS ,j'
)e.", 1'11 6 17. d iffcrenc", qU Ockly ,0.pp<.",d , II Fot Gram""i. local. )0;0' "lI",tments w;lh . ... ",h;", I n<l ".-<,. based o n d,,,
nalioo .. 1 .,1<1 .'''0 in,emahOnal <aml"'ign' by un;ted fron" of ""tali,l' oflhe ,,,,,,,,,<nt. d1C)" we"'. In ,hon •• he Iype of wor!< ,ng-ct..11
and .,..",h;ses ;n oppo:i""'"to lbe "If or ,.". the filocodom of , he imprisoned ac'''''' "',m-OO dun"i the Red \\ .. k. Ihat IOUC!ut<>nc of GTm1I>C;',

- 102
",
 Gmmsci and

rMlCali,,,, bef""" lhe ri , ing in A" 8"S1 1917 alld the IlQI<I>c"ik d l U,.bjno 24-25 ge"naio 1992, Naples. 1994 For!he m<»1 comp'c·
'''ppl. nted it, ," he",i,·c oH"'iew .of works throughout the world >C<, J. M. C.mmetl.
A 8,h/jogmphl-' oj Ihe 111",1.. '1 AnlOni" Published i" 27
IAlngl<age., 19JfJ-1997, Rom • .
1'0' tbe ',·.r;ous Gr.m",i,· see (he "Qrk, mo nlioned above os
well a, A D" id'Qn, ' Thc V,rylng $e>S<)n, of Gromsc.an
No tes Pali/i('Q1 SI"d,c.' , "01 . 20.110_4, 1972: K_t<. .. ld and J. Seed. '\\'ailing
to r Grom",·. Soc,alllislO" .. '0" 6, no . 6, 1981. pp. 209- 27; S
I ,he lileral"," on !he early Gram",i, see . C. Lt"},, 'A New 'The Legacy o f 'he Pn soo NO!ebooks: Gram",i, t he PCl . nd
Look al the YQu ng Gramscl', flmmda')' 2, vol 15 . no. ), 1986, pp Italian Cu llurc d"nng Ihc Cold \\'", Peri Od ', In C . Duggan and C.
J 1-18. The ".n<lard .CCQU"' of Ills life i, G iuseppe fio" . fIla dl \\'agst.ff (cds). liar), In Ihe Cold Ita,_ Polilics. O,llUre ,,,,d Sociny
I"'o"io G,ornJci. oj a Rc"ol"'ionG,)'. London, 1970, See al'" /948---58. 0'fQ.-<I.199S
S_F. Rom. no. A,,/o"io Gram., ,,,, Tu,in. 1965: J.M . Cam me". Antonio Among the many good ,,,,dies of Gra m",i 's polilic.l Iheory 5«,
Gram.w and Ihe vi Iralian Co"""',nlsm, S!.nfo.-<l. 1967: L C. ilQSS" Gramm':' Mamsm, Lo ndon , 1976; P. A ndcfS{)n, 'The
r aUl, AIIID"'O Gramm' e it J/OdUM PrinClfX'. RQme. 1970: S. Supp', Ami nQmie, .of AnIQn«, G,ams.ci· . New Lep Rem"", 00_ 100, 1'176-
II pFimo Gli sumi polilicl (/914- 1918). N.p!e,. 7. pp_ 5---78, L. Ko l. ko" 'ki . 'Anton;o Gram",i: Comm un i.. rcv;sioo,
1976: J 1.011, ,lluonia Gra-"sci . London, 1977; G Bergamt, /I gimane i,m" ,\fain Curre,," oIMu,..;,m. '01. 3. Odo.-<l, 1978 . pp 220- 52:
Gramsci e it rnarxi'ma: 191/-1918. M, I"n, 1977; ,\ Da",d>On. AIlIOIIIO A Sho"·'Ia.::k Sas"",", Gramscl j- Politics, londoo, 1980; P. Boneni,
Gramj ci. an Biograph\'. LQndoo, 1977: W L Gramid e 10 $DelCI<; lilx!raldcmocralica, Bari, 1980 , J_ Feml•.
,\do nl"'", and RrwlmiO<l A Study oj AllIon;o G,-a",sci:' Polaiml Thoughl. Oxford. 1'18 1. J. HolTman, The G,am,
Poillimi and Cull"ral T7!e()rt'. Berkeley, 1980: AA Sa"l uO<I, Anlonio >cia" Cor<t'io" "nd Consenl in Ma,.x", Polillcal Theory,
Gmmsci (1891 1937), RQm •• 1987, D. GerminQ, Antonio Gram", O,fQrd. F. Sb.roeri, Gramsd' "n s",iab,",o a"mOllico, Milan,
ArchilcC/ uf a POlilic.., 8'''Qn RQuge. 1990: D_ S<he<ler, Grw'/jd 1986 ; M A. Fin{t( t hi"fI<> (iram.' ci alld Ihe I/,-""rt· oj
and the T7!rort' oflnduslrwl Soden'. AldershO! . 199 1. R. Be llamy .nd Th""ghl. Cambndge . 1988 , Sdt",,!er. Gcamsci, Be llamy .nd Sd"",!or.
O. Schecte" Gmm,·,j Ih t' Ila/,an Slalt', M."" he'ter. 1993: D, G",r>ljCl
Los"rJ o, AlilOlli" ""I liN'ral'.' mo al <'FIIICO , 2 , See N' ;rtl', acerbic conune ,,", 'AntoniQ Su GOOO\l' , in Show" ""k
Ro nle.I997, Sa ,soon, ApP";)(1che" p_ 16 1 See also P_ AnMrson,
The best o"e"iews or Gmm"" i in(Ofpw.t lo" a" G_c. l",, ( . . on .liarxism , Lundon, 1976. p . 54 and G cmtlllO. AntQnio
G',,",sci g1ljd" werprelu:iolli_ ,\1I1an, 1975; C Gram,ei. pp_ 2- 26
\looffe (cd.). Gram",i and"'aniSi Throry', London, 1979: A. Show"",,," 3 A ra",a. I pHmi ,fleel anni del PCI, Bari, 197 1. pp, 86 9()
Sa,soon (ed,). Approaches 10 London, 1982, J. ilut!igieg 4 Paggi . Antollio Gramscl_pp_ D",'idwn. A"'On,V G,-am,c, pp
«d .). 'G",m,,;' (A Spen . 1 The l ega.c; .of A n!On io Gram"i),. 94- 157, ln ge".ral Borg.mi. II g;ucane.
2 , "01 . 14, no, 3. 1986. Stt al", t he vo lumos ofG"'nJ", i 5 D."i<!,un, AnlonlO Gramm . pr. 37-'17_
CQn fe",,,,.s he ld ITt l,a ly: Sf"di gramsciani. AI(! d,1 cM""gno len"'o 6 l'iQr;. AnlOnio Gram,''''. p, 84 ,
!lorna nel gior" , II-IJ W"llaio 19$8. Rome, p, R<»si (cd.). 7 David'Qn, AntOniO Gramsci, p_ 54
Gtum>"" e 10 c"Ir""a cO!lle"'poran"", tWQ '·olu",os. Romc, 19(,9: F, 8 h on. AnlOnio Gram,ei. p. 56: Srl>tt!er. Gram.' ei. p_ 56_
Fom (ed,), e ." ""ia in two " " lumes. Rome. 1'171: F 9 For Ihe general co"'ext see A. A"" Rosa, 'La culnml " S/QI";a d 'ilalia,
Sbarbcri (ed.l, Teoria poillica" -"xle,,) "fX'/!,jore "01. 4, pt. Ii . Tl.rin. 1975; It_ Wohl. The Genera",,,, '11914, Lond(m ,
Turin. 1'188; G . Roan i and A_ COlon. (.ds). Gram.' ci e la 1980. pp . 160--79,
del/"amcriw" ismo. 1989; R . G i.wm ini. D, Lo, urdo and \I 10 ,\ RQm""" (cd .), La r",e 190<1- 1914, T unn , 1960; L Ch iti ,
(cdS), Gramsci l 'II"lia. Alii del com-egnQ imern"ziollale C poillico ndle Fi,-i"le/io","une dd pdmo mm!Cellll!, 1903-1915.

"" '"
 Tunn, 1972; L Gcmile.lA I ...... e \tiLan. 19"4; R n, A. (;run,.c,. Senlll 191 I (<:tined by S<rJ1O ClpriOgho),
L"""rini. e Ilki>iogl<' lIel rrl_ "'... 1976. "" 26s-t. (htrtafl..r &,1111 191 J-191/1.
L . C.'Vi. lA ''OCr Imcro/ura p"maw degl; nan. 23 ror aramsci'. n:lo"OII!ihi p 10 inle,,'.nnonism. To",•. f priml dire!.
I97S: W. Allam,,,n. jl'Gnt·Canie Alod€l'nI"" 10 pp 87- 94 On "ram5<I·'jOl'm. li 'm !lCe I POllili.·La ··fed.none
F(;"(:lSnl. CombnJ I!" Mil.. 1'l93. ,uhumlc"' <.1<:1 (inda dd popolo·. Cnllea Manis/a. Q"o<\cmo 3. 1%7,
II lIOn. Amonio 1'1' 82-100, [h, Anl",,;o pp 1S4---74. V Gem,ana, 'O"'m5<i "giom.I' ....··. Crilico
JIll. 94-107; Be<pml. /I &jO>Dnr R Bellamy, UIH-ralis/tl ,01 4. 00. 3. 1%8. pp 171 S, R. Marllnelh. '(;n.a polemIC. dol 1921
and l/uJrrn s...,'CII-'. C.mbndgc. 1992. JIll. • I·....wlo dl Gnll'IUO' lUll' "anti' 1OrintSe', en,ira I/a"'lfta. vol.
12 11.. """'" RO§I.. 'LaCullImI', $Jon" d101/.... ,'01 4. pll. p, 1260; Bonttt,. 10.00.5. 1972. PP, 149-t>S, G. ik'lam •. 'l.na d'5<U!$lllM 3<11
Cru",.,." Genetl •. lA 'i>N". A' 66----&, A"",,,,-.A'''"I·Gank FIorrrta. 00 gil" ani soc,.h .. ,. Graml<' • 'La Cilia FlItur.l'. AI"",,,,,,,",,,,
C'nlbnJgc. \IA. p 2(,.1; Gm"",,'-. pp. 12 I J; "01 , 3. 1979. 1'1'. 65---9. Fill ,I"
J. Mortin. 'fkgcmony " "I 'he Cn.i. o f L'II«,mlloCY in Cram«i'. Eng li'h Iran.la!i""l ofGram5<;'s ow"nll OIII""m.Jj,m in III< I'·ison
I/m",,' of i/".W" SrJrllCn, .-01. 10. no. I. 1997. 1'1>, 37- S6, SQ(,books. !ott "" Joumali.m'. TdOJ. no. 32. 1977, pp. I J9
11 E. L }""obi(!i. Rc",xullonury H"mall;"" and I/moriciJ", m Mod• .,." 51 alld A. OrJnU<:l. &1«11011' for O'''"ral "'''''''IV (cdS. I) Forpc.
II"", " .... Hu-"n. 1981. R. Bellamy. Modrnl lIa/lall SocIal TIrft>n and G. No" .1l,S"lIlh and 111UISi.aled 1\ Il«lhovo .... }. London. 1985.
Id...x<>gy and Po/Il,es f""., '0 Cambridge. 1987, e'pe<:ially 1'1' 186-426
1'1' 72 11 4 I summ.>n"" III< malenal In Le,,}", "A .... Lool.·
I Ali quoted In Fiori, ,011111»11" Cro,.."" i. p 74. For ,II< .on ... """ CT, I'P . On Mu,whm ', """ .. hll ""fill,S s.tt R Dc f.lice,
. nd GcntM >co, R. Ikllamy. 'Gr.l m5<i. Croce ."" 'he Italia" Poli "cal 1/,,<>olini iI ",,,I,,:w,,'m'o. "[ unn. 1%5. rr 181}-200.
rrlldilion·. 11;,,,,1)' af Polil,eal Tho"ghl. '01 I I. no. 2. 1990.1'1'. On 'he 'li lile CT. rr 97,109.122. 272. 9,
;1 I] 57 On III< e",,,ICC""" boll'oeen ond Sorclean 449 SO. 756
;.ce. \1 A",Ul"- Im"rlllmg iktN""" P"JlliN and 1M CT,I'P."'>-x.<
4,all/,lianJr. Pr""'tlOlI. 1993 26 cr.pp ""i--"ii
The "'" Wlndanl booanphl(>. of Amode<> Bordlp.-e A. Do Cfem<-r,,,. n. BeSIdeS CT, S« \be I....., DlII<r rolled by Scfiio Capno&!lO,
."",ad... Tunn, 1911. I Li,-or.i. Ama<1ro Bordiga. lAIC"''' ju,u", . 191" 19/8. Tunn, 1982, /I"""ro Ata",.' 1918 1919•
1976 I "Itn, 1984 (II<nccfonli U' and NAI ""pecu,tly)
16. G. S. Chorchi. 1908---1911. Ro"",. I G . U<:« •. 28 P Pi.co"e. T IIlm Sp .... nlO 10 O"m 5<l". Todo,. no. 31. 1977. pp. JS
I'ulmi." Toglimti, rp.l---8; A. Ag05' i. P<I/mi." Thglio",. T unn. 1996,

17.
1'1',6 14
1.... krn.c,nl. Ihn, 1978.1'1'. >-7.
'"
29 On I..briol. "'" I n.1 Pane. "",,,,,i,,
GrQ",.r' ....110 polillNl C IIrlla
(U/tllril 2nd Nn, Tim", 1975. hc<:>b>II'.
A. Ago.,,,, Lrnbcrlo" in A. AIldl-"IIC,i and T OI:1'i, /I H_iJ"" KoI>k"...""i. \{a,n C""""'IJ. pp 175-92, BeILamy• .IIodrno
""'''I'm<W Ilali""". lJJ:;""ano biogroflro, ,..,1. 5, "allan, I'P. >I 71; Bellamy alld Seho<;,u. G,.,u/uri
1978. p. 37. 10 A_ Koso. 1040
IS 1\ Ri ..... , AIIgdo Tas(aJoc,,,h,,o. 1979.1'1' 14-36; 1\, J LX 1I M Tron". '1 .. "" , ... lilmo d lalenl<o t filosofll de ll. Pr.lSS;- . A
C;",n<i. M Sialin :' Shado" ' Angelo To,.-" Cri. is ["Ii CameolO io anJ G , Sea "" (eJ;;l. La Cllta f",,,,,,,.
Mil,". 1959; F. G . nn,
In and F","u. 191{) 1945.0. K. I!). 1986. JlIl. 4- 20. 'La fOlll1ozione d i aramsc, Croce'. CrllIra Quademo J.
19, Tuc • • 1 pri",; d,«I, pe. 8.8-9. 1%7. I'P. 119 ll. P Piceone . . Labfiola aod .t.. ROOI. of [uro-
A Gnlm ..;. lMillrJ; (he",.fit. en (ed>l<d by commun"m', Ikrtdn' .kumal of .10<:'101010. ,..,1 12. 1971 S, pp.
Carn",ho), Turin, 19&1. JIll. S9 90, l48
I
.,s.. J ..,,; for O .. "",,c,·. "",nlll ,ItO,. For Toah1u,. 80.:.1. TogU,,"i. And",o Co,o"" 01'&"" ,hal ,\oloni<> Labnola "'a< relll".ly
..... '" uIII,1 C;l1Omsci bol,hc,.. "c<1 hi! M. ",i.m in III< middle

107-
 1920.. A. Coeonc. 'Gramsci, 10 uaJL100ne _i.li .... e il problema 43 CT, pp 600 3
della manea,a dol rna",i,"",·. In II. G,ICOnoru. D. Losurdo 44 CT. p. 600. fOf Ibo Ir3nSl;ollOft. R. Ikllatny AII""""
and \1. \I:utoll' (rds). Gnllmci 1"1101'0. Lrbono. PI' 243---76 C;""ltUci Prr.'·PrUOII 'r2Jl>I.IIrd by VIIi,n .. Cox.
32 !'. . Uad,loo,. /I dl Gro"''''I. Tunn, 1911. 1994. p 15,
n G. I'mc""d. '''nl""io l.1b<iolao I. "" i"one: dol """"Sm/) .lIrawf>O (7, P 6()() Rellam}". A",,,",,, p 16
l'cp i, 'olarlO con • con Koo\!l ,·. 1895 1904', A,,",,1i Cr.p,60L
"oml":JOlj,' '01 1, I%(). I'P, 121 ·8: (] 47 CF.I',6?7.
ne",. Fr"nUJ«J So'eno Merlin!) {).all 'a"af"f'h"".", al \'\1. P 410 ror ct.e I,alian "",ioliS!s and WC<>dra" \\ il<Ol1,"'" Il
'<lClal",,,,, IIf>rra'., MIlan. 1993.1'!'. 343---S4 TobIa. '11 p.o.n'IO SO<:lali$l•• 10 polllle. dl \\ W,I<OI1 (1916-1919)"
j..\. l)a,·,.t.o.. . . GruMSn. pp. 69, SO. 104. 105; Rom • .." .fnl""'o SlOT'" ,01. 6. 1974, PI' liS-103.
Gr",,,,,,,. p. SO; G ",,,noonni. Iko, la nvo/""i""e Gro...",.i r d III. pp. 2.16--7.
dl"",a,. P.... 1919. PI' 7 25: 93---115, <;(I \ 1/ 1'1' 169
35, Lery,' A ,,,,,,'look·. PI'. 33-45 51 0',,1'.118
36 for Il>han cooper.llon G. SaPl'III 52. f. 11""",0. '11"",,, ... (;""""" • S<nl'. In V CorrtJIU'Ito (rd.
In Tu"n. 1981. f Of ellt uSC of coopcru",'C> during lhe Firsl S",.II _;urdr., Flo... 1974. I'!', 177- 195: 900310'",11
""Ofld Wa r V Zamagn i. TM EMnl)ltl'( limon' of IBM man" .. ,,: G 10. Gi",,,. ·Gram.cl • SQn:I', ,n V \kkhion-e. C Vigno
1990 Ru(" ...r-;'.!ro", Dcdinc. Q,ford. 1993. pp , .nd G, [)c Rosa (••1$1. Anlo"io G,um",i IIl'cmi"ra '''orica e pal"iro,
17,
«,.
p, Sp".no. Slorw til TOTI"o O""ralo r SodalblU. Turl", /972. PI' la qlJ('>f",n'·/".'"",a. Rome, 1979. pp, 7fI 90; Roth. elill ,,{
"menu. $orrl allJ Ikrlcky. 1980; .\ 1 Mal"<I,a,
38. r"" G .... msc, 'unides on lhe 1916 debale 5t(' CT. pp. 569-87. 589---- 'G""ltsci • II ,indac.li""" ri""'olionari a R,O.osioo, sui cappona
91. 3 In anal,;, • guldlro dl ,&1",",," '01.
39 CT. pp
F"" lhe p<efigu",IIle Mute af",fC>mlI$l ""'tah"" 10. "" I. pt>. 127-7
and Ihe pro".'
Coopc ....ll'. ",me"",nc. s.ce \1 [)cgl'lnnocrnll. Duro" Schcc'n nnpha,iles ,he imponon« of Sorci for G",mJei
(irogra(ia r is/in;z;/Hii dd j(K,al""", ilal,u"" 1892-19/l. ,.pIes. ,n 1916 18 1:><01 1m impacl on h" lhoogbl .ntI "",ion, In 1919
1983. 1'1', 138 FOf ,he "rusgk 1><1"'«n ."",11 $hopk<q><", .nd 20. 1 ".,,.,Id <mO. Gr3mS<i', prodll<H' I" <<)OneIl commUni''''
!<>Ci.lisl CoopcM,\O"n p,,",.r
\ 111.n >«. J. Mom>. TIll' Pt>/Iliral is doe r ly s.o",II," ( = bd"" O "'p!cr hIe) ror D. Scheeler ;c,.•.
"r
Econ"",y i" Mllall 1886-/922. Ca mu li dge. 1993. 'Two Views of Ihe R"'ololion: Graml<:l and So rcI. 1916-1920'.
1'1'. Marr;s Ihac ,hopl erPl'"' "<re nOl 'u. nsio n! "",iol HllIor)' of EuroprCl" "'eo•. "01 12, no. ,. 1m. PI' 633---53
occo",' Also 5t(' J. • . ·R eca ik .... Flsci.m 000 'ho: Origin, of lhe Iklbn,) Ind ""heet.,. ""'-" ,he ')TI<hcah<t on ,IH: G",mlllOi
Social Pro1CCl1Oll afShopk<q><n in haly·. of . .... Gt"'",<"i. p. 20. bul Pl'rhapllhey rlOr to d,IT"",n","
If,sIGn'. '01 5. no, 3. 1996. pp. 285-318 MOl'''' h'Shhgbl< lilt b(,wecn G",rmci', pas"I\" ."i1l1de l""ortIs Sorci and
,em"",s b......."" "'holesolm; and 5bop/<<q><rs. p. 2% hI> "'''''' ."Heal ...lu.,ion of ... nuro L.abnalland Enrico Leone
40. CT. pp. 597 8 j (; B hno .... ,. S<=/ Lliulla. f 1omIc:•• 1976. pp. 64. 7fI 110.
41 CF.pp 17. 9S 6. S Onufno. Ie iI ""'rW...o. Ltb,no. 1979. pp. 89----91, Ill-
42 CT. pp 5R9 91: I.e,·y. '" I'c\\' Look'. p. ",cal""" of Ihe 21.127.139.147. 1S4. 194; Roth. 10
I.. h.n fC<>d oupply .y.lem in ,IH: prr;.;.J 191 S- 1917. see S·' E. La "" -;Slonr d'" mu",i,,,,o m Iwlla. ,\" 1'0. 1%4; F
F.m""",/r I/mMl'. 1'1'. 216-17: M C. Dc"IOnl, '''Que'hone all""""""," Z.g.rn. .... i, ..a m-;,Ion"rno. Bl'rl1Sldn So",1 Gr-a:ladei L",me,
e "qu(".lli,)"" _ i. le" doran!e la Pnma GO" flll Moodi. l. ,,' il" " o·. !'.'rlo •. 1975, On< Corn""'"I" or hIS dm"." po1'll1101, be(\\'ee" GmmJei
Soc;"I,) SloriQ, no. n.
1987. pp, 601 16, \1Q<TU gi"cHump"" from anti h ahan JuuJical G. Morab"o, ·An.onioGmm",i.
Ibo I""w., ",foln"'$1 "",.. I", ,hal "'" rilher ."mlarla Grimo,,,'S I'i<lcali'mo gu<>dieo ".lia"" r:>u .«i a canfronla·. S,OTW Polilica,
..."..1"\;$ In 1916. sc<: 1 M<KTi •. TM ""'Ilical E(a"",,,,,·. p 274 '01. 18. no, 4. 19"9. pp. " +\ 5'.

'" ""
 $mll,/PH IP2I.p IJR 191 }-19IS·. SoOo/II"",,,·. ""I. 14. no. 1. 1989. PI'- J 1 1'_ Comtr
<6 M O. R<><aoh. V . . popnJorl. Rome. for Oram",i', .nd GIo .... """ rroc""". 'The h.han bp<ncnc<: Mot.,I, .. -
"",,"ioo OIl educauon. "'" II BrocroI,.A.hNlW Orom"" I'rducu:i""" ti"". 191 S---I92O". In J, H""", (00 ). S<x-,nl'
1972. JI [",,,,",,1 ,,. AIII"/Ji" Go-am,,'i' m/,'ulY!(I<e during tht fir>! tl;,,/J II;". Cambrldg•. 1997. Pr. 223 40
Sl'hOO/i"gjw iladkall'oli",·•. London. j 979 (, 7 . .-Im"",o Gran""'-, p. 14
29 lonu.!")" 1916. /I a"d" PoJK>lo. Turm, "l'he Engli,h tr.n,lallO" S \(0''''. Gli d, To,j"" 1900--1'I.'{I. \(ilan. 1980. p 125,
1\ m 1\ Orom", •• . .. from Polit;ClJI "rumg. 1910-191fl Ciarlo:.. G"''''Jrt. lJ 14
(",I«'ed and edi.ed by Qu'nlin Iloatt. lnnsl>,w by Jolm 'bllhe" •. \ Ius.><>. Gb OfX'roi, p 12'1_
loo&n. 19'771. lhe<eafter SPI+"f) I'I'!I 12. In IIlhan $CO: CT. 1'1' Ih,d, PI' 169 71; 8 Bcua, ·Soc •• 1 CIIa""'I."''''''. AllllOOt!.
99 103. O""n"" refers 10 Ennco Leone', ·Oomoc ... Z03 In F"'nlumi' "n" I'ohtle, of the Sink. Bch:t,';our of lbe in 11al)
(,Ik""",,,,,,y In !'",cos·). Gu.. ,.,.a d, CialJt. Flo",,,,,,,, 15 January dunng the r lf" WorlJ \1"'. In L. Il ll.i mlOO and C. Tilly (edt).
1916. A" ide. of II,. "mcle c.n be gauged ftom the following "",..ag.: Jl m,- amlll"''Q!ulion, ill an IIII"",,,,,,on,,IPrr'pecli,V!.
Tile n\Odem ",,,,,ler !eaml much more hi' c1as! in"i"" jn 1M Lair fa'/,' Cemu,it'!.
lh.n froon lhe 000k of offoc,.1 kno",lcd,e, ,. TherefOft. lhe"" , no Cambndll". 1989.". 408
Ioal.'all"" 00, In ",·Qrl;er;'m. In IIx: cla5K1 '" IIh ".lIoused h3nd •• nd 71 ,\ Carnarada and S. L altTO La r/""t opt:rtJ",,/uranlr
braIn, unconl.mmaled by ... hu", _. 11M:y [the Ignonrn. CLI '" III be 10 priMa gwmJ IItOftdlalt. ' Iilan. 1980; Bcua. 'Soc",1 Cbar.IcIerutocs·.
lhe hell'S of democrloCy. PI'. 4Q.1.---.6; O. Bena. 'The InlerKgJ>um Tunn. hal and Indu,,,,al
/I"d Conn,e' bo1w""n War.nd r .",,,m'. ,n C \\'ri&ley (ed .).
59, Sc,im 1915---1911. 1'1'. 279-82. 'U! prepanlllollC dell. o(La/x>ur 1"'Jkm Cump<" 191' /9HJ. 199./.
borghe .. ·. G"d" drlPop<Jll!. 6 .\Iay 1916 The tlt lc is Ora"''''I'$ II rp. 110,
"' lhe n ih p. ... grwph of Ch.plor 19 o f De Sa""l;"s S,oriu ,Idla 7l (hit . .-Inton,o G,..,!tU(I. p. 22_ F"" ,imi ll, alilIUtl.. of wolTl(n in
ital,ana B. ",elon:l dunn, t!>t I W",I<I W" $Ot. T ..... pI.n. Rro Cm. 8/"...
60 (T. p. 602. Bon.my. AMNlI(} Grawuci. p 17. I'mod Socia/ M"'...,,,rnlJ III Pi'auos 8arN'I,,,,,,, Berloley. 1992.
fll !'he lheme of the pa .." .• "" oJUI"'" dornllllllN lhe 1977 Gram""l ".. II' 2< ror "'0fTICn ,n Ililan 5ee. J I I t o<l4. 'Sociali"--Cllool,,,
II\5IJlll1e confe",ne.., pm:i", SUlem<nl 5« C. Bt>C, ·GI""""",,tln. Aillances.nd Gcndc-r 11m. WaT.nd the 'illanand lom·
'SIOIC. 'I ran\,llon .oo Ph.". RC\-olulion·. In Mo"lre. Gmm.d. 1'1' bardy, 1914 1921'. So<-ial/Ii.<tOrv, ,01 , 21, no, I. 19?6, 1'1'_ 37
1M 204 1.1", dl>cu$1 Tn is .'!'tt'
ofGrnmso:t" thoughl in C I..vy. 7.1 Mu'<O. Gli 01X"",1. PI' , 162--82; D,II Ilell. S<-,ro Sml Gw\,w,,,,
'M •.' Wd:><r and Atlwnio Gram"' ,'. tn IV, Momm>cn and J. o,.tcr- II;'riter.- Colto,re ,,"d p"lwe.' '" an I",/,w, l",,'", 1881J.---1922. New
""""""I (od,) . Ii,-/w, and Hi. Comcn'f'O,arin. London, 1987. Bill""" .. k_ pp, 8S---106; I). R,J!I'<l", /lPone/I,,_ Operai, 'e.-n,d
1'1'.3%-400_ e imprmdilOrl "II ,11/it-ROMro HI06-J\l_'6, ",Ian. 1988. PI'- 1H )2(1
4 \to} 1918. fI GtiJ<, drlPopoIo, T unn. \'\1. PI' J.- 7. B_ Ikzn. Salarid e '''"IKlII'. Tra la f{JMnro r" fi'rN<le 10
6.\ M.y 1918. /I Grid(} tkI PopoIo. T"nn. 11M: lille .. Gf'3nll.<i·,. n.e 1%6; L. T(lmlI ... n,. · ..... \I>lnal MobillIaIlOll
Romf,
nc.rp< i$ rrom IIntoolo Labriol.·, 00:1 ,_'M, Ind Slate Inlc.-."nIlOO in h .ly In lhe F,rsl Woo-Id \\'.r: EIf""ll Qfl
{hI", "",11",I"arr. 3rd poarnsrwpn, Rome. 1902. rp. 12-17. l abour Demond'. ,n l lIa;m",".nd G S.pd l, (od,). S"'/..e., s,x-;',I
Sec SO'mi 1915 1911, JI]>- 344 8, For Ihe rcl.'ionsn,p belween C""/I,,, anJ I! ",/d ,'nnali llfilll B,bhorecu O. O.
W.be'·$ lhesis abou l ,h. clf«" of ProttS'alll"'" on capilah,m, $OC "01 27. 1990 199 1, 1'1' 179--21 1; F Adl ... ItlJl"," Ind"._
levy. We!xr'. pop. 386 S. J96, 398--9 tr",/U15 from to FasCISm. 1906 19J4. C.mbridg •. I99S.
64 (F,p_J22. PI' 106- 7
'( CI.,-l. AntOllio GroltUr, "lid th" tltol FailN, 'e-w H Spri.lkl, Slana d, Tim".,. p_ 258
!la'.. n. 19n. p. 76 .. Li",..i. 'II ..,.,.10."", ,n I'iemoo" <lalla Krande gut"" .Wooou·
M S« G",".nna rroc",,,,. 'Popular Prnto" and l abour Conlll<I,n I'al)'. dell. fal>!>nohe·. ,n A . Ago'I" ond G U",,,o (cds).

'" '"
 G'amsd and ,"e ,(narrhms

mo,·,me",o operaio dd soc:ialism" delle .,oc:ioli in l'iemome. They wcro

Yol 2, Ihri, 1979,1' 160, I Cesar. Albe" , COmlOO Q uaghno, born 17 M.",h 1900, Turi l>,
77. Ibid_. PI' 370. 383_ studenl, Ist iwto T""nieo
78, Ibod, p, 360 2 Giuseppe Rubmo, born 26 No'-ember 1898, Naples,
79 T DetT i, 'Boe ro, Giovann,' . ,n AnJ .-.ucc, and Dtui, II mo.-'menlo 3 r "'''''eseo A11011", born 2 O"toher 1887, \1onferTato. fournJry-
opt'rooo, Yol I, Rome, 1975, W ' 332 3 man
80 ' lkn.;I L. Carlo'"n Andre""" i .nd [)o;tt i, /I mOI'imenta ol"'mio, vol 4 1:I. no \j:orgari(., born Febn'ary 1887, Ch i,-"sso,
I. PI'. 2S8-9 , 'Ilcruti , C.rl o', ACS, cre 5 Luig i Momno, born f cb",.ry 1891. Turin, sto'e repairer,
8 1, A, Campari"i, . Lotte soc,ali organ","z,o,,, 18 80-926', 6, l omasso Ioli •. born I Mareh 1878. Tu ri n, wppersmith.
in /\gost i and Bravo, SIOFia del mo,-imemo opl!Fwa, "0 1. 2, p . 455 7, P,etro Bondi, born 27 Deeember 18SG, Mas".. mechani"
82 Gram"'i ';; obituary of G iudice " h" ,band, see CF, W, 177, 424- 8 Enrico Am,ic.re Cherubino, born 22 January 1886, Runu"
5. F", Togh.,,; ', mlefvenl,onlSm >co . Boco • . Palmi,." TogiiaW, pp pamler y.rnlShcr.
19---22 , Ago"i, Palmiro Toglia/I<. PI' 16---1 8 9 Alfonso A igna, born 16 June 1887, Frigolc, forger
83 .\1. Royelli , In'O"'is' •• M Garino', M, .. Turin , 1975, p. 72_ 10 G,o"'ppe Peletto. born 18 1899, Turin, occupalion
84 Ibid. p . 73 uokoo"'n
Spri.no, Slo-W di Tor;no. p, 364, On Mombe llo La Scuola II G,useppe Emanu.eI, born 18 Cklober 1889, Mondo" (Co lleo)_
.llrnierno. Bo/leumo Scmestriale Ed,w dol Cirrolo di C"lIum 'F'an found!)'",.",
"nco Fe""r '. TIln n. ,'01 I , no_ I, NoY<mb<r 1916---Apnl 191 7, p, 5, 12, DO>'ide Elia, born 6 Feb",ary 1876, Tunn, ramtcrivarn i,i>er
86 Srr iano, Swria di TOrino . pp, 358-9 n Core.no, Cronaca. pr, 174-5, Spriano, S,orio Ji Torma, p_ 364
87 See · D.I soc i.l iStno. rlnarchica', /I Libe'lUrW, Lo Spe"a. 13 Jul}' 93 AST. I'''''' "'''' OT< del Re d i Torino. 12 Sepleml>er 19 16
19 16, p . 2, signcd Turm. 5 Jul}' 1916. Thi' m,nife'IO "OS signed by ').I For " nere'lIn!; commer.l;; on .IOm< of the literature on the rising
see Clreano, Cm"o,""
Cesare Corraoo Q",lgl< "o 95 Spr iano, Sio-ia iii To-ino. PI' , J97--S : CF.pp . 281 ,_ On Gram'l<' ,'t
Giuscppe Rubmo Giuseppe Fiore Mtcl>clle G ,I ,,,di I.ter alSen ion lhat t he pro" i,ion ing 'yslorn was sabolaged by
Giuseppe lIalksio M.rco Borgh.,io G iuseppe Mombello Giolntian<. "c Careano, Cronaca, pp, 1ll8--10
rrance>co Allolto G,oyann, Filappa Domono ia Della :'1",,,, % CI".no, C"'''MO, pro 52-3
G iuseppe Cariob Fedele Ch iocchia 97 Spr i.no, SW,.ia di Tori"O, p, 4 III
98_ /lnd, p. 412
88 ACS. PS. Sorio GI. 1159, A"oc. Sov". To rir.o. Fascio Gio,""ile 99 ){o, elil . · Inlo"iot. " G.rillQ ·, p, 73, In general. see Mus,,". Gli
Comuni.ta di Torino, 1. r'-1"''' from ll>c Prefcct, 26 August 1916: 01"'''';, pp, 162--S,
lbid_, I I October 1916, 100 For GL.ll';<o, 5«: ,\C5. cre 2563, For Mombello. "" ACS, cre 3342
89 Spnano. S",,-ia di Torino, ,\C5, PS, 1159. Guerra Mo" d,ale. 25 101 For 'loe mctt:ng on l ,\ Iay 1917, "'" AeS, PS B52. Pri ma G".rra
1916. On Trese., se. D, Gallagher. RIg"' Enomie• . The Mond ialc, RCf>Ort of Prefect (0 MU"'IO' of I"lo'i or, I June 1917_
alld Munlor ,,(Carlo Trrsca, New Brun,,';ek NJ, Pl'. 542 For the rn«tlng of n June 1917, ,ee ACS, PS BS2. P,ima Guorr.
90 AST. Procura Gcoc",k di Tori llQ, moti ri\'oluz ionari, occupazi"m Mondiale, Ref>Ort of Prde<' 10 or In 'cnor, 5 July I Q 17,
fabbrichr anni 1918---1920. n_ 8446 , ACS. AS" (Pnm. Guo ", 1,,"_ 102_ For lho "rikc of 5 JUf>e 1917, see ACS . PS 1152. Prim " G ue"a
diale) , 11123 . Ikro" of ,he Questura, I S Octobe r 19 16 Mond,alc. Report o f P.-.f"'l'o Mmi'ler of Imerior, 6 JUlie 1917_
Ql , V Ma;;;urka blu. 1-" s<rage del /)'alla, \I ib n, 1979. p For lhe m ike of 2 Ju ly. see ACS. PS 1:152 . :'Io nd iale,
f''' 'I>Q!" I I I G, Ca",aoo,Cronacadi w,a riw;lla . I mOli lari"eJi of Prd",,' to lini,," r of Interior, 5 July 19 17 Aho,;co 5
dell!. TU tl ". 1977_ p. 174. foo' n<>to 3 Fo r . Ii st 'Reltg,,,,i' Ortaggi Ca'lllll"ro"."O, 111"" 000 del la.-oro Ti)rino c I ';"d"",.", del
see AST. l'rocu", Generale di Torino. p,.,mo Will, TlIri n, p. 263

11 2-
103 for.he hlhan anarch .... and ,he Ru ..,an rc. hunJ",d,"nd· .. 'emy . .."on rail"'oymen "ere wor\.ing '"
M ... n.. '010 _narchiei i.lhan, 0 la Ri,'olu>ione R",,,,', Ri ..."" "or wno, het" .en 191 S and ",e G Sacchetti. ·11 , ;r><b.:.,o
S,,,rj,u dd So,ia/'-'IM. r.o" ISo'l6. 1962, PI' 1)5-69: S Fe""I". fc" ",i.n Ha lmn; Jurante il ·O ,.nn;o R,,,,,,', ,n M. Am",,,,,lt, R
{:"" h,..,'t (;/, i,,,Ii,,n; r /" R,m'" Bernard, and G. Ch"'eW;o (edsl.115md",,,,,, ""liulII
191' 19J9. \1iton. 1996, 1'1' B - 39 a/fuJcilmo I'llI' 192.1, ' '' Ian. 1994. I'!' 201 2
1(}.1 Masin,. 'Oh _",hiei·. 1'1' 136-7; L. Renin,. fllNiografUl 441·" ..... ,... 116. Carcll1O. C"""",a, pp 6s-6
ChISM<>, '01. I. Florenc<. 1971. p. LI>t<: Fabbri, Luig< ,'"MrI I 1'. cr.
s.:.:. 'Cronaca do, --fo"i di p. 660
SIOrla """,0 I,bert>. 1996, p. 113,
118. Revell;, ' In•• nist.aO.nOl{l·, p 84
105 The hmod ,heot i, found '" ACS. PS 19 17, liS. Prima Guerra II9 ACS I'S 1917. B124. 1'",n3 UUCtTI Mood ,.I•. from the prefec,
,\lond .. I., "f Turon. N Augu,1 1917. p.m. ·Smpers.", .eponed.,
106 Ih,d. rq>Or1 from the Pn:f.." of Ancona. 18 June 1917. ling<>no'; Carcll1O. (""""" Q. p. 71.
107. For ,he I.. hon "","l,m and .he Russian R."olu,Oon. ..,. S Clretll. 120 R.".II,. 'In'trI"'''' Garino" 1'1'. 82 5: for PS
U, R""", .. iI 1«1,,1,-,_ "allalf() 191i-1911.1',;.o. B59. Poma G"""", Mondtlle, leller July 1917. For Bo"" • ..,. AST,
1974 'I'rocur. di T"nllO',
108 Amnii', Tu,;n. IS Au¥uSt 1917.1',1. I! 1 A. Dod. , 'Oh """,,hiei fr" guo"" 0 ,n I' A I' I,i
109 Carcat"', r GOTioo . ..,. Ro'dh. '1n1<rvi!la a (cd.I, ddl" ilaliaM. La dUllrrga:ia"" ddla
G•• ;no'. p, 79 1I,Mtlan.19R2.p 381
110. For I. .j",..ni,.. AlMIrA...." _ tbt .m<1e by Cesare SobnIO j n. \I'fI wl.m from K Del ClmL ProI<,tar; Kll:a ,.... "01. I U.
rqxnt<:d in Pnma GU<tTI Mondi.le. AN. lOS 1918 R11. repor1 from Rome. 19'6. p.
.ho ""'fcc, ofT urio. 19 SqH. 1918. AI", _ •. L• ..,Uman. t'OS;a d, 121. Spro.no, S'''''<l d, 426
Tooino n 27 Ag<>s'o 1917, '-e, ne<!<d, ,it un ehe rho '''1 '' '0', 124 I/;.'oll i. 'Im. "is!a. G."no" p. 84. . .1'10"" di Tori,..,. p.
("""',I< a $ulwr.lim. l 'unn, 14 Augu,1 1920. 1'1' l -.I; Sp.-ial"'. St,,,.,,, 411. C.",.DO. (""'''<l'''.
1'1'. <).!
d, Tormo, p 421 125. Sprulno. $lori.. di TorinO, 1'1' On .he mod<-rale """"t"", of
III AI",ICC: Carcano. CfVIIU<'o. 1'1'. 15- 26. intlu>lriah>l> 10 lhe riottfli.."" Adl ... '''''IUIn"lu".
112, Pnma Oucna \Iondi.k. ACS. I'S 191 S. 831. n:porI from tbt ""'f"" PI' lOS 9
"fTuri •. o.:t. 1918, 126. T."inlU!ty of Antonio Oben, In P,,,Iel;u Quer.:ioh (cd.). G"''''.,(i
A<ronl;ng to hi' daugh.e •. Luce. Luigi I abbn was Ihe .utlto, of "1\'0 ,e"imo",an:" Jum M il.". 1977. P
.he LlICe r abbri. Fabbri SIO-;U <Ii un "0"'" /,be,.". 87; (j..;no ," Paul"''' Quo.,rcioli. Gr""'J", 1'. 1,4. F". ' Le cinque
P, .... 1996, p. 113. giom, ""I prolelari. l,,·. ot(.' C,.-. 1'1'.
I 13. ACS. CPC 313. ll.ar:anero. G1U\efIPO; R.".llt, 'In,"" ,... a Gan",,·. 1P. B,a",-,,<, in Paule,u Quc:-r<ioh, Gro .....ci. p. 27
p. "9: C.rcano, (""""'ca. 1'1' I 1; ACS. PS 1918. 863, S, i=ra. 128 \',glon&o in Poulesu Quer<toh. G"''''5. I. 1'1' 126
Repon ofln ,nformer tn lunn. l uly 1917. 129 Ibid. P 125.
114 ACS. rs 19 18. B63 . $vi>.><", "nsigncd no1e. July 19 17. (P, 1'1', 130 C."'tt" in P.""," Quorc ioh. Gm""ci. p, 43
335--0: Co",.no. CronaCil. I'!', 102 3, PS 063. IttpM of the P,dett III Ibi,/..I'I' 4; 4
of Rome, 9 (X,obor 1917. On \li,ian", ac.i, inu in S" ,(Le. lInd, I 12. Fiori. Ank"'/O Gramm. 1'1'. 104-5: ... i. 'U !oOCLllismo'. 1'1'. 162
... F. Ihnol".", FroMrJn) Ill.Iitv>o, Rome, 1912, 1'1'. 78--115. "J.p<:' J; 1 n'i, . opnain'. pp. 526
c\llll) pp 82 1 11) 'Du • ....,dt', 7 \lay 1916. /I Gnd<> de' PvpoIa. Tunn. May 1916.
II S. I ha,,, !'thed on lho go""",1 accounts !<om Spnano, Slimo dl Tonlf(), ('T. p. 294
1'1',41634; Carcano. PI', 4&--140: R.vell i. Ir .. nista. IH The be,t """mIn! of'h' Club "fMoral Lifo ii '" Ikrg.m t, /llIio,",,,,,'.
Ga rino' lla llw. ymcn "'ere ""t" 0 III the CMt"ng ,iot •. HQ"'CY", 35 PI' 121-34 .• nd for b;ograp l"col dot.;), of the ',"",".1 life"" ot(.'
dn'ttt ""ul! of.h. 'f.tt,·, the •• il",ajn",n ".'" milirarozed S,,· IktpmL /I 1'1' 117 52. On the ("'"lil.on •• ,,( the

114- , liS
 Club on loral Life, se<: G. Turi, C'Mann i Genlile. I <N5, 1,1 I GtJ<id of the origins of unonho<lox COmmu"IS'" can bt
PI' . 267--1j found in A I< 'iegcl, ,1"-, m·jgjlle., dl< c,,,,,,,,,,mSme im",ais. 1914
135 QuO!<'d in D3\ld",n, Anloml! CramsC/, p. 79 1920, "01, I, Pari', 1%4. PI'. 282-307: A, Linde ma"n , The 'lIed
136, raulesu Queriook Gramui. p. 124. I,,,,'! '. E"rrJl)C(J" SocwllSm ""51/.S Dolsho';'''' 1919-1920,
1)7, D,widson, Antonio p, i9 1974, A. Kroese!. 'La cri,i riYoIUlion.,i " 1919-20: lpotesi P<' I.
138 P,ul<"$u QueriCiQli, Cramsci, p. 126 di un modollo', in A. Agosil (ed, I, di
139, CF. pp 1I}S----6, (/919-1939j, TlIT in, 1974, A
140 CF, r · 498 . For lhe cducalionaltrad il ion of lIalian soclall,m. Stt P. Ag""", ' Le corr<n! [ cos11!Uti'e del comlln ismo [n
Aud'"mo. 'Non pi" ilOli : "alori c model li della pcdagogla E. HOO,bowm (cd.), Slo,ia del marxisma. \'01. 3. pI. I. /I ",a,xism"
soci, lim' ,n L RosSi (<11 .). Cul,ura <slruz,onc e ,(){",al,smo nell '0" ,,'"'Iv r/<i della Ta:a Turi n. 1980, pp 32960; C
[:,Ioli,,,,",,, ,\1 ilan, 1991, pp. 37-54. 0" Cra ms<;i., educa"onali,IO, S" iann i, i!i".ws ' Conlrol and Socwlh/ D,'",ocrary. The S<-mCl
soe Ad. mw " , Hegemony and pp 39---41 £.<pedence. London . 1982, pp 107- 16 For .. " of
For soclahSI worsh,p, C. Le"y, 'Charisma and Social European during the Firsl World War. = C. Iknra od (<'d,),
M""mtlU>: Erri." Malale>ta and Ilali,n AnardHsm', Modcrn Ila"', R"mluliona,)' Sill,allOns ill Europe 1917-1922' Italy
'01, 3, '"' 2, 1998, pp. 205---8 Montrea L 1977 ano espeei all y D. Kim],. War
14 I CF, pp. 499-500. English Iranol'lion in AnlOni(} Gramsei. peoa and fmcrnallOnal SocIalism aI 1M Cro"rwds
p. 38. 1914-1918, Londo", 1986
142, For B.nalrn i·, tosIHnony. Se,i", 191 , pr, 14 1 143 For 152, On these (lemonstra110n,. CT, pp 51926,563---<> . 606----7,
his hfe, >ee 'Bartalrnl, Ezio'. tn AndITuocl .nd IXIII.I! 6 10 I I
\'01. I. Rome, 1975, pp 188---9: R. Ci3<om'lII , AIII/mili_ 153. Serrati, 'Una parola ag li on.rchici'. Awnli', Milo", I Feb
lammocl"'cijjsmonc/p"mo M,'cunlO, EzioDandini 'La Pau'. 19 16, pi, Sec the anarch'" r"pon,e, 'Irros', Pe r ""' pMol •• gIL
1903-1918, Milan. 19'J I On C(>Jmo, Fiori, AnIO"'O ""arch i,i', /I Ul>ertado. La Spol ia, 13 April 1916, pp . I· 2, U""gneJ,
pp, 74-5, 93, 104, 113. For Crar-l""', oplOlon' of EspcranlO, 'Per tr.lnq" ,lliuarc',II Libma"o. 13 Aprol 1916. 1'1', 1-·2. Also
CF, pp. 668--74, n ergami, II PI', 70. 92 "'" the d.bale i" wtth IlL. contribution, of Giovann i ZI\lordi.
143 F Lo P'pMt), I.lIlgua jllleliemonii wmonia in Gramsci. Bari. 1979 2 April 1916; Am./ko Borolga. 10 Ap ril 1916; halo T"""IIt . 20
rP 3-1 1. 73---<>, 3. 'X}- I, 95, 114 IS, 12-'-5, 150, 174- Ar ril 1916 and_ga", G Zioord i, 21 Apr il 1916. Tho numbers of
200. A rather sinnlar approacb Ii laken by Nadia Umin"i, sec 'T he lb. 23 and 24 May 1916 of LA,alll/liardi" (tho FCS l1<'ws p, pcr)
Sou,hs of An:onio Cram"" ano tbo Co"c ep! of Hegemony', In J art ,I so tah" up \\' i,h Mbalo. Seo .1;0 ,h. dcbOie in 1917, 191 S
(e<! .I, ItaIJ; Soli/hem Queslion 0'11 ()"e CiuSCJlP< Solgiu, 'Ptr la N"",'a Imema,ion.le', L 'AwwgumJia. 23-
C"""'n . Oxford . 19'JS . pp . 13$- 56 30 1917: C.)l.1 Serrati, ' Per la tor,a In!orn."io"a l,',
144, s.orcl IOW.rdS I'orr<r on 1h<:;;C gr""nds and thereby . AIl<ora 1'1 "temazionale', A"a"" .'. \ l1l an. 6 and 17 J,""a1)' 191 8.
alienated many h, Jj,," " n,>rch i", before til<- "ar - "'" G.B. FUrI""", f or the pri,'''. di \.(:""",," , bot" con Fabbri and SerTali see, IISH
'Sorci e gli " ," rch,c, italiani ·. R,un:hc Sl<mche, "01. 5, no. I, 1975, F.bbro pape" . louer from Serrati to Fabbri dato,1 27 Fobru"1)' 1916
PI' . 179- 88 for on anarchi" accounl. 'Emma' (Ferrero). II L,be'larlo, La
145, 'L. Corn uII.·. /I Grido del Popolo, Turin, 16 March 1918, CI', pp SPCTI", 15 JUl1<' p. 2
75 1 2, 154 For the Fioro"ti". socialists and anarchi,,, <Iurmg war. <eo L
146, SM. !'!'. 113-17. Tom." ini, 'Ch",,; orcmia e , ind"".I. duranle I.
147, Lwnctt i,.VolesuIC,am,ci,[;mino. 1970.pp. I Prim" l;uerra Mondial.: L. Came", del LaYOfo Ji Fironlo . 1917-
148 ,\'.11. pp . 113-14 1918', SlOrichc, \01 2, 1979. pp . 259-374 0"
149 CF, pp, 105--6
150. .-\.If, r 75
R"'ghi', ""b, dunng II", "ar. = M An1onioli, Armando 801):;"'
d 'im"me S ,miacu/e Ilalia'la, M.ndllr;a, 199(1, PI' . .11-44. Tho SI-!

- 116 -117-
 "'a> IIOlJ')rtlUlt here 100. "01 ... il,,'aYJll3Jl and along'" IIh
Ani'''' Sbrana d"",ll USOCIOIN wiTh 1lorJ.h1. Troui ""0< ,he - 4-
rqmscnlall" for ,he SFI. ste $a.;h<1li. "II Slntl3C110 ferro' '<Ti". I'P
I"S.211

'" -\<12>0' l$partaco "1I1lOO\' ImrmazionllJ<". iA

I December 1917. p. I r or La'-.gn,ni. fCC L Tomassi";. 'La,VI'"" The Anarchists in Turin during the
$f"''''''''''"' ,n And",,,,,ci ..'" Doill. 1/ ""-,,i_1I'o Of'"Uio. '0'. 1, Bie""io Rosso
ROfT'W';, 1977. 1'1'. 68-71. -1.: .... d, Errico \talo,c:sto' (200ct0t>cr
191 h di I..... ""., 16 )\0\'0011>0, 191 - , p. I
CT, rP. 360--1
CF. PI' -l<> 7 -H.
CT. pp . 76-7, .\\1. p. 3$4 Th ,\113 rchisb nd ka illls duri"!: • he bin",;o '''5.''",
"i'l ationaIO,'enic,, '

Tho /"rnm""".,-o ",0<

charxl<";led by mu<h hIgher (If >bon.llved) k,.I.
of Union dtTl>,ly. the dranulM; llrow,h of lhe Soc,.h<, P.r1y. • nd lhe
IDlfOOoctoon of u"".""l mal. suffraa<' and pr1)POI1ional represenlaliOl1
r.... VO" lh 0(' .... ....,.,h,S! led UnlOnC <;,,,,,10 ltaloana "'"
W>meIht", in tho: ord<'r of300,OOO ,0 .. ortm; joilXdloc...1orpn.
"allons, here one muSI rtrall,ha, ",f""nlSland rrw.m1lIi.,
_,all"" also gre .. rapidly, >oS lyridiclllSl lfO"'th on lhe
.'''' more lma:zirtg of ,110 Confc<kru>Ol"oC Gone..l. del 1.0'-('10
(CGL) I'wo million ,,,,,,nben. arid I"""'p; 800.000 In the Ind
100.000 ,n FIOM), the Soc,all" Pan), gre" 10 In
.,wundi"8 membe"h ip of .. k,Te "'1!.nllO"d aoarehi". (in the
Unio,"", Anarchic. It.li an. (UAI)l and affintt)' ifOI'P' 'l1roC1l"g
.20.000 members or '"I>pOrters by til( of 1 no, Popu larly oo ...oJ
(",,, ••uli{' and ,;",,,al m p.nttS \1«.",. iillni n"nl ilCtO" In ParTian",,,'.
,..,pl oem8 prewar nolObies. bUIlh'l major ","01"",,,, ,n III< politica l .ystem
"',IS oceomraniO"d by an c.u1Oorutnal)' number of tndumial ,ni.",. l.nd
""'Up.!1Ion; ,n ,lie south arid .'trll·p"rli.me""I}' din:cl o<,i"" by th"
"""onallSi righl.nd ,he _,altl' arid It""",,n.n Idt Tho:: ""1<'
concluded wi,h a month-long """",,"uon of engn'tn,,,, and ""'omoM.
f,""rone< ,n Seplemllor and ","SO"'" fltIle. of qricul'WlI "ort.... ,n lhe
1'0 \'alle) be"","" AUKuSi and Dc:cnnbcT 1920_
Anarrtll" .u-ength d"nn& ,he bi,nn;" ",ISO tan I-a'llely be undersIood
h)' ..,.allin& ,he: proW.l C)'do' lhe} .... r. mt,..,ly enlarged Ind
dcq>ttttd an."he ""'. bul not .... nged. n."", ')1"'$ ufi",,,,,
congeoi.l '0 """",hi,,, mobi" .. d rna .. "c >o<:ial """N' and poli.ic.1
.lnl ... dunng lhe ""10, Fill'. ;n.13l""'. ,lie ri.mg prioc
of b .. ic """""itic. ,kOCh >oS brood. popular "'plos,om of anger

'" - 119-
 M,ny hi"on.n. of ,h. bicltn/o "H,m do"n fha' ,he most re'<JIIl,ional)' A"t"ntO Gram,ci'$ L 'Onljne .VU().'o) did nuc spre.d the oontines
1lI0.nem during ,hi. e)',;1e of .\OCial prulelol ""e"rrr<I,n and June 1919 ofTurin • ....,.,his! m,liw>15 WIth," the facIO!)' .ouncll ",o,omrnI did ha, e
"'I>cn floc S<H:IIIC1I ='-<If·II'i"g riob <pread ropldly (""" cen,,,,llo inll""""e among>1 MnlI",h"" .nd _\llim In ,he .ndu.. ",1 <II)'
""nhem Ital}'. F"ghtcned shOpko:q><ft hIIndcd in the keys 10 the .. ,t.op., "f Sa,on. , HowelOf. 'he rol. of an.rchlS!s in m'Jor Cln e5 (f l"re""c.
10 the local d oatnh<rs of I. boor: .rod fn' se'eral It'yi llI.ny [(a li.", Ii, cd Genoa. and Rome) was ',,"'.Sl,d I<>e.l m • .• im.IiSl _bl i"S.
"nd. . . tOOO,lIon of dual PO"Cf. Se<ond, a"" mll""ristn Ind In'" In \Iilan. "beno ".lal..... S<111ed IlIld SW1M ,he r.,.", popular l!I3f(h"t
impenal"", mobihud an equally ,,,,,ilflous pruI<St In July 1920. recalh,,& <!ail.·. L (mllnlla \'''''11. aft .... an IMla] penod of g<><>oNIU. the maxlmal"t
"mIl., e, ""15 ,,, }oa rs carhl'< during lbe Red W.. k, A mllt'"y of " """, and the an:U'I:htm , lashed ;n the we'!S' By lhe summer of 1910
ref",ing to 10"0 pan of A""""" for It,han·.,..eup,ttI AI"'"i. ,"'·ol,.. d the R",nan a"orch;lIs and lhe maxim.l;'t _i.li"" ",ore borel)' on
a""",h,,,s. "he> moumed I f,erce .rmed ""i"'"""e to ito for ing ,eons As ".., shall .... the occupa-UOI> of the In Septemm
'\0(' do) •. FnilOIO 'og the supprtsS>o<> of'he ""';soog and m"M). lnarch,\!, 1910 saw lhe lnMOhlm .tdellr.ed.
aoo LSI.led e.ml"lgns Ihf"QUghout Ilali," mdu>1l)'. aH" nst ,," maten.1 In 1920 Mal.losta wa, cOI><cmed to ereat. an """",h i.. 'pan)" bUl
m'nur."lUred and ihiJIIICJ to A lbani. '" the Whilt. and A ll ied beca".. boaed do>< n in qtw'rels "'ilh """.o!pn,u,,,,,,,liSl' (gull.... " ..",).
''''''I''' figh'ing in 1M Rus ....n Ci, il wch "o<Ic$prtad \.UpJW>I1 Indi. iduah;;t, and J) nd",al"u.. 110 m<1 "nh ,oc ..... ,na sus!,"""'" b) all
a< 10 mako tbe eGl and """ah" l.....rsI"!' qUIl. In ....... lh111 thei, ",ai, of""''' .... hit 1K><!3I"m out.ide the hbcrtanan po],lt",1 ,uocuhure
II\IShl I>e ,IO.hni ,heir tnund<r and 11Ie" l'''PPO''c" Third. the .m,·al of Thus the an.rchim wcr. s! ill dependent u" tllei, heanl.nd. fo,
Mal,l.,,," 01 Ofistm.. 1919 from h" ... Ie in l<>f'l<loo1 rrpcated Ih. p.utem the .. s,renilth. Tho: maio< .reas ohooi.1 from the of 1919
dioct"l'1'II;d dunl'l& 11'10 Red .. k of 1914 rrom J"",,,,,I)' 10 the SttJl1JT>CT of u. the >UmrncT of 1920 folio" cd the eonloun; of .".",h"m', pohueal
191(1 \13I .. t..... d ...... la'll< CfO\\<1> wllere''''' lie ,poko, Hi, ",ce"ngs al'" groSr.ph>·. Smko and prol •• l ""eo; ",••e sparked olf from La !)PCll'
I"",,)ked fu,,"'" · proleta n.n ma"a<ru·. w hICh 11\ !nett tum ,,..,,,.sed 11ite cosl-of.]j,·itlll n01') and Ancona (111e \<110 ond thon ",ro.d
><'><Ial Ic"",onl ,hroughoul ,,,...,h<m I"'ly. The glI\Cmmenl h:od o:Icla)ed 10 the nonhem indumial trul1il • . Th< d,.lurbru>< .. dunng!he Mennl"
11>0 ....... nl»" of . .,," (..... a 100. as b«ause t1 feared lhe /tWQ ".re h ke ,l'Iotr prr><ar e""n .. ,-pan. '" king of duro"on. Just
"",,,,,,ned i"'pact oflibettanan sinS¢' sroups and oMn'n'lalic k<>oJ<:" ,uch a, bcfare 19 \ S ....::tari.n bo"ien ,'.nished f<mpo", ril y 8i ,ebli, ely .mall
"' Mal.,c.ta upOn tl>l: highly cha'llcd and 'h ..... 'i,fied populace I sroUPI of . nlIreh,!". and 1,1' >0<1' ],,1.\ pruv.dod uJ h«
It ",3\ Iltt, pOhoy that. in (ael. J!C1'Cr;t,,'d Ihe \'C»" 1)1'" of non·_llnan k..tcn;hlp. "" I fo" do» """ait,ll"',it.unenlanans and by 1'>(1'" the
unl1ed fronl from bek:r.\· llut, ,he aulhori"t>.., feolt'd. \.ulmah>1 "",.. I, ,mme."unobly 5lr""g<1,rode·union lead<ro "",,,oed the 1IfIP'" hondo
lSI" .uch as Scm'" and .lombocci. anarehi" .. and lhe of tile Thul, lh. an>rchlm "eWt po>ed " ored tble all<m.l1\ 0 to the roc .. I""
",iI""Y ,m ion (S H ) a nd lhe Union" S",docal. ofle" .h.",d bfcuioO of un""On na60na l "'I're",nlation. lael of tohd ",,,ilU1l0n.. and
pl"fon.". In Ja"",,'Y 1920. negorianoru .. 'lh left· .. ing ;n"",..,""onl;1$ Intomll >quabbliog. n,.y lito raMd 10 supplant ,he lu", of "tended
Ind l)·Annu"' ... ·s fiurman I•• r)<.rl} led 10. rn=h <l<1 Rom<' "'hich lhei, ""PI""'e,." in II>< '!lCCond culture' h"l'P>I)' en<i<>t">ed.
be, ...... " tile uI>O<Ihodo> len and '"", .. 1" in,.""nnO";I1>. Inlh .. n1 For flIn k.• nd·file lon,;! •. d"'"<:t ... 1I0" ..1d el"",,,,,, l"'" "cr. oot
intemot ion" li ,m of 11>1: "", ial,,'" and 11", mual ""tion.)j"n of m""h of d"",ele choi ... Ana"hism rould ... "cr g"""'''t .. ,tat. palron·
ll1e nn<ldle limile<! lbe ehan""",,,, flf"", of cUm a " .. laleota 0< • age and I""'ibk indo .. ";'J and land ",fonn .. which .,,11 remaIned h'ghly
D' AnnurWo. I, seelTU imp<t>.ible 10 toncei .. of anny off",e" and the P"I"'la, 11"'-1. ,,,,n '" the "'Mht of """al ",*",",al,
foil"" ... of maximah;t '<I<'I.h,m eoopcnting el ell if lhe ",o",,,,hy', of 'oe o, her oh ief obslnd .. 10 an .norch"t in!u"""tional Slralegy
,,,,dtbll ity had been "'3",ed by 11", wa, MOT< ',,;1hina elsc. thi' WI .. '" rae •• the rrofoundly p;acif.., Spin! "(lIeb OOtnlNncd tb< ."'" ,al ....
meidem demonslr.ll ... the lim," ohnan:ht" Ind .yndlClI!!l ,nftll("ll<c of lhe lulian Sociait"t Pany, "hil. the f""'''''' leA of and
ldoologically. -m.ism moine<! Im)(s " Ith >M·den.ali"" and """,bhe. foll""c" ofBordl1l" or Gr.omtoCi. were not I""I'"rro to I."""h an It''U''"'''
a"'lm bul. intolffunsly many of nordisa's fdlow .bstontioni" ti"" ""Mut a new pany and. in oa .. , ""ere <a,ptelou' ofth< tdoo logy
'",icnlifie """ali.lS· we", InNe w illinillo ""ork ",iln tl>< "nlI",hi'I< and libclUnans· y., lhe flilu", of"""rehi'H)'pe dlreel
thon ,he" highl)' s.cc"'run leader Although !be oNllIO'I'ls/i (foll""c,. of "",!ton to« <Ieepn" the bclnyll ofl>mld 0< pnadcnt \eaCI<n. luoly wa"

'" '"
 --
"fplll'Cllled Labour.nd popul., ..... I!uml ""Hlol ....... " 'Ih fa"';>1 counler·
po.n •. w . . . brcal "ill> ,he c.,I, .. form!. of '.1".";0..,
engineered by ,he
librntl ..,,'" 191 S. The left "'liS Milt!« prq»n:d (Of 10"""",,1100
"'" akn to ,he no, oilY off_,sm

'u merinl Sl rcH!:l h Mod Influen ce ofTh e Ana .. hi, •• a"d

1» nd ic.list. in Turin. 19 19-20

On 19 o.."Ccmw 1919 the I'«'fOCl ofrurm rrponN to Rome th .. thcrc

""1'4. 1 I....--. • ....,._'-.J ....... Ito',.. 191-1-1920
"""her T"",.. Ru..", nor- .'..,,, Spain II ...... a hbent. stale
SOInc:"ung !he IlIIlInohiSb kamM 10 "",all ,,"h .-!alp ;n 1M 19'0,;
:and 19JOo. The I,brnol J'"'''' InlWlkd 10 onnJh,I.,.1he "sub>-eni\
I",,<ad i, " . ' .hI: post""'CriSIS """If ,,,,", u="'«Ilhe hbenJ ''''e .00
",-.",hdmcd It.. ""'iallsI< ond ..... reh'>ls. "hleb 'hen all"",<,<! an <>,d
".ub,."" ... · '0 .each 'he 5'.'e nt" .nds !knl!" \1""">';0;', "'''' 0.... '"
emplOYing '''''amed p,h-al. ';010"". ID coil",,,,," wj,,,
syn' l"'henc ,,,,," ,
l'", f«15 and poltc. a nd .rm}' oiliee ... follo"'cd by {he rap id
were "'" mOre Ihan)OO .n.rth'5'5 ,n ent ire reo"''''" ofTunn, . nd
111.1 '. of the"" on ly 100 were dl"'",cly In ,It< Comun,>!.
Anarchi'" ricmomc"" Sc"en mon, l.. 1.ler Ihe prtfccI reported 10 Rom.
th . t ,"" Union" Si",h ".I. had f.w "",.nbc,., in comparison to othcr 'oc.'
kft wing organll.1t1""" l \J"'cnhele'I, tit< eoo",nsU$ among>! h"wnan,
'\ th.atanarchist>_ and ••,.,n members of the UnlOtl< S,t>dacale, " .... "",,"i.1
('" the b'flh aoo ",'01" .."" ofTunn'$ fa<tOf)' cooo<il mo,'.,...,n,.'
\hoch of thi, Chapl.r w,ll Ih .... folft be ""wled to """,,>c,hng ,""
untk>ub!«l ,mpon.n<c of 1M libtnarian! 10 'bei' lad of Iaq.c fornutl
"'ll1n'lItlOflS The litt..nonans " .... b) no ..... '" un,fi«l "" tbei, ", •• l·
no:sses "'" 1150 '" ellod'hn:ttJ.<!h "tlcm.d !«1lIfian disputes. r ",-ill cumIn<
,he libcrutnan C<)nlnb..non to lhe loo",lri.1 on'ln. of'he (acto.) O<)On<,1
moHnlmt. I""\lng a;,..!e ,be fo< ChaJ>l('r F'H, I
cond...J.o thi. ch' J>lcr with an .nol)-.II oft"" a"emJ>l> by local """iali,u
.t .' liallCc·oo ildins '" i,1o my part",,,I., f""u. of ."entwn naturally 00 ,""
Qrduw,'i,,;
T II<O an.rchlSl< we,. 'IC.tty all> aYI ",p"''''n'cd at mc<;ting>
by Iho .cei.lim. 'he C h.mbe, o f Laboour. I, rOM", fac,ol)' <<>rnrni,,",,.
bullhey could dr.", r"'pi'CI.ble nurnbcr$ to lhe" uwn dctn""Sl'"t,oo, In
,I>< sp<ing of 1919.• norchi,,, ",gularly I ttr.ll:led • 1.000 . . or more
'o.he AGO k) (>0>'"'' So.tMtOR for- the freedom o f .... "'hi."
.00 """..1,,1> ,mpri>OtlCd dwill& the "''Ir. as "''tli as protestS for- \lal ..
f.....oo.n to ,..e", ''try popular ... ,th 011< subwban"", throughout
1919.• and "hm ""ted T unn ,mmed .. tely.tIer his triumpltant
",Ium 10 Italy at tl>< end of 1919. he: mob,lt«d lhe crowd ,n Ill<
.iry for ,he: en"", nnm. In 1920 .." ...1 thoul.and "on.rfi
atl..-rukd III ana",h", dcmons'I1I.tOrI,n l)&n ..... d, \tol.no', main >qua",
to pr<>1"" 19a'"" ,"" "'!W",ion of the Hun'"" .... n 1,,1'1. and the IC<cn' Kapp
Puuch in G«m,,,,),' ])urinlt: 'lI< April str,l. 2.000 "",ke ... "",rd,ed from
llJ.mcr> d, \lilano to lit< Carttrc 1\110".'0 dt: .... nd ,I>c ",\case of
',arino ntie. b, brief de"''''ion Tho "" , ,,,h,,t 1"""''''''' was .. ,n,fIC'nl
.nd oo",ro,'o",;ol • • ""'iali " and 1t1tdc union pubhc mett ing' in r.bn>'ry

122
'"
 Anarrhim in 11.,," dunni/ 'he B,onn,o 11..,...,
and Ma ... h 1920. and oparleJ offa bloody ,,,,,iok", during ,I>" \by DIy I and . . Sohn 'o). IS "ell n \10'1-'nto', Ref",ttori '''''' highly
"" ... de ""'0 month;o late, In oarly J .. nc tile .na",h,Sl' bold 0 1"'l!C d<mo!t. on"cal of II>" and SltsplCious of a""",h, .. ,mo], cmcnl In
"ralloo at tl>" AGO and b.Cf In early JUII<'. aAc. tl>" An<.-n ,i.ma. 110M ot !ho "",iali<l-dom,"'led rlOCtory co..ncil """ .-mc-nt t
.""",h,$!> and ')1toIIx:al,,,, oop.IIlU<l hlgllly fuI 5OI.idanlV ,",,,clmgs, I" ... lhe""l'J'l'f'<n oflhe flOClOr)' """"",I """ .me.....pounded
TlIoy IN • limiteJ ......... I on ,I Jull ond La .. , In tl>" m.:.:..h ".'" In ,II<II' ,·iew. in F.bbn·, 101"",,, (AIICO!'II) arid ""squale
Ibr ,-ang ..,,,,1 of a ..,lId3,,'> 1"""",1 in "'spon5C to att"",k, "" (La Spcz .. ) [)unnll 1920 ,he 'r""",,!oC a...... rno",,,...,,, .. u
hL<l
"""..11m in Rome 0) the IUI1\mC1 of 1920 tbr lISl had bttomc a s;grufl ,o'ercd in dopth by .I'v.·g, Ganno. Mos>o and Dc
.on' forre In Tori""", Indus"ial rel.II"" •. corll"c'''ng "ith the ' "" rchi " .. na""lomc" did lt1(IlI "f.he wn ' ms "hile Corrado Qu>gliTlO ,he
do"" '" lhe onJ.- no,·isli o"."h'>1 da,ly '. >I.ff '0 F mllllt Fem:ro (b, 1895. Tunn) ... a> one
"f lhe fe" "omen prom,"" ,,' ,n anarch i,on, and unde , Ihe "''ll.
A narcbl st , Arma", II,,' "Tot" . " . n" ,tiy Ib, tlK: ."orc hi" press,' I F,n.lly .
• n,,,hcr anareh,,! pubhsl\(d undcr ,II< " h'''11<'eri"i. pSeudony'"
n it! O n FedemllOIP 'S.nc ulotto·. and w",'e a "" i•• of onlot"Sill'g 0",01.. for L'malPlw NOl a
dunng III< April ·dock.hand,· 'trike AII"""gh h" .-.al """'" "., n,,,'or
I'br ... 'eral hund..-d TonllCK Ibr """I numerou, concen. ",'"aled. he has .... nufled Ii • '" nit In rnl .... enlOOOilll"Sl 'l
t"' .."" .. nce Ihc 1880. 0< early I S90i. Folk", ing the national cong"'" 10 l;ort)' '" 1919 ,he Tonne>e anl"hllts discussed ".niRg IlK:i, o"'n ""ws-
Florc""e. ,br TonllCK and I'ledmQollC'SC a ... ",h,Sl' organized !hoi, o"'n paper. L 'Alba Anardica_ '1 Th,; ne'er $II" tile hllb, of day_
Ln,,,,,,, Cornun,,,,,, A""",hie. l',eJITIOIIIUC (fout>dcd 26 June 1919). One one <>tlhe ofPiedmon,ue .... n:hlsm ft1wnc<i 10 Tun n ,n 1921)
) ... , lalCf tile liCAP I>"ld ii' -5«ond 1M",! rortl"''' "" 13 14 June 1920, and bopn pu!>lishing "" 10 Janu>ry 1920
II "h ,I>" second COOirfi!. "frhe lAI 10 M held ,n 901"1"" In a fo n nIMh,.
the agcno.b "-a< dom, ... ,ed by a healeJ d,loCUS'''''' mer tl>" unltcd fron, Lmgi Gal/ron; (.lnd CronQ('Q s,::uwr....lI
and In ",-;01 ..."00 of.he h'I'Of)' of the f;>O:lory councillt1(l"erncnt d"""11
,,.. PI"" 1005 'en """,,11$, In poniei"",,!> and sup!"'n.,., Mlo, h,. HIEh, from Ita ly in tht La'e 1890s. I.u lgi Galle'HI Ined In I\onh
of I ,\"".... "en: notable IlId"ed Gar;"". and Dc ll.-.n"lo- A,tlCfica for ...a.ly ",-enty }co,." G. llean, '''15 an n"fJ'OI'Iant flgu", ,n anfl_
mo" <lomi", r"d ,II< di",u, .. "". 111"""gh indi, id""",,, such •• Sobr"o OIg"n i" 'i""o l "n"c!>o-comlnun,;m ,Jul 01 Inm....;' alled the innuenc.
a nd Md'l!-arito ,ddl-.l a ,jis"'pri, 0 note ' o f ).-Ialar.\t. ', "um;n' among" I'ali.n " ' ""iar.n,", Gall.. ni 's Crona""
Til< Unl"nc Com u", ,,,, An3tc l" ," TQri llc," a",j UC AI' we", " lC",ly w.,
,\.:0,.,-"";,,, a I"ely. inrcn1Ouonaliy or,e nled Joumal publi shed nearty
urnb",lb 0'8'"""[100' lira' reprc.emeJ 'il. il ly of ""'ghbol, .hO/xl handed ly. for,r from Barre. Vermon' (home of. subSt.ntial group
a' ..... h 'SI .ffoMy Du.ing lhe "'''0 or a of .n.rchi .. q"anymcn from Com.. ). a n<l13'" from 0 ,ubum ofu.o.,OI1
<!<>zcn local "irctc.. (Gruppo An.rchi<o l<>nM""o. Grupp<> B.",,, ... di Golle.nl'$ oommentod 011 "'entS in "ilhin lhe ArnerlCa
I\'IJ", Grupp<> Bame ... dl .\!tllno. Gru[ll'O San Campo<logJi". Gruf'p<> len ."d Iabou, mo,..,..nllnd in,erc5l'"8Iy on ,he \ie.;".n R",'nluti",,_ •
""'110 San Donaro. Grupp<:> 1lOfJO San j'anl". Gruf'l'O C ...frO, Gruppo Gall ... ni·, lif. ,n Nonh ..... "'" " ,IOO<&! IlI<ioknt. !la,ioG
U01,.", ... G
rupp<:> \j,""n dr (irupp;:> \'anghiglia. Gnrppo \'indor:c. In,nh'ed in a ,"olen' tu .. le in rlre""". 'k..' Jersey in
Grupp<> \ tII"",,)_n.e f <'1'rc' ( ,,,,Ie .. as in rl>" f""'fron! of :octi, "1<:5 1901. II< "'as forced 10 flu 10 Clnada H. la,er ""umed cllnoks" nel)'
IT! Rarriera 01, M,Laoo. M,ny of tho LC AT .. "'" hekht 11< and ""lied in R",--,:. $eml1I. thon l)O<Im:Ihll for 1\... \ 'od ',11 Prole.....'''.
In pnn'inc,al I'lc-tlmorll DOUble 00«""'1"'''"". of ana",h,,,,, were a,cr,,·c 4'I'I""'lIy Klen"fied hll" ... hlch Clu$Cd .he lnuchi ... 10 accuse $emI ..
on BoeILa. \ crcelh, "0, a"'. Ak"",ndnl Ind of boina • poI;"e opy, In 1903. dun"ll I "",..10.. mr:<1lng al Ilarro. In
A""",h", heyond ,he local . !Tinl!)' group "'" easi ly ut>dtrmincd anarch'" "ia, <hoi dead by. G.lleoni and Setr.1li "'ere
b}- the d .."",le, of anli -DIpIl"JI ,o"'list anarcho-commltn'>15 I......m and i, ".IS sa id by the llUrchL\l\ lhot $emI'i hod inc"ed the """,.1",
."d III< M.lale".n an"",ho-eommunisl "f ,h. UCAT. Th,. gunma n_ Alkr 'h '-' mc,M", ScI""" ,eputa!!on w .. alway. dogJIed by
G.",,,n"1 onarch,st group (key ml!o' am" Giu.oppc Rubi"". n. II...• affall' Indeed. upon hIS ."i,·,,1 in h lly in 1'119, Mu,,,,lInl "'te mp,ed

'" '"
 AnarrnijlS In n.ri. ,hell ,ennio Ro''''

10 Gallo.", .n a campa.so Scm.i moun.ed b) 1/ Pup%

entire I.boor "",,'ement, II(>\I.O\Cf. Galleanl "'a. entical o f the re'oln·
d Ifolia. 001 rdu!oed 10"'" 10 .tIc ba ,l "
lIunary and "",,,,,,",oetn. pooenll.1of the f""O'l e("n",iI. and therefore
Gal103111"":I, <i<poncd from lhe L.nlled on 21 J""C 1919 d"" 10 In """,,"Ilion 10 Gori",,'•. Ferrero·. or \lollt",La·$ 1'0>"100'_ CnHI"'"
h,. press campaign "pitU. conlCnphon and hIS " .... _""neel ,"'" '0
""' .1"" 5Ccplic:11 mlhe .yndocalo.1 OCCupallon offacl""'" In
lnarthim ,,100 had bttn re.....,.,slble (or a ICrits of bombings. Lnliic h" 1'""","<=
,n Feb<uary- 1920; "hM other anarcb,sts and sociali".
,;, 0lhc:T unlllCky comtadts, GIIlleln, JJ<! not diSoCmbarlc "hC"ll the .h,p
he he!""'ed 1he governmrrrt.imposed 5<'q\>C$I..,ion oflhe \Ianonio
from I>.rn· Y<><k armed aI "apl.,..hortby l>"OIdJnj one monlh'. 1"t"'"CfII"C planl OIl,",de of Tun" 10 he polilrcolly JonlilJ:1"()U._1<I
drtcmOon. Howe\'rr. '1 Gm::ta he "'"&I1n'tsIcd bul a lia I thtt"lC1!cd gmrra l
GIlieani belie"..'" m ,he 'l""'t.anelly of roll,ng n> . .. sllCh
of 111111< ron·' "'. men and dochrs. he "' as 0.. hi. m um
.'Ihe", ,lIat cllaro"lm,ed lhe b't""iD rolfD fell rhOl II>c UAI "'ould
""mc Ga lle.n , wo. hemg ""Ii> ely consiJerrd •• a SoC";"". candid'IC for d.tnpcn down Ih= n>OHn\enri Ihroolilh 'op-down uniroo f",nlS ",,,h ,I>c
the ",j,IO" hip of ,\'0>"<1 he "'0$ an I ntH)rga nilal,,,,,.Ii".
""'!alost left lie therefore aI'P13t1tlod 'iol$ ,n ).-I.n ,ua in Ik<.mbe r 1919
"" ny . nar<him he "., I '!!Or< flue on and e,cllrng ''''Ie r ' han and Ihe A""on ' mutin} in Jun. 1920,l '
Malate"., G. lkani, howe,'or. J <>.::loned lhe offer, fk gaw S<lme "ell.
Alti>ough Galka", ,nay """e been shazply crille,1 o f!he M.I.Ie.t. UAI,
atTended speeches. bUI for lhe rel"'lndt, of 1919 he "a}'cd "ilh hi. aged
'" I >en'" tic ,Iuored Malat.",·s fim rreml>CS concemong lile
'.Itlcr ,n a hamlet ,n Ihe VcrccliCiC, Gall,"", was ,n poor heal'h. Ind
t.c.ides the main foru, ofh" c"""em I.... ,he ""going pers«ullOn oflhe
relalion,h,p bel"....., 11>0 ,ndll'id .... l.nd tile coll<>.::1i" ;I)', BoIh men belie,-ed
lhal orgaRizalio" ,hould not iline ,he Ina.ltll·. of indi, id .... ls_Gf,lk'n,',
I"lc-Amencan Inar<h .. " by Ano""') ..on.,ral ralme.-_ '.
.nli-orpnizauon.l ,lance Icd hln> 10 be ennoal of 'Ial .. estl ", and
from 17 January 10 2 O::lobc-r 1910. and " ....... 11 group of fabbn's prGpO$Cd <kttn''''Io.ttd 1IC1IQIl """,nlll.,.", Glne.n,'. opt,mal
""noh,>I$ publi>hod n inelttn i....., of1 Turi... ba$ed C"""""",, Stmw-si '" un,l of pol,l",al "'I;.n,,"",,,,,, doo>s not _m ro hole "."",ended i"'imale
Concur=oly an Amrncan ed'lI"", mUlied $Ion.ro -' (1he tille "'''' cbanged amn'ly croups, wch ., lhose he or Schll'"aJI& had bern In, """d "ah ,n
10 Arneno:"aIl ollk .. I.). "'a. ""'" 10 the Lnaed 51...... " lhe wbufh> of80sr"". "Ie,enhele." M.lalo>!.and "ett jO,Ded
G.o!ltan, "'0$ .."""ed • feJJu" Ikpon«. 'he bookkeep" Raffaele
,n a des,,,, '0 "'" and >lclldfi>l Ioben.:",.>n re\Olutoomone< ,,00
Schi., ,na(b, 1894 ' n Cnrlo "00 had been 'mpn",ncd In
could "I:>,n""n 11>0-11 .",,;1 o""e the m.""",losl " -J'-e ofrhe hieMIO roJIJO
I"" lin; led So"e; for one yell QIl of chll e,'asOon, Ar"IOIher """'her
,,,Ilsided, Bolh . nd G.lle.n; we .. COnttn>cd 'hot large $O<'31oSI
ofGalkani", group "as Pi<1ro Ra'ne, i,. Totl""" mason (b,
pOMIe. "nd In.de union. could eosi ly become del',oes for monopoir,mjl:
1893) ,,1>0 had d< ... ned irom Ihe arm;' '0 S"",erl.hd and 'hen become
pri" ileg ... hu rting. and Uno'l!anlleJ J ,,,athanlaged group, ',nlo
" "'ol'eJ ,n smugsling .mi·".r leMlet. ' "'0 1131y, In 19 1S he 'M' cd 10
tho rol)l.a,n, G. ll e3" , this HI Ser teHlbc r ,1 922. afte r f'>C I'I"
(ie'''n.ny when" "" pan,e lp.,.,1 "'tlh a "",I! group of hali.n .n''''h,m. h,J Jc5lroyed Ihe 1M"" of h. li. n s1I<lah.m wnh ,u'l',,,, ng
s,,,J<calis" and socialr!" in the 1kr1," '\pana,i" urri .inS,"
ntp,dlly,
rhe Torine" ed,,"on i)( C""'''r UScI'l"'.1I>a diJ not enjoy a p'a.cdul
irk Of ,I> 19 i....... and ,n O::lobcr.he new'SJI'Ipcr
cloxd .n.... it> edi' onal .clff "ere ch''lIed ""th fn" crimes ansing
f"'" rt') ';'" pOi''' _ ....... ,r.""" t.a. "'" <Uf""'111100 tlLlt
1""«f"1 Aft.,. >0 y•• ," C........ u

from Inu-miirlMl., an ..1.,;. alUeanl ,n, i,ed . .. In TInII Of "-li ..... ..t i. Fm': .... R<JI>O. P i _ p......
>""h as ' Io:garila. Rubi"" and ",her local fillurrs 10 publish ,n C""'aCQ ,f ..""' ..... 0< a .. bm<r lO .. y JOn>< eat<1Of"ICS of ..-om... been ""I><cd
5On.,.".il'a, 0 b,,, h" o"-n pOslllOll ""' ptfh.o", lubtlrr lhan Iho5e of by. c...u.n ty"" 0; ft . . r.op<>Iy ofl.,""", .,\h "'" 1II1II< of unloanI of "'. . .
his ,ml"'luous Too ..... eomraoks. In some "sp«11 he.ha..,d man}' of I"""'" ""'" , ... !hod .. frono ofthc r...,..,...,..,..
ofl" "'t), ....... thc1t f.uh
\ Ial.,e;la', ilk.s. aalkln , Ind .gain I I I banquCl on In!hc"lr.,.." "",,'CT. DOl Ihru <01'>0<' ........... r"IOI "'" """"". in ""'" 0\\"
,he 1.lIer·s l"CIum 10 Iialy Tiley hel,j each OIher m de-ep re,pec'. and np:lru; .... C\'Cf rnPJC<l. and tho oopI\UIIlOIIS Of<' ,n a q of nI''''
"...""Iorly
although Galle.n, "'-" IIppOlSCd 10 I"" foundal'QIl onlle UAI. he endor1.cd .. "",.1I.. had "1'1'<..-..:1 , rId.he rOO root",.."., ben"",.r Iho
\I.la,.".·, oppos,IoQllIO an . >du." e '''''reh", ,n ,I>c USI ."" of Crn". mooop>I,Oj Ind ,,<lIIl'"1 >rid '''''"",e. ""'y
G.lkani a,ld "northi", would ha,c to he 1O"ol,ed in I'"
,hit,
flo,. 1',,>«1 from "",..Ii"" '0 fa><;;,m ",·,k on ..'" wwld ....." """ l,uKh
,f a d,d not ""''-y '0 ,ho 11",1<.",... of "" ""'"r l"""'"
100,

126
m
 1\1"" d,d Galk.ni exe",i.. 'n Turin Of ILaly in 1919-20"Of ,n.rnded for RO)'.I Guards prnnalUrely nplodod. WIS nttptisonro
,he 4.000 cop ... orc""""",, 5o ........... i,,, and 11 publi.hed nch
aft .. I ""'I <Ofl,aleKm<e in """'ital, bu. d,e'II,ne,rcetll,ed in 19!J."
,<>u,\ ..... , to the USA. Indeed. 'II'''' dc:ol ofa... """'"SJIIPfI' OthoT anarch, ... .llegro to be m=ben ohhe Re'II Gua"'" .nd 1.1..
.... dnllcatro to the dr"",s of tbe Pal""" Ra,ds and ,he of
'heAnI" , del f'opolo (.n an,i f• .el;' mIlo".). GIU!o<'pJlC Rub,,,,, and OIhel"\
'he of the I'o'nrlJ (IWW) " lIowe,.,. Gallean, . nd his .m,,«1 f", JIO>$C>'OOIlOfanns during ,be f.-Ie'.",.. oc,upa"""s. 1'.'1,, 1.
group d,d ,n'e,e,1 III hall. n .' Ont5 were not " ill>ou, inl1".''''e some " " :",: lI i!'. won: ",,"oll'ed in .."cr.1 .hal occurred d uring
,n 'ho dom05,io 0' I""al lof\. f ,... ,Iy. Gallo.", "'o.s " ne of the ea,heS! and
Ihcdi'pu,.
most aculo .",0e5 of unin and lhe 111$ ."""i bullon to ,f\c
Itnlian .".... hi" de"" ...!>Qu, ' he docI.,,,,,h,p of the prole .. n., "a.
I Sl ln Tu rin, 1919-20
'mponaru." Mcoodl}. hi' eoll ...SU" Roffaele xhi., ,na a 'islble
and "'>CII "'PtcSont.",·. for lbe 'rwch"" a' 'IOCiallst and ,ra6c
n.. ,nnucmc oflllc Lnior>e S",""""ale .n Turin ,n ,he
umon sponloOr'fd m«Imgs in I'no. F,nally. CrtJllflN 50 ........../""'. Onll.
m,I,Lan" .'"'fIlI'£" ruona,ro ,n Tunn and throughout Italy. T"o Onll.
..,mme, of 1910. Allhough the Unionc Sindooalc: dMi n(lII esl3bllslt In
offlC,.11fOOf' un,,1 M.rch 1920.• be " .. n,rne fue:,o Sindacale di Azionc
nll".. ri" .",de' In C,.,""'-D fonllro lbe "",is f<>< lhe arres'!
Di",,,,, "IS largely c",,!rolled by an" n OM .n.... hiscs 11 00 had been
ofG.llean" Schi •• ,,,,, and Raniori. 'r ",t.l lo soldalo' (' Bro1"", So IJ ,.,',
1M") .nd 'La brecCI"T TIte Ure. ch·) (Ju ly J) II n_ed to ' he ""'\\ ,n ,he pre·""!,, SHld""a'o Umt" Orr!be .,e of'he April 1920
Ihe USI's f.M I), Donalo. m,Je an IJlP<.rance. 11 By June lhe
Anc"". n ""'''ny,. r"'lcllo ""1<tOlo' wo.s tume<l ,nto" I.an", and
Un ione Si nd""al. wa; gathering some: .igninc on. suJlPOrt. and In July.
In Tun" .nd .11I<",here. n.e.. app.. re<l in Tor",e$< barrack, and ",en on
of 'l,oJ,.ahst work,hop cOmm',sars "u beld .nd .y"dic'''m
,he Ane""'n bamor:h,lJ<'fMl! ,he mu"ny of the h."wgii"';. Orr 30 JUI'l(',
dirn: .. d • tram dri.-(rs stnk• . Srn,,,ea"lt ,·oices he.nI ., \"chelln,
for ,nst,,,,,,,.• Cu,,,,,,... "na,chi>! \\u arrested dl>tnbu.ing lbern ou",d!:
Sc ... Ideal and LMne ...:t In August tbe \..'n,,,,,< SuMiacale Tonne", " ...
hi' local barnr:h 'La B""",ia' ..It'bra,ed tile re,·ol. ' n Aneona." Bu.
formally eon.,iMe'II. and • '· ...... n of ,he S",dacato Uno.:o. ,he mn:han"
'La 8rn:.,.· .... s 01.., di""""inated b) , Irnall (!rOUp of anarchi"" and
"''''000 8m&i. bel"" ro ,hat the brief p........, SI>I'<'.--s "ould soon be
_'al"'I OIpn'7.d by Maurizio GarillO. 1!>rn7.a Pa,ri,' 11>.0 prodt.>oro
repeated. Toadd to l'lrallel, .. ith 1911 12. a fl'rl)' ,mponant peripa''''c
,be" m';n crude Ie.n"" and spoead .bem ,hroughou. Turin 10 ,he sprinB "'P"'''''.
and "'mme, of 1920 ,. ,ynd ica",' 'iooia \toougOO 1895 ,n Andria, arrived f,um
',}'nJit. II,,· 10 help()lgao"e ,bf US I " Wh,le .}'ndIC"";1 m,,,,,,n'l
"cre few ,n number, .ynd". IISI ,,,uei .nd I1y l.. ",em 10 ha \0 cII""ulaoed
qu i,e w idely wah ", Ih, poill icized cl l .. dunng d,e , umme, of
1920, Eno\or:<otncnl of .)ndioaIiSl de"",nd. "..., ,lO(lOe'II . ,nongst the tram
A, 'n Md,n. anll'Drgan'lationahst and ,nd",dUlllist lna",hiSlS
.I<CI. "utornol><k. and b.u tl>r: ,yndlO'''>I
otT I ... ' i,"1 of l...."h,SI terrorism ,hal h.>d bent Ia'!!e]y ab5rn, from TUlln
chalknge ean be """" ""<"tllIely mcaw",d by tbe \\ ](I<:<p",.d ,upport
.i .... !he 1890s Dunn, the April, 1920 'doclhaRds' wih, AnIOnic
regi".red ,n f"",or, •• for US I flO\{ un"y dunnB negoc,ati"" ...."h
Marion<- (b 1900 in \'=tlh). a mechart" """'!lite'll "',," the &rm'rII d, oppositIOn ", Gi<;>l,lIi'J ,"!outline. I...· and the LS I
\t"''''' JrOUP.,hr .... 1\\'0 bomb< a. RO).. I Guards. He .... arrested and iru.pire<l .",i·..... work .ampa.gn. If flO\11I3d IlOI embraced ,he ,yr".Il.
]"......., '0 pmon for fourt= years. Unkno,,·n '''''''''''1 "'pio<kd
bombs . all" 'dea ohn oc,uflll'''''' offactorie! to coun,,,, "" ••nploye'·' Ioclootc.
al 'he 1920 May o..y rna ... h. Orr 5 M.yG, u",1'I'<' 0. Lu", as at
hi' MOl" fOf posse,,,,,,, of illegal flre.urns. IX Lui,i lof 'he Ge""lnlJ/
,he USI may" .UI\;I"e woo "gniiicanl '"won from ,be: poI i tically octi,·.
"otk,ng eloS! of T orin, 1;
hl"e " ,,'ul"Od in 'ho May Il.y bombi ngs Later he
• enm,,,al gang ... ,," " small KI'OOP ,,( In.rehi.... inc luJing 0".
woman. Catedna Piol .. " (b. 1900 In A""ta ). "hieh was ,nvol,'ro in I
of II'rIltd robbe,i•• lIunnll ,he gon ....1 strile of 2 1 Jul) 1920,
Guglielmo lb. 1899 in ASlil "IS hornbly d.. rrgure<l Ine, I bomb

128
'"
 The Cuntr lbullo ll 10 I or F ,ndu,,,i. 1 dtmocracy So, for . . ml'l., "' Rome Con
CUllll d l \ l unm t nl : 1918 10 uri) 1919 ill<'.<- held in early f'o"embo, 1918. Colomb,,.., prop<>OC<Ilhal ll>= ,.., .......1
"omm,."ons 'boeo"", pcrm1nC'f1. orpM of ""'aden' control". <lealina
1M Tonn<>e facto<y cooneil JIIO\'tm<1lI arose from booh imernal >llUCOJral ,,"h all probbm ofw.g.... C'tI'. under \he leader·
.,..."..."... .. odcnl in !he wanime mcul.,,"Orl.,"I and ...... ,occring indu"ries. sIt,p of.he Gnions' ..
""" the nogrnous Infl""noes of L ,\'110'''.'' In 1918 lhe Ho" .UT, the ",form,SI plan "as I"'" short shnlt by \he muimal"l
Inle .... ' .omrn'<'>'on In Tunn ".re al'lnlro mlltr wide llboni"" 10 de. ) """.. Ii\.l$. a para/)71ng be.ween ",formists and !adal'
""h Ihe of p,oce·mle. and di$clplif'IC. Tilt $I"'ggl. over Wlul \\ IIh," .0.".1i" and ,rade " n,on resul,cd from lhe congrcs"",
lhe IUlUre and WI"" oflhe Intcm.11 oom.t'lluions mighle""'il beg. " al""", .,><i conference. o f lale 1918 By Septrmbe' 1918 'he COL '00
"''',"cd l' lel;- In ApI'll 191 S G.ri,;o AI><i ,,,Iomb,,,o ens.ged in 1 public had becn "CtoN from pan,e'pallnl! In Ihe by lhe PSI
debale 31. "'gloll.1 congre<$ ofnO,\1 " [) ifcc tomIC. The 1'3<;1 of bet",...,n II", COL and , .... I"SI (.ig""d
Ilo\\'<wf, il should bo home in ,h.. Ih""" ""'w r""ns o f wooohop 19 Sep'embef 1918) .ttn aJ. I<lp to IIle traJc "nloniS! leadersh ip
""'",zal lOn were 001 reJoclCd 001 ofh.nd by FIO"t', ref"""'51 leadership .It", (his defe'l allhe h''><l' of,he m .. im.ilSI • . U. 'ermS mean' lhat ,he
Colomb,,;o 0.- BuoZZl "ore IlOl 0flp<»M 10 de loW>ting '''llIo.-ily 10 Intomal COL wQUld call all oconomic wh,I<llhe PSI D,.....,' ..... 1< "ould
COlnm'$5lons . .., long a, IhlS did IlOl Imalen lhe ,'ery "''':g.my of the be re>/'Oll.iblc for ded'noa pollt..::al s.ftkes, Uow one coold diff............
unIon l odttd. ,he refOfTl'ltilS and !'Idlcals both ""'ogn,,,,d 1loal one bolw,,",n lilt ,,,0 wa, 11O,el made cl.ar RHpOnSihility in di recting ,he
of 1IH: pnrrw)' ca""", for lilt ifO\'lh and radicalizallOn of lhe Inlemal g",al 'lnkes oft .... "'«0 ul(imol.l), I<'$led on lhe shoulderS of the
00It\fJ'I, """" ("kh hy ,.... 5IIIIlnlC.T of J91 8 """ompa;sed rnosI oITorincse ('eL. How",,,f. pol"..:all),. lhe .)mbol. Ind language of max"",,],,m
IndU$lryl '''''' I.... .......t for """" of ')5Iem of g ....."""'. ,nduSlnl] ,..malned jlCr'\Ctil". w'"' nlade "","ifH,ly clear by ,he party di.....,,-
detnocnc). Beh,nd ,he demand Jhe",...,.·i"",."...,"S """,bcnof"O<!<... onle "hen ,n [)ocembeo" 1918 " ealled for the ,mmed,.le e>ubll->hmcn!
JO'n,,'l!' FlO\I 14 oflhe "",i.li" "'1'ublic Ihrough • dlClal"",hlp of,he proi<1a""L"
By ..... end of 1919. FIO\ I had ""arly 100.000 membef< n.tionally This jO<kcymg for p<l<"1I)n atTecled lhe P""'" wuggJe bel"..., rodieal •
• "d af'p"",m.,dy 20,000 In lhe pol' '""" ofTunn. Thi' growlh of un"" .nd ",fOfTl'l"u, ""tlln HOM UUOJ;iI cenainly f.l. on lhe deren'i'· ....
dcn>lly ""' "'lenK In Tunn pl'oHnc. "hefe FlOM " .. <an be >Cen "hen lllhe Run... Congnu he re<pOnJcd I<> the radical. who
lI'Ce" ,n8 I. ,000 10 I ,SOO "''luc," for nlOmbelSh;p PC f momh 'hrough"''' accu>ed him of .. form ism by d.im,nK lhal FlO\1'I polioles we", a, ..."lIe.1
1919." ThIS unprec<d"nl«l ",,:"'.,. 'n UI1lOfl rrn:onbe" "elernn OS a ny in h.ly Iii . 'jlCe"h .mph....,ed (h" ,lie: ,onfM.fal u",Om ." " ....
"Jlh '<:r,ous p roblem" Rod ic.l, and Ih" reIOnni". ," ,,0<1 more "',lIeal Ih.n ,he 'yndica li jt> """a u"" (lIe:y ". re belle, orgln·
,d cntorl<d "' Ihe "",,,,.d " nemal N",minio". Shop· flOOf "enucs wh.", "''1l .nd Ih erefore It""e '.plblc of lheir PlOgra!lUllC," Tho
One could '"",OrpornIO, poh .. a'id dl",irhnc lhe r><'" m..s of ""'enlly loni,,,, of con,i"ed precisely in 11. abill1Y 10 <xc,c;", grea(e,
onIOlll"'(l "orkef<. Tloe d, ITe"""., bel"'''"'" ",fonni,,, ar><l rndi.::ll. I.v polilical powe," ilhln The ...,onomy trurn ,he ",""Imali" """all", or ,he
'" lhe "Ietll u, w'ucb lhey "'oo!d all"" im""",1 <""""'u'''''' to be u...d 'yndieali .". Boo",i bun1OSOOil hIS a'¥"t11Cnt. with •.• amples from abrood .
•• lhe oq;.n""""",,,1 fronllOT I>etw,«n dlC """">led mloonl)' and ,he noo- For ,''''''',,''',. M<nbe,,". lhe f rench ,)nihcali>l ",,,;,,,., tnlde union leader
unoo""ed maJonlY Equally ilnpol'1anl lOU the <l<g= 10 "'hooh !'Idlell. of lhe _'01/<>.>. ",.., of emul'llOn c.en if his anlipalhy 10 I....
or refornll'" "oold cOIIm""""", COII.oor.ll!lon "i.h ernpl",'e" and ,he poIi,ical party "'a' mi.tahn." In hil"'port 10 Fl O\1 at Rome
'>Ia,c ,n posl",.. ItaJy. • Buonl argued ,ha, the O<pnllro "ort.,"1 cta.s "IS noI d"..Jed bet"..."
Tloe ",formislS an .. ell"',ed. pan",,"b,p ",,1\ produolinSl and "nligh,. refOfTl'l"iJ and syndica"", bul OH, The ilS!JO of ho,., rnd,c.l. polic ....
rn«I emplo) mo, The Contnll» lonIUU"" " ... s Se<n .. ,he ,ehi;;r. 1lorough were I<> be
"h,ch 80'-01""""'1. employers a nd ,he .\Ial. """id ..."",
an lIah"" .ysteln H""., CT. IS \he ",3 f dre" 10. dOlO JI "'IS T'"",,,dy the unrea<onabl<;
or Ind""lnal de100<1'ICy. Tloe refon",s!> wn. I"..", oflhe ",dic.llcrnpcl f>c. of s>'ndicalism lha, BllOu; had I<> coof""'l. "' ... rehiSl' such IS O",;no
of faCIO<)' W,,",CIS 'nd. f"",.
on jOOMh! 10 ....,;onil .. e many of' .... ,}'mool. and S.nlini we", ''Cf)' "",i, c, ",·hile al lhe F..;na f"" ",) Ihfec mcmhe ...
• nd CooocpllOn. of P"'\\ ar .ynd,call.m mlo the .. ,"o.k"'l< "<1>,on of of (he i"lemal 00'"'"""00 ",Ill. !O a nnouncing thai Ihcy

'" 1.11
 Gmm,m' ,he AllarchislS
repre"' ''ted the imerests of ' he FIOM a"d non,uninni,ed of
pI3n{" d,e S"mm<r 'he mdica l wei.Ii,t.< "nder Bo<ro and
I'aroo; g re" olo><: r 10 (he . narehiS1S. In August an altcmpt<xl hscio
Smdacale d'Azlo"e D'ren. r.oundered due 1<) inhe rem Idrological .nd
Jl'tsOna l diffe eeoces . Howe .." in 'he . mum" 'he F,seio Sind ic.le d l
", ione I{ i, olulionaroa had ",me IIIMed ,uce.ss a{ alii ,,,,,. building,"
,\ utLlmn .nd carly",m" mo"lh i«ue, of FlO),,)', )ocal ... w'par''', Lo
S4 w l/I!, de'med ,ubstantlal 'moum, of 'p'ICC {o the act",' Hies o f lhe
'rigid,', " "rino and "'her forr,.r members of the pre"'a r Smd""ato Un;<o
Indoed One reform iSi (Anc5a"i) {houghl i1 odd that 0 "",i,b" , uch os
Bocro, who '" pponed unily, shou ld worl: so closely "'i1h
formor ,e<oesSlom"," AOOIhor refomus t ,den{i fi ed {be Libenarian Group
• , • danger to {he NheSion of 1he loca l bran<h of FIOM . In t he mo nth ,
pr«<xllllg the Rome Congress . the "o{e for {he Turi n delegallon took On
Ihe ch.ratl.r of" referend um on the loealfefonn,,{ leadership,'" The
rcfomllS1' won, but . onlnori {y sial. of r igid, .nd anorchiSl> d id ge{ to
.lte",l {he proceed ing, at Rome. Gue"G d; Cla,u ""'ed with some $at i. -
fac{IOn tha t {hi. n<w rad,eali,m mig.ht {h .. ate" their refonn; " eomp<1I10rs
11\ T unn " Ton, ... ", .""",hISl' {""on", I,·., w."" eX'remely happy "itil tlle>e
fasl-lno"ng <!e"e lopmenll" hon {he Indi, iduali" anorch", Ce....
Sobri{o no{{'d ;" . n "rticle in L 'Anem rc Ih at the Inlem.1
commission, wouhl be thc foc "1 poi"' for postwar ",belllouSl"",."
On 22 Oc{"""r 1918 the .prefect repolled the fom,.lIOn o f a Study
Conllntttccfor Prolewflan Ln lly It c"""sled of flflttn lead ing ona, im,1i5{
'''''',1Iom (1n<ludlng Boero and Porod, ). It dcmanded a" eight-hour ,by,
o f '{rl kes, equal P"Y for equ.1 "'orl: and non -oo llabor"lion
with h,du. " i. 1 \l obililation (",h ich wa, . boli,h,-,1 In Mard, 191 9). The",
dem"" d, "ere to be ""cumphshed Ihruugh a Slra [tgy of dir",{ achon by
lhe PSI. CGL. USI and Sri Th= doy, e"h" ,, " "'lOTt"mou, . modellis/a'
(probably Gar ino) had wri tttn an ,'n icle in La Squ;/Ia endors ing Ih;,
Slra1<&.." ..whICh had , Iso bee n ' e<:entl} "d va/IeN by ,he SFI and the ph ilo_
,y nd lca lJSt Flore""ne """aliS!, La Dife.m , but denounced b" GT3msci',
c<Jrnrade, Otw'i" Pastore," . fo ' the i, OW II usc in toc f.eto,)' In wh!<·h to f" 1fillhei ' dt,lI« OI,,,;do
Tbe rad,," 1npp"'ihoTl w i,h i" beca"", more ,-;,ible al the Rome
eongre5S, Its ""lnife, to had nol'-ed from Ihe ' "Ue>1ions of {he Siud y
Committee for Proletarian Unity and 'he .eli,;t;es of all.rd im su< h a,
(;ari no A{. oneeling ofFIO.\ 1 "mon iSts, held o n 8 August 19 18, Gorino
had condemned BUOlli for "ot consul{lng the rank and fiI. before
publicly e",1orsed collabora{ion ",{h ,be CQnunl"ion i«ima. Iluoni ]a,hed
Out cla;mlltg Ihat ·t he Union, and 1he" secretal ies. C\Cn whn the}' set'"
{o be no' "cry mMant o r cI''''cnnseious , are alway, f.r more so th. n The
-132
m.,,,,,·" By No' cmber radica ls h,d won thc .rgulllent
IhlS polK}' Ihe confO{\eral un ion, "nuld "0' JOin t he po.{ ""r com-
"""ioll lIo"c".; ' , the FIO\1 r.ldieal, .1'0 objected {o the top -dow n
Int{l><)(h of pohC}' ,m,k lng that Ut>Ozz; had so cand idl}' <l;;f.;mkd dUri ng
lhe "'''. The" llIan lfeSio dt-e1,red
We '0 """ ope nl)' 'hOI the 1<00<" , 1"' uIJ f,'""" 'Oo t""".oJ I"',hs
I"J OOW" ,.,d 0,,,,,,1 by tOo o<h<rwi", '"") ' h,-", IJ Ie,,, < <1><; , f'I'"
,n '''·ou , of Incn ,,"10 '" 'Oo ",,<d,.oJ "'"he', of,h,' '"'''os ,,,
To.; maJo ,i'" of the Tonn". de legato, aI Rume OPllO'ed Ihe r.d",a l,. but
Iheir oppu>Ltion .Iso oct"'l'.;<l th'IT 0" n untenallt "e. ,00'"f"wI'< rfO'-
1"''<''' If ,'''' ,adtcals were ,,,11
,'el)' ",,,,,r. • nt'"Qt'Hy ""tional l} an,l 1<:>L" lly .
tle".;nhe k>s. 'at tI .. ROllte Congress Ihe rom signs of th iS oppo"t ion
appeared ' 'lid it I> i" {cre," ng {h,, , il Cl) otl lio zed roulld {he i,,"es o f {he
funolioll' .. ,,1 r,,1e of ,he me'al Il'le'M I Co", ", i" i"lts' "
Til<' Council tip tu 1919
Ild" "tn "", .mber 1918 "n J ,\ Iarc h 1919 Ihe In{o/n.1 ,0mm "SlOnS
lx','""", 0 ""ion,,1 ;" LJe w ithin til< tr.d" un ion mOl emen! In I'onmber
olli, ial rewgnltlon of ,'''' i,,{crn, 1comlnl" ions wa, wOn "' ,\ 1dan . alung
" I{h " SS-hou ' wee k, ,n unemployment t'LJnJ " nJ [he IIgh< uf ' h" in'e ' na l
com l" i"",n, 10 <le,,1 ",1h d"PUk' OHr {he 'W IICall"" of agrttlllent.<.
hyy iene "lid 01h,'1 "," " "rs. In TUfi" negot i"ion, were more r'ulullfed
and ffi:t .. iic'<J "'Stol"ioo, WCro drawn ,up doe fundion ing o f the
inle'n , 1 cO llllll i"i"n, b<ii,," Ih< full agreemenl "'a, 5ig"cd The TLJrin
agrce lllCII L. "fl",d ull JO hbru,ry \ 919, gran{ed "" cight ho" r day
IIO"r" eek) ",th , ,,b;taollo l poy rises. The internal
o.it h m' '' ' gemem o n y" o,"nte., a. ",dl as int ide nt5 .ri>l ng
from ,he 'pplicat i"" 0 ' " ltorpret3[ ion o f (he agree",ent, Membe" of the
,'OIT"t"'"O''' "Ofe to hol J o llice for " year ,nd th oy weTO gi'"n • 'l"'cl.1
f" t LUI) hou,..,. lh" otheT,ignifica nt as p<ct of the Fob",.", agre'c"'''m was
the IIo'oo-Sl,'ge art"'m tio" procedure unl"m had [0 e,er, ,''' unti l locy WCfe
all""c<i 1<1 stri ke . LII"llinal '{"' e, "ere ", lcJ ou', how e'", poli llc , l
>In k., v.ere C\cm rted from Ih" ban . Tho ogrecnt tnt ombodi<xl {be {}'''''
of ;"du,,,i. 1dC'IIl<IC CoK } th"t IJOOil.1 had pu>hcd during toc RO<nt c""gre'"
alld """""<' t h. elg ht-hoor day regn°""J much of ,'''' pre"'gc "" hod 1,,>[
aftcr the furore ""cr the COllll ni, ,"o ni,sollla . "
'a,"ona lly. Lhe flOM agr.. ",e n1 arou",d eO Il,iJc",hk pmte," amo ng
133-
Il>e mctal wmhrs in .,,(1 Ih. In 1.lg. ,i. and lIy Maj D.y 1'1 1'1 the inlemal c"",,,,,,,;oos were bccOtning Ih. do",,·
"umerous .Inko. II 1I"",ldo . rod el:lcwl'\tr. ot"urKJ,n e.rly 1919 The nan! r""", ,,"h,n the 0><131" or\;ing indusl')' and tho unIOn' ..."" m dangcr
S,ndKaro Metall"'llioo deducd ,ha"I'II: FIOM meanl anend "'becoming nwwnoI admllU,"''';'. lIIUls.lkhrnd these lLum,,'lI do'elop-
uflhe claM '1fuggk. A. Manln elarl IIQIC>. 'Ihe ...,... of grie>ancc lhen: ""'"'S. i" t"" e)", oft"" refonn"a. IIY lhe libtrt .. Carlo Art" ... nl.
wa, c"h.necd by 'he f3<1 ,h.1 'he ')'ucllcalim Ie.ders had .. gncd I local "ho II,,! helped ""go,i.,e Inc Feb",.,), agrecmcnl. was eo"""",,,d ,It'l
co,,, rac,'hrt",, P"" ,ou,ly. gi"mg t"em ,I'll: 'Fnllhsh Saturd.y' and hi, ad,"ersa.its In the ra"",o S,ndac.le (G.nl>O. r .mro. the rn."m.lm,)
• 44.hoo, .... "hich they "eTC now fo.red 10 ",,,,,,,,nee' -'J M"I"'II .1 "ould soon ... ..." astde 11'11: ",formlll maJon,y ."dent at Ro"," lhe
Bologna in J.... 1919. the Sino.bcaro '''etallu1l\ioo dcooonced lhe ",,"onal l'fC"ious '",·ember. Am:",ni ',;amc:d tha"he Fu•• o tnl.gII, "ndennlf\(
ag=mcnt a, link thAna penal code alld decided 10 '[I$I;'ul<;' gcne.al Ih. eohe"o" of FlO'\ 1()C.ll y and undcrm",••11 the ""h,nemen" won
"s ilalion Ihroughou ' Italy fo. us . brogotion!4 , ince Ii... A""" "ce."
Loc.II" 11'11: ag=mcnt •• ouscd considerable 1mona m.,.1
.. .... entle,.m '" Turin "as ,,,,,,rd by I eenai" Ilooch .nd comnll\es Th r Origins o f L ·Orlli,... YII"''''
"hose teller to AmnII -' ITun") "a, publt,hed on 15 \Iay The><:
and other cum pie, reported from the shor0oor fro m February on""rd. 11<",..." .nd No'.mber 1919 lhe ",Iemal cO<Ml,,.io<Is oftunn were
. . "m ilaril;e. 10 QIIl""hiSi .n.! ,}'M"ah!, enlic"nl! of 11'11: 1I3IISformod nllo factOl)' counell" Tho ;",.lIcelual$ IWOCta,rd WIth Onmscl
IW""' ronll",," .t Ital. ,n 1906 and Fi., in 191 L The Conq .... , of 11'11: "e'" largely re>pOnSibk for a<h-..nei"i I COSOnt ..... (or these ""'" ,"""u'
ngh1'hour <1&) bad an l«<JIIat1Ce of obIlgalory o'W""e II"n •. A. "e ha,c .l1\'ady =n oth= "'ere 5tl\lClurai rca""" ,,") 11'11:
The (" .• or 10) ""nules lotenUI lole .. lrd (Ihe ><Kall ..:! I I lhe inlem.1 com",;"ion beg.n 10 ,ncroach On the p",,,,,"I;"es of union .nd
Ila" of wor\; llad be.n aboliShed . nd lhe ,mmediat" freedom lo.,rile "",ploy... I,l<."" lJe1\' I would lilelo pock up the JI>Cwsiooo 1<11 In C'I\at.IIer
",nouneed Fu"l>crtnoR, ne'" "'ec.· ..,'" ..... '" seen by Ih" OJlPOO"toon .. Th""" Concernl", Gnmsc-i', nori",,. of "",figural"",.
Inheren'ly ''''''''' "odana",I",! ""bdanty, lad,ng 10 10...'., "-"11<' •. '" G ..,rn.ci·, InlCrJttlah"" of ,he role of"'" iet> in lhe RII"i'n Oc,ober
Alth""gb " d;llic"1t to ooerm".. the '0 which lhe """nana,,, Re,olullort was den,cd fro", """,c,,. ..
tit. l.i/><'''II''' .• M ly John Reed',
i"Hue""cd Ihis Of'PO'ilion oolcd by \I .'(lltc .nd \1.11;" CI,1'k, and ",,"nan', 1\'pen.go from So, iel R"'''a, 01 1... In>piml1OtU CO""
II eka. IJ\alII'II:y lho sa"", '" 11'11: I'",war .... reh',.. from Aaron \\llne" R...Slo_Polislt lceMieian nn"llI)ed al flal. ,,'110
Tho of'I'II: . . (Febru:u) ApIll 19191lnd tht 'ech. In ..",.tlnaly cnougb "-..,, foll""e. of R0<3 LlI>.cmbu1l\. II .. IS \\ ",,,,r.
"""ans (Apnl 1<l!9) dearly Iud ""me In.",hl$! pon;"""n". The fi"" Gramsci "",ailed in 192().... Ito had poInlod to the in,emal councIl n lhe
lUI Importanl. !trike of was Icd by an'rchl" m....."" stICh 1,.1i,n of 50' ict"lyle self,su' emm.nt." Gram",;
as Gall1'" and many .,,,,,,,ts of It-..: more .ilV'lf.. lol I"dtnici.n,· ref,,, to & mffilna held in ea,l) 1919. \\-In>e", ;"0...,,,.., clIn be tnt<:rd
[,,·\pril <mpIOj<t'S out.U tht" emplo) ..... forcing ordinary 10 1917" The Puk·. "",·j.. i" Inl.'1're1a'ion of ,I'll: Italian Inlemal
",den '0 coopcnt.. ,,"h lhe" imrnc-d..,e IUperion. Rcfonni$ll sa" Ihl> rommi, .. oo r.'nforcrd C.",m.d. "",,I ... Oppr<)pnl""" of e'pe".nc...
f\(" aliiallCe ofhand.tId bra,n.sa 'top 1"" ..d"I'II:i"'is;o., of f"'O'IUC11\';,1 f",m Ihe finli , h ,hop ",cw,rd nlO' emenl. TIt"< tlto """''"g Ion\:. helwoen
,ndumlal his e.,lie. 5urth fOf prt(,gu .. ,i,·. mst',!;,io", in 11'11: TorI""" coopc .. II,.
The "";I.e SfCmtd 10 untlc",," a tnO<lcr.'IIe Iype of ",d.,.,ri.ol de""",rae},. """ """"" on 1916 and 19(7 and his 'dl>OO\ cry' of 11'11: ,n'emll(
lhe oulcome o('he .,ril.e ... ., $Igr"f,,"nlly mot< tad ... 1 ..ons at the end of tho: """, " localrd in • ......" of rq>O<tS 0" tho .state of
Ilt.:In tt,. ",fo","'u. Iud baJialtlCd. Ind,,·idoIl ;nlernal oomm",ion, ,n
Bnl lSh socoahiln pub",t .. d the auluonn of 19! 8,
oul 'ne.-c.",' ;n pay fQr cock f""'ory's ":<hnie;a,,. due to lho tremendou, Gram",i followed tl .. e,olullon of lho ",an;mo llrili,h ,hop .reword,
,.ri.l;on In pay lcoles frotll One eSlltblishmcnt !(Ilhe neAl. The stnke "as ">o'."""llhrough OICf'lC'l of .nick. in n". n.....J etlll,leJ 'l'ho Re,'ulu,
.'cniually ... tled 'hrouah • !CnOS of nl«t1ng< Ix!wttft cmployO'fS' and liona", Lobotlr '\"'etnenl' and 'n.. rmncn' .,r R.,·.,lul1on·. publlihed
the 'echnici''''' Intcmlll romm,,,ions. ",Ih 11'11: "or1.en' in,ernal cotnm; ... on 25 and 28 Soplembol 19'7. On 27 April 11118 /I Grjdo
'H"''' ""tong "' ag.ne'e, o f coordl nallOft fo. lhe technici'n!, The lid ('opolo publl'hed a detaIled ace""n. of the ,hop Slewa rds 'lIO,"m.'"
.-.;"11 "'" a si8Jl ,flc ..... , i",1\'as< ,n lhe I""l1iS< of<he Inlcm;ll 'l' ol",;""" <kll\' Tradt Un,oru '('The Evoluti"" o f lho

-134
 Engli,h Trade Unions'), In which Ihcir hi'IO')' fro m 1916 is ",h<:.rse<!,
The reader "'ou!d h3\'C kaml how ,hop-Ooor d degale' ",Iocted a f,clOIY
committce, and 00" 11", ,,' tum h<:1»ed elect a l<>eal committee or. giwn
" tdu,"')'_" L.." er In August 1918 Gram",i "'turned to the Uri lt,h enmp le,'"
1"'0 'Brilt,h' .nicks ""ere p laced In the context of th. PSI., m" im ,list
nOM', Rome confere""'e, Afte rt!:e consre" of the PSI
",.mrmcd its imran"gen! polilics, Gramsci sought hat. rl\aX"n _
all" plalfonn might be , add ressed ,h<: problem of d O( future out li nes
oflll< soci.h" ,I:1te, which had been a major theme ofhis wa rt,me wri llng',
'he ..,.," ,," S"'e, 'h>t is the organLsot,,,,, ofttoe <oll<ctivlt;- .n"
tho .bolilion
""""e rrop<n)" 1< ,." , '''''''""''',on of 'nc boorgeoi' S'",e, i. no< ,he
."ol u,ioo ofth< e'p,ta l,,, S",e ."," .. itu,oo b;- th,..,. pow",,-<:,ocu 'iw , l<g"la_
,i,'o .0J Jud,,, ....... - bUl con'm uo> ,rt(I ". 'ySlem"i< """,Iopmen[ of ,be
prof=i<tn.ol <><pni""",,. ,rt(I loc, ' bodie, th.. ,ho prol".".,. ,,,,ody "ew
how to bnni ,"'0 SI'OOto ncou.ly i" 'no ,ruj;v"' u.li" resm .. , Thu,,- ,he
Imn><<I,,1O >ehon th" the pro l,,,,,,,[ mu,t .arry out mu<1 .bs<>lulO ly"", "m
.. ,he O<l"n, ioo of ' "' 1'<''''.''
of " " , mtO<\''''',o"'''n, 00' must atm '0
<k<-<nll".l"e the OO"rgOOIS StOle '0 wiOen "",al .nO ,ynO ie. l.utooomy 0" '>1<10
\\'nt i"lone month I",cr, Gram..,; explaH"-"tl tbe inge nuous Pad of ,\Ilionee
w,,, due to lack of popubr parlicipatlon within oithe, lhe parly 0' the
mule uni"", Gramsc i fd! that the major inst;tutl"", of!be b bo"r mo\e'lX"Tlt
In faC! rt:prc>cnted .,mali proportion of w<><kers, Thi' had kJ to irrespons-
ib le and undcm<>eratic le.ders hip , ""!he one ho nd , .nd 'p"!hy hum the
rank and On the other," Gram",i re"lized 'hat the apa,hy of the
soc iali " and tra<l{' uni"" rank-.nd-file had "","!,,<I the flOIOfiously "n'lable
lca(kr> hi p oflhe PSI. Hi, sea",h fo< prefi gurat,,'e ,",,,I"tion, wa. the,\:fure
• fnr a ",Iunoll '0 th" long ••taOOing malaise withon It. lian socialism,
reinforce..l by lhe more pressing 11....1 10 ch ' nne l the mas! of r,cently
""""ited ,,, .. a l work." towards politi cal particirati on,'"
In Ikcemb<r 19 18 hi' 111. .",$' in Ilalian problem. wa, joir.ed '0 !he
Rriti'h ca,. " , . rncahn g 'Mid., If the It.li an p...,,, "..
at pain, to
""'ph."ze the mode""e parha menlarian .'I'«t$ o f 'he current Brili,h
electora l ca mpaisn, Gram",i <I">\e 10 the d emand by Uro ",h
t rade u" io,,,,,, th" Iheir rep resen'"Ii,e. he allO"'ed to participa'. at ,he
forthtoming jl<.<e collf.rtn"" Gr .. mc i du ly ",,'ed the reaction to Ih i'
detnattd
bol,he, "In-pro"" .1 1 the ;r,d ig"'"t f. i'hfut 1"10'" of ' he
rorliamcn .. ry S..... OO ofunLl'oKa I ,"rrrog<; ''''' work." are Engl'sh O"'ZO" '
136-
I,k •• ,el)'one e'''', ,he)" >ce .bk to dw., nun)' "'pre"'""'i ,''''o the House
of Common< .. 'hq " ...h. ' ""y'r< .ble to bc<""", the rulmg <I... of ,he
5 .. ,,, : '0 <on«<10 to !h.on ou '''''''''''''us repre"'nt" ioo "tbe r<a« ('""fore""e
' i2",fy toe ",cogmtion tho, the libe ..1 S"tt, t"'t Pol'''.mer."
",.ni,m, wi th it. .dm," " t,.,,,,, "'lI"n, .nd offiei.l .. i, insufficien t '0 .. t"fy
th< n<cd, of teg",mat. ;n' .. "'t!,"
It i, at thi,junctur< tha t Gram",i for the f,rst nme in prom " " ro<luce, the
eOllCe pt i"" of a New Order, even ,f pre"io",ly he publi ,hed a censored
"." ion of EaStman', Interview" ;!h Lcn tn, e"tltled 0 'Slates man o f the
New Order '
In B"tLsh po"'"'' ' ife" i. unbe"d of. witbou, p<e<0<.!,"" The prolmri>t
le.,e, ' he orbi, of ,nd"' id",,lI<t 1,,,,,,.l i,m, O"e""m' e'''I)' Il".d,,,oo, >CeO"'.
, I'nncipk 'Mt Jc,..,lop<d di,'«t".lI y 'ncl pr>ctie'lly kod, to the <h" .. ,,,,,h,p
oftl>< ",01"'''0'' TO o"crable Lenin",,,,. '0 the rO<.! ' y,"""y of the
.nd rc,,.n,' 5o" i<1<
hecu,"" l'O\\er, . ,,,,nori,.., of p.,h.m<nt, I< ,,.,. "'"'''i'lilOO by ,he
"""el>,;., ••• Iso ,Ite dero"'OI)' of", ""er.." ond "p,.-.'ioo" The ",,,,u t<l'e
,IS"'"
of the proleton",;< ,. """0
OI&>n,,,"",,,,, : artd these tl>< ,"",< i,}"
'0 "pre«nt I" ,...... , '> .nO .",i""ion< .. !h< P<,""c C""f.,..""", ,n ,hi; resi<ics
'h' """, i,,,io ...1 di.lect io of tlo< Now Or""r hi<h tbe Engli'" pm l",,,.,
",ime:. to <",bl,,,, ,n <><det 10 "" Polrt of ,be world 10"mat,,..,.,, fo"nJcJ ""
'h' soc i, ';,,,;,.., of ,he "",on, of prodOK""" . nd .""""!;C,"
,\nd th i, 'cOn>lit"I'Onal d ,alct"" o f the New O rder' lay proc " ",y on
[he "" .. I ""moe"'ti< .. ctie '" h'f'I! ily 'f'I!licJ in Ru"i. by tho bol""'"k.
tbe pro le"r,,", ttoeon«" os onu>! be <00'-'''''00 of the tru,h ,h .. onty "'."
"'g,n"",,",, "1'''''''"' thei r in1<""" ,nd "p"",,,n,, they mu" work so thot
,I>< e"",, uti,'< I'Owor ofll1 ...... ,,"" f">Sc, from ",rl i.mcn.. ri,n go,eo"",,,," [0
,10<", org,n""". ,,, '0 tl>< "'orkor> ,,,",,,,iI."
The,. Bri tish art icles demon""'t" !h " by I.'e 1918 Grnrnsc l had a fai rly
clear idea wit.", to tlnd e<ample. of prefigu",,"'e mstitulion" even if the
Inlem. 1 comm"siOll' a", h"rdly eyer me nlioned in G"lIT,,,,i', wan ime
joum "" ,m," bUI if Gro",,,,i "as much more "It\III.d to the l<>eal lot.uur
nlO'cmcn! than h, i, c«dited , 10 what eXtent did Grnmsci liaise with or
ini)"enc. the campa'gn of the F.",io Rj,'olu liOllano .galt'" the """lern'.s
in FlOM " MOKh of G"ms<i's dirct! m/luene< upon the f.<toO)' radicals
in 1918 rema in' ,uJl!'O'ili",,_ How." .., lhe following hypo/heses. I belie\'e,
Jre not unduly speculJfi\e
-13 7
 Firsl, il has !hal Inan:hbU lhem",l,""s It.lian 1oc.Ii,ies ,be b,rnn".. rono. , .... "ony or
... . .ion to ' ... nsf""" , .... ,",.."..1 mID faciO<}' (),oungl hbertari.". and A, ,ho M.reh ",,;,,';ng of' .... Faseio
Ii> .. 0<100cT 1918." aul in Ikttmber 1919. m. """",,h,.. u.: ,h. lnarrh,1lS "'''''' b)" Lelli and CQm'U>O. Rocm f""J"l""d
Uattolort1<'i •. duo, I .... Idea o(w focIOf)' cooneil ""lIS from 'h." .... .. c.. ani. a' ,.... "'y nay .... reh bcc<Irnc ,II< "ucleus of unn'S T
Rn",h and Russian examplco IS r.ilemllhrou&!o L ·OnJ,,,., "."""".', A Red G .... ro.. Boero. , .... pref«1 "rot •• "plli""" Wt,hey be
local ,d""",,,,. Mario O....nncri. "Tm"1I one mor"h rla"ned ,ha, the Go"",n Sp;tnacu,
dunng , .... b<1w........ fOOl"5I> and radocal' leading up '0 1M Rome T .... m' "n I"'rp<:ISC 0((.... Red Gu.ards WI. to prot"'. demo""""on
eongrc .. of ..... pre> iou •• u'umo. 5<',..,..1 iOC.ah" m,elke'wtl. (Gam",; from .ttacks by s'uden" and o,.,JiII. The reponed num"" .. of Rod
.od (ncndl) helped , .... oWo",,,,n 10 ",form, .. , ," ,h. local ,,,,Ii,,,, "f G""rds coonnoo. ly from 1.500 5Q<:;.hsu and JOO a,,..,,,h,SI'. bu.,ly
nO\t ","fort ' he cong!"'''. <>I, ..... bU'1 of lV" "'cr org.niza.i onal dr."", .ng.ged on pl. " , '0 blo" · up bt ,J ge' and cu' 'desraph "i rt'. '0 ,he I".,...
cracy, opposillon 10 collaOOralloo \I " h ,iI<: . laIC ."d prolet.ri." """ y" r.:curn'c 300 that Syl"ia r.nkhuri! """"ed 10 he, read .... in the 1I",",w"J'
The hi"ori.n Em ilio 500". "'1! ucd tha, wa, mi,rtpro"'"ti ng D,,,,,,Jnollgh{, "hon she " i, i,,,d Turo n and ,I,..'Red Repu blic of S.n Paolo'
'he rac" \0.$ to SUpp<.>rI hi, deh.,. \l i,h Ih. orJ,"ovis,i " , 1919" in lot. 1919. by AUiu" 19 19 . • "",n,h, of hy'terocal '"""rls.
110" ev.r. ,h. alrtady 'Bnl's)" anocl .. wou lJ 5<'Cm to do,'e1ail nicely ,h. p",foc' admitt.d that ,he Red Guard. '''Crt for from an
'" "h a .... mi.ri·' claim' a, ,.... se an,de, "ert .""'em""",,,,,,,,,, ,.-i,h , .... ,hrt31. PanLhu ... , • IiSI"ly am>Cd OI"g'n ,,,,,,,OtI of you,h., NC\'.,.·
con"""i"". 1 deba.e. Moreo>(,. , .... Ind'''8 ... docal gmg", grO<lP. , .... lhel ..... , .... auanb d,d 'J'PC:lI" OtIlhc Slt«U durinSlbe g<roenl ..... k..
SlUdy Comm"'e<c r.,.. Prnkun.on linHY. _nth qIli .. SImilar to \a,,,,
I>fOUJ'S of) J Dcccmb<1 1919 and 2 I Jul) 1920 and , ....y were IIlIlrt , i.ibk duronll
"i,h , .... otd,nol1Jli 0.. boIl.nee. """e'",. I "'ould . . , .... occupa'ion of I .... (;oclories ,t..t $cpIcmbcr."
lha, its '"I'I"oach ..... "'" close '0 , .... lop-OO"'n CGL 1.:S11I1i1""'" ,hal
on 19 16and 1917. In ........ "1u .. , .... Gramse, ,,-as
Unlo Lc ,be hseio Sindocale. 01"'" '''cmp'S.' fronts " ...
failu,.. Aft.r !he bum'"1 of >I,on'" off",.. in \101<UI ,n Apnl 1919 b)"
do>.ng in 1918 and .arly 1919. _ clea,," art)' oa;o, ...... Iu, roncqIIoon ardm. loc.( anarebi'" and I.... PSI opc ... d up ""I"'il'i"",. II"" .. ",.
of an induSI""!Iy based "",ial"m de .. klped ""..,r a long.... p<1"IO<l duon " ""lo,n 0 momh the di", ..Ss.tOOi "'e,e \brpm. " .... the moSI
u .... lIy be l;e.-ro." ,mp.o"enl. and a, a ".n.• ncndtd _inll of m. .""",hi<1' held ., .he
/. 'O,d,ne Aow", was I,uoched JUS! as iooo> ,dual m."m.hst "",i.lim Chamber of Lobou. on 12 \1a) 1919. he an,IO"'\CC<l ,he formanun ofa
or' rurin >ought '0 fonn I fronl \li,h ,he 1o""l1an.n,. I ""II now Fueio [J"Azio ... Ri 'olu ..""ana, '" AI',""ugh h. ,I... r.m,lo ..
reI' i.", Inc <ourSO "'1(01'"" 0"1 "P '0 ,he Novembcr .Ittlion. ,hao •. cookr hoad, were .qu. lI} r",.Ir1",·d, !l<lem h.d been .ymp.!hetlc
but , ;""c .\ Ia",h un.ble 10 \I in 'he PSI in fa ,'our of , fonnal
United Fron" . Ili ."".': "\tcrn",s at fUllna lhe a"ao>:h", and syndic. li" )'outh
\I i,h lhe FGS met ",th 110" 50"'" fo i IS ,n 1916.>2

I h. Fa.. ,o S,nd3eait d·A'.;onc R,,·olut,on.,il ",os 'h" moll ..:no,,' Ry , .... ,ummer or 1919 ",.ny I".",h im h.d become aliena,ed froon
O"CIl"91"' I [.onl in 1919. 11 cen.,.,I)' [n",,<ned flOM', ,II< PSI \I)' its d;'hering laC,ic., The _,.11,10' luke" .."" .up""n for , ....
ond ,h.),. "' h,,,..,
" e s«n. I",l<.-d" W Il,e",pl>'" conquer lbe ,"I.mal "Ml-of.li,mg riots in Ju ..... nd ,he" 'nab' lIty '0 coordinat. , .... int«·
"",II"""""" and 1lIR:a= 1IIc \'<r)" '1II(1Ui'Y ofm. ",,,on ,,,,,Ir."" I. \tan:h n.tional 'lrike in Jul)·. 1.f1thom fun .... r A, • packed
, .... FISC;" issued a lelne1 ,n .. h,eh" "pla,ned ". aim w•• 10 e""al. \! 500 pre...,,') ho ld in ,he C"h.mber ofl.abour in Ju .... aanoo
11lOrC de""",,,,,oc org,mi""iOM lltal an from In)' ror>cepl o[ '0 upta,n ' 0 10<01 mu.,m.aliStS "h) t"'"r t.hould aUy "",,h the anarebi."
aurhorilanarusm. "umber; ,,'''', "'" enou&!o. ,he ."...."On rttjIIi=:ioc'i,·. Iii, ug••. """.. , .... " .. all .... """" mode"". <o< iali" leaders.
panKlpallon b}" 1M "",mbern,,!, flffly 10 cboose oc.;on. llw "'Crt not "",.110 and l:ben i.... horn lie cta,.....-d had a c.mp;tign aga,"" tho
"""ely abou, b gi><T "-..ge'.oo sbon .. hou" bu, I fuoxlarncn ... l chong. an.rehi"., ThIS met ... lIh objmion. hom til< <O<1.1t ... in./Ie audie"".
on , .... "";11 .y>!cm. Onkr was b<idly "",ore<! \lhen ,he rtg.onal or,:.mllCf of HO\!.
!l.cs,de, ","i"8 ,n'ol\c<I ,ho 1",1,,;•• of,l>e local'rilde un,ons. tho F...,io Mario Mombd lo. "'lied , ..... udic"•• to re .... in c.lm and 'ol<lIInt . 11<>",·
",as also tho birthpl"". Ton" ... Red Gu.. d•. which as on OIher e'CI. Marg,,;'a Ihe" ,mon.e,.,d and soon .no, ,he ""lice stopped ,he

- Jl6
'"
pr<><croing' " The Ju,", rntell"i\ po;",,,,,,1Ih•• llIlo,pho"" TIto ","".I im> 1W<;31i , t ",mer, "Ib<:il one whose <SIIm.,ion, ofth. Uolshe",k. w.",
""",ti"" in Ju"" and j uly ,1;d noI help k<>rn mi""'''_ ron.lly, the . ""n:I"", o"crty onlhu'''.II'' f'" h" ,asto.,oo
"on: .boroughl) by "",iaJi" elc<lIo"..,nng on "'" IU'Urn" The tNrIllIO'I"l.fli inner mel. of GrIm$I:I, Ta'oC'I, Tcnac."i and Togh.t,
JI(>y',",cr, on.1to "",ghbourflood or perwnal k,,,1 Ilhano« j)Crs'51ed bad beffi fOf11l<:d in 191 a, ""'\'<n"y, OIher uni,o .... n)
The mosl ""ponan l hnk "as bel" 0.:" . .1 wei.list. a nd a" ..· ( in,,,,,,,; 's circle Qf lo"'er m,dd le " b s,o; . Moml hf.,,' ",ro,e . nd
dnsts, Thml'gboul 1919 I"" two 17001" mel, e\'en ift"" _'a liS{ .xecu"'" 1.. ll"'d tl",;cm,n,l1< ,I", JOIlm. 1 Finally, Gramsci ' $ wjoom at /I G"Jo dd
di.bonded ,he Sputac",-, Ind OIh .. an3rchi ....oci.Ii.1 )'OUIh grQUp'.' I'apo/(}. and hIS enpl!<mcn •• in ,he ,"""1M during lhe .... r.
Oocro. lhe """" impoct.1nl pen.onal link. "Ij for<:cd '0 rt'pUd,,,., Jllle· ':lnOlI'
hI> bue beyond rn,J.lle.class ocquaon""""" ' •
""',," ... htn 1>0 h><l cI.imed I hnlcogc be, ... ee" anarch"rn and abot<nlloo1'51 Gra",,,,; "sed Ihe ".n"". speak'ng '''''" ork 10 ;""....'" d,. "s,b,l i'y
wei. Ii,,,," Ne' <nhole", ju>! I>tfor< I"" No,'ember eleclion I"" p.of«1 " f his ne" jt>um.1>old '0 promo", ,he idea of,he facto!)" coo""il '" Ou,-,,,k
n:poncd indi,;.!".! and ..,.,iali,,, ... In on .""",hl" ununn"'" 'niluence of''''' JOUm3I ,,-as poUch)', .. 'Ih JOIT1e d"""", wppon
OIp1!Zeda .. HIcoonI . . IIh"."". lnan:h,.u b)-the s.m.1I t,,,,k-$ ohlilled "od..... ,n ,en,..1 !t>ly'" '",urally,,""""
"ele lIso cased dot to lito Inl1i.1 open,rn,r<led ."ilude of ley lRd,ndu>ls tnldkc,u.ls ,,110 I\ad onJo)'ed Gn",,,,", ,,,"ung ,n /I Grido ,Id 1'"",,/0.
in 'ht Fal<"O Libcn""o '0" lhe comer"on of ,he dlot. ' oflh,p Of l he ".r. abo .I"acted 10 l.'O,di"" No,,,",,, G . b, icic O'A nnunl'U wa, a
prolclariat ,\ c1ando"i .... an:urhl$l pamphle' • .."i!ltd ,,·.in<" $ub""ibcr. OIher ",ado;:" ,ndude<! Sorel'. friend ..1lI edilOl' of /I Rn/o
by I .. ilor ",ho I\ad bc>cn ,n .... ronslltd' in 1917, .1;(1 ... Iall,ely ok{ C<>rlIlWJ, \1..", \1o ... ,roI,,1Ogelher "ksn,1. II.....,
pOol"'" ,o...-.nh ,Ito U-'''ntSl' " 11""0''''', "",,,,,,n. "m: rnl"rus,fitl, and Lu'g' E!nI\ud, and T""nesc rrore"o!'S. Although ,Ito no".-.pal"'"' "",or
by 'o"nober I\CUI,S5O" r,,10 iswc I luno' ,n order '0 d .. w bound,,,", c«ecd<oJ a coreul""", of6.000, " .... '·<n l"'I." .1I.i",,,<1 """""""s i11(IO><:1"'.
bel"«" I"" ,,,.rchi,,, and SOCI" Ii S" ;n "hiob "" ",,,mt<! .""",h,,1< 'h31 I""ally,'"
""""Ii" poli,j.,;.a,,-, ",,'" 1101 prtTJannl ,Ito 'n} for. dic' "or>.lt,p of lito
",""Io,ana, but I dlCl.olonth,p lI>oir ..... n pany" No' onhc:k:s.i, lhe lO<l"S"-
arw.rch."" wo'" les, seclanan in 1919 Indeed,'he pKfttl, on rO{lem,n!;
pam lIel' 1><1"'«n .,,",chist ac,,,'ny ;n 19 17 and 19 19, nol;,od Ihll shi ft Le.d,ng 1,. li.n ana r<h"" "dopICJ a e"UIIOu, bUI la'lloly fa,uuI.bk
It, g.... ""ion. (,om An>(lmo Acuus 1(0 \lomizio GlIn""," po<llion 1O.. ·.nJ'Gramsci· "" ,c,,"_ In 1010 1920 Fobbn go, 0 L 'OnJilW
\'110'" mu.:h of''''' eredi' for ,ht """.wInK tht idea of'he fOC10!)" e""""il
' uo" o: 'hmughout hll}'. I. 'Orrll",' \""0'''' " "" iew of socia l"l cult""", "as.
..-roto, tra11,lat,'d ,nlo It. l ian 'R,,;,,'n idus', buI it> cd""... h,d
I. ,\'"",'0 beg". J>l'blicauon ,n May 1919 II ombodlN "I"oj«t 'loe defoe, "I' doj:""";';; pseudo.\!>"",1 'phorisrn, e'en ,f ,10"
.. h!Ch G .. m><, 000 hi. f""nt.!. bcton planning .. nee propos.1l. 'nl" ;. ,,""""'....ted by ,nleU«>"",1 honesty'.'" F'-en ,"" .u;.p,e,,,,,,,
r"... ucha n..wspaptrwcre opmlyad'anoed byGrwns.;, ,n 191 - and 1918. Armando II<lfght dcso;:tibed LOnJ",,, ,'"",'0 as 'a booIuuful prod\lCCd
.nd "e", "'Jecled by TOfine;.c lW<iali.. "nd I.bour 10Id",•. The ContCnlS, !ry" "'I)' i",ellis.", youngsters'," C. ""llo Bemen, . y""ng un"'e";ly
, Iy lc and r,eo.:cupa' iQns of /I Grid" dol 1'01"'1" ( !917 18) forc,had"weJ I!radu.,,, .nd • srudem of Salycmini "ho had I>t:oon formed inlellecm. lly
• VC.t deal of .. hal L 'On/IIK \"""''0 ,,"mo'o .epn">CI\L The proJec, by and S<Jn,1 on 101m ""1""'''' Gnrnl<'i". al\ll"Chl>l 'Piri"",! cou<!n
ruched fn"u"" ,n 1919 d"" 10 funds noiS«! by AnKol<> Tasca .. nh'n the _ objcclod '0 Grarnscl', prod""ti' i,rn, bul hi. own '100"'011"'" ,n 1917,
" .. ,,,>lream "",,'nnen'. II IS ,hc:",fon: iron,c .hat Iht "ory ."':\'" of ""' ah""'t ,do".ical '0 ,h., "fGrnm\<i',. Qb\'",u,ly differo"",o. c"ICrged
Ih" I""a l loft ",,,,,Id "ndet Ihe fleree" by tho Qni"r/,.. "' .he full d;" .. n.io", M')'" becam" apparen •. "",'enhe·
,.,,1/ """Id Ihrough Tasca'J tonlll'<,ions g"'. lheir JOilmal ,IS ""1,,,,,1 "hen (;ramsci turned on [Ic"",n or r.bbn. lhey ...,m«l genui .... ly
.1OMCnInC._ J w..", ...... 'W ifGrarnsci "'il!I ,iN ed '" "'" "",ial ..1 cstablisl>- ur"", _r,n'·'
a, ifbctntycd by.
me.' as I ",,,,,,,,,I..,,,, intellecl ... I, Ihi' i, noIlO .. y ,hat he " •• q"'"
L 'On/,,,,, \'"",.,,', """I enth ..... II" ana",hi" <Uf"IIlOI'Cf<\
Ilni'."ally dc,pi",d, B"oai', repon to Iho HOM Romo eong""S of "., ,, rally, Ihe anan:his" ,hom" t,'" . Tnc "01)' language and
N<l\O",ber 19J5 ""nli,,ns Gmmsc\ "oonymOillJy as" youn@ bfilli.nt .ub,t3""" uf" l\al lhe ,o.;ncse an,,,,h,,, ... id IboI.t ,he [aclor)' eOll"",I,

"" -141
derived from Gramsci. 0. B.rtolo""eis wrok. for eX'mple , io foloma in
" ,,, ,,m"", 19 19 that COrdme "'.0''0, ' represenl' accordmg 10 us, 'he
'- F"""""" '{A'g<", 'r,,,, '. 'u del ".-in» ""M"u' -'J M" '9'9, Jt M" 1019
",osl hon",' a nd conorcte ",Iempt in haly of lhe r.".wal of iM as and
1 -Carlo f'«n ' {P'<"Q M",><». , prod""""" " '<P"'" "",,,n"'''''iJ ) Jw,t
praclice by lhe """i, liS! mo,'cmenl' As Emma Ferrero recal ls, 1"" 19 , 9
"a,1 m'jori ly ana rrhislS , upported the p<>Sn ,nns of t he or>linn- j C.,\o Em"" """,,,,<1<, L, ""' .. t, .... """,, l'ot" 2, JOM 19 ,9
,'i.w in 'he f. otory counci l move ment unt il Ihe ·clock. hand" s'n ' ''·'' • r", [",' ,C"","" ',dol.... . . ', G..m""" -1.0 """
Ne,erthel.\s m 1919 . " d 1920 the m,lmol'iSii in • spiriled d .bal" < i t "",,.1,,,,,,,'. 18 J """. 5 Jut1 ,'I, 'I
l '''''''''' G""''''i. ' [.0<""'1'-"" de'I<> S'",o', Il Jo1y 1"'9
"ilh the anard "'ls and syndlCah\ts w ith in 'he journal ils.l f .nd Ihe
6 -C"I<> p,,,,' 'Co",,,,,,,",,, on,,,,''''''' l6 J.I> 1'1'
Pied mo ntc,", edilion of Manti'_ Many o f lhe a'tacks by th" ortimo''lSIi n tPa'm,", . .t.. .... "'« p., '0 ,00<", """ _2 A, &, "
UpOn .na rch i,m .nd 'Y"d ic.li , m were 001 partIC ularly u,uquc_ I'crc nn i.l " 1'
<",,,,o"",ic\ b/:tw<;<:n sociali ", .lXI li"""a';."" w ..... aired: Ih<o a,h' nlago;,; , C>tk> P<1,; '. O<J ,"" pokm"" ""I<> ".1<> ...11"""'0" , 30 t919
a,1d disad, ,nlages o f de<lor"ol p.rticipa'ion, ' ""ienli tl e' versus '"IOp"n ' " ..... 1910
10 A,,,,",, 0"",,, ,, Octob<, ,9 ,9
><><i . l"m .nd lhe nalure o f soci,l", O<'g'mzation and ,,"olulionary orga ni. ("'0 P<,,,', '1 1 "',,'m. T'1 1",. ,rom."I. de, proOut'«' C,",,,J ; de, ,i,I, ,,, i
",lion """C sh ' IPI}' focused due to lloe rue",,, oflhe Bolsheviks con'pared ",-.""o,eo·· . . 'I pn>1:>km , doU·orpolZzu"".·_11 0.:_,
10 tl>< aoort i\'O re"ohn ion, in lhe We't, Although G,,, no a n,l Ferre'o kepi '9 '.
mosl oflheir COn!"bullOn\ to Umamra ,\'''0'"', Corrado Qualg]; 1\0 entered ,2 -Carlo "",n ' , ' [l mt.,", T'1 1",. i <"""l"
<1< , ".-odu<"",,_ II """'" T.),,,,.
on a deboto " ith Gr.msc i. Tasca and Togbal1 i, " h,lst Pietro Mosw (,Carlo 1''''lI'"''''''''''' ",,,", ,r.', del ... ,,,",'. t N""mb<.-
Ll Ani""",,,,,,,,,,,,, """"",10"",,. "",'ill"" 'c... k> P",,.-. ,t , '"'''''' T'\'l«c, ,""';iI'
Pett i' ) pub li,hed el",'en .rticle. a nd book ",,·iow. ,n the journal from
do, prod ,ltori. E""", . 1""0i ""'"",,, i <1<1 ";-Ion""o ' , 8 NQ"mb<.- 1919
Juno 19 19 to Apri l 1920. Thc p,oblem, of an.reh"m and ,y"di<.Ii,m . ,. " ..... """"1"""'- to"",,, -I ' oi"" ""," , ,." (OO"i1l " f",,*,,""
w.mo "''''''!h:g o f an obsess ion to , Ihe ed ilors o f L ..:: >rio f'dn -. ,t, '"'''''' T,ykor • 00II>,,,,
i 0\0, """'"""' . l'"" ... ,,<AX_
do,
'\"UOI'O. They in' p ire<:! one aM,cle by Viglongo, twO by Leonet ll, rou , by ,'.p. ,'t .. ", ,'ern-"
R""" , t..bry, l.';0<1",,, " "' ... , lit ",,01 .. ..,.,' 1J Nov.","",
19,9
Tasca, si, by Togli atti . tld no Ie,s t h.n 13 by Gran' ''', . Two p"nods of
" -C.<1" p",.-.
'II ,,,""'-' 1" y""" de ; p<oo."", i. t.. ><u<H', 12 N",,-mb«
lIl1on.c polomics a re 'hsc emed . From May '0 Seplembe r 1919 lhe deba te '0,.
ce nt red o n lhe ,deologlCal slln]I,,,,,,,, . nd d :ffercl>Ce, be!ween ' arx i, m " T IA0il<l" T,,,,,, '"",,.1,,,,,,, , ,,,,,,,,w', lO N","""" 19t9
and llbe rt.".n soci.l i,m: "hilc from i'<bruary until April 1920 the de bate ,1 hit ; • dv<"",,,,,i' '!.lor>< I, , """" Lo f ...." ",, 1. <1< 1".-001"'" "' ....,,-.
, hi ntd to mOT< pTliCt ic,,1 matteTS (.Ibe il Gramsc, kopl idool"gy foremo't H'!)ewn b<, 19'9
,n hi, IIlllld): the role "fthe a nafchists in tl:e Ru"i an (w ith ' i " T If,lm;,o Tog!;" ,i , r-t .. " t,...... Too",,', A"""nJo Bo.yo,. "
rat her IIlform.ti, e aCCounts of Neslor M.kh,1O .nd Ihe
0"•.
""'i",oot i '-'1'«" iO<lulln, li ,
,' I.. to c.,i,,,_ '''",'"" do, C d.f.'. 1{) t_mOO- ' 919
.....
p< . sant .noreh;s" o f ,)oe UkTlllTlc). ,he .'ahd lty of the US1's 'act ies in '" A""",,, Gc"",, ;. 'Un'" "",1...",-. 18 F, ....... oy--+ M.l< h t9l0
Ligu,ia and tho g' ound "lies on "hich an' rd,i;" . nd _ ial i", <ould ,U Pa'm,," 1",1"" i, ·T, ,,,,. """.. '; Air""", l ....... .,. ''-''''eft ""' M.I"",·, Palmiru
coli,wnlto By ,\Ia,<h aod c, dy A pr il the Ihemes of " na, th ,sm h, d T""".. , ,od A""'" " 'IIonI<', ". to., d, _ n ' , 3 Mmh 19](1
o\'el'\\ hel med the <'<lito" of L 'Ordme .\'''0>'0, w he n in facl ' hey oonu na'e : I P.t", i ru T",h... ,. .POI " """",ow <It; """ii" <I i r.btm<·._ 'fl, ""'''' , """<ad,, i
",»1" ,;,' 11 ""to ,9](1
copy In the 'urn""" .nd aU'umn of 1920. wl><n L "'.0>'0 los, mueh 11 A""",", GI>o"" i. [)i """" "K"; A""",", (;,.",,, i, '{'"""" ... d< '"
of ils o"g, nal ny . • nd warne " , ch icle for Boishe- ,k prolloonccmcolS, N,o.-o'" '.... ,.., ."'i· C"""", i,"", .,.,m "Ko < ,om",,,,,",, D. ,[h0;'1
' h i' d.bote largely petored ""t R, i<l<1). "" ' ",", " '""'" ._1""" ;, R"" .. '," II,."",,,,. 'L, ""..
' " ."10 .. ,,, prokt.",-. J.--- 'Q Apnl tnO
A na...,hi, m and 0.11;'10";_,-(0 AClion w it h in t he Factory ,) .. ,", fjr> ,,' .... ;
,920
'L. ",t",,,,,,, To", od " «'''I'''''''' """",It di T"w",' I JUT><

Co u"c il \l oHrne nl from t h e . ummcr of 191 9 10 1920 " "">too,,, G" .. "" S",d•."". "'O"i l," Ao.,10 b.",. ' '"''ltmoe, " ,
d<1I "'Om"" N'''''Q"', 12 J..... 191G
A "0" 'p<'per .rtid. by Al funs<> Loone'li i" ' he Soc ialist Youth -. L ''/mn_ II T••, ", 'P"I<m",'" "" <l<1l'"o.o; ", ""'''0" ', '9 ""0 1910
l" A""" ;Q G"",,,:.. '0.., mo'u"o,,'; T,,,,,. 'Pol<mKO "" "'-''1'''''"''
llua"h a (9 Morc h 19 19) Ih. 191 9 <ampaiSn 10 u >:lsfontl 'hc

142- 14} -
 r.w. 1,1 «. "•..,1 (;"'rn«i·..."",'.""ed thor propo;al tlUI1 dclrgale. from ,he m'<TII11 com.
m,"""'" ihouJd nom,nale """""".. 10 ,he gCner;I' coo""ii. >&r><:e Ih<y ""'"
a..r-On!'" .J '"'Y 1920
l' _"'" TOIl;"";.
l.
's.-.,_'. 10,..,. 1920
'l ........ ""'''0'.11101) 19](1
lhe d,rtt' of the ....arl ... ·O< Al'hough M.no·, propo>al
"' .... igOOfed , " ",n..,ted ,he fe"""", or ,do:as ",,,h,n ,he facroric:,
29 ,,-..v.-,.. ·II ..O&>_. . . . ,....,-. "",,, J ....... ..-.·La In I.," June and eally July Gnmsc, hop" 10 ""th"" his idea. more
_,to """'''" "'0< _ _ '. 14 , , _ '920 fully ., .. "f mcoIingo of ,he Tunn bra""h of the PSI. lloc firs!
1(1 . . - IOS' .... ', _ _ _ _ ,"', , , _ Co>_. ''''';10.
s'gn,fICanl !-I"J> In ,he ""'"" tlk: ooul1<:il, occuned ... bnilbr m!cm:l1
:, '91O
ooovni,,,o,, a( .·,.,-Cen,TO "'''llned or<! " ... , ",placed by. Ir"'po"")1
" . ... o-.1I"_'91O
mrnmi",oo ,,·,10 a nl>n.lal •• o OTll.I1'I:Clh. eI«""" . This,"", iotent,1
<",n,noM'o n wa, not 'cry d, n.... "n. f.om ,1£ pre<lcc'SSO" It waS al Ill<
illC\CII ' r ,at WOrk •. • ft •• Gr.n,,,,i h.d in'c".ned ... mass on
inlom.l comm iss ions inlO f""lOry """"" il., I rn>posal' 31 Augu" . 'hat el..,,,ons fo, oomm'5'"t! we", held in eac h work un ll ,
by ;""orpor3I0 all in pcn""",,n' and repre. TIk: o,,,,,,"hel ming mojorily of.he 2,000 ...<>rke" "'lied. btli ""ly ""'mbrl'$
",mat". in"i!""oo. and ,I!( to Ihe pnckly problem of of FlO\ Twere eligible 1o br s.,p'cmho. and Oclobt,
,he "",,·unionized "ilhin II!( "ork,ng dan l li' PI'OJ'O'.l' " 'as (0 bUIld ,he '),>'cm wa, adopIcd Ihroughoul'he cily. SO ,,,,,, by (he beginn'ng of
1,.10"" 5On«! from ,be
",dUIDiaI oopnil:3l00m In I,.)i"" fOClOtie< .. ""'In
'lo, ... ,he, " earl)' oil ,he factories in Turm had
""'.."..,.. ,n n, firs! mon,hs I. 'OnI'M f." 11«1 by Tosca .v"".., ",.. 00.,,,... "rod I coovni"iOn<.
,,"II!(. lhan Togliani .nd Gnomsc,. A $hif, from Tasca'. t1>O('t r<">{JI'C,ful On W OcIObc:r a f""'" """"'08 of the ,nlemal COO\mLSSion, established.
."ltude ,,,,,,,rds.be 1oc.1 IrW UltO(ll't . nd "",,,,1'51 esubli.hmenl aDd ... •• L 'Ort/,,", .\'"",,,', 0 pro, i$1OI1.IL1 'Coovn,lt« ofS,udy'. It,
.. prOpOlI''''OO of coonc,h51 MIen. only ""cuJK<l in la'" Juoc m.mhersh,p mclu.!ed Rooro.nd \l.ll.> (as "ell as Cerri. Bonl'g:m .
"hen Gram"" aDd Togh.", (4ntcd 001 lhe" so-called editorial coup \ Ionlaoo. Tooi and Bnrnrrol, and GntmK", ,nn ... ",," "''''' undoubledl)
d·C1.' . The pro'i.iOllaI Comml1l"" of Silldy d .... fled • prognomnn:
The .. min.1 anOeI., '\\arle,,' lXot'IOXnlCy· ...... prttO'ded by ..' .... 1 "nllen by Gr3m5C' enlitled. ,he 'Prognm,ne of ,h. Work.shop Com·
hart>ingt'" GJ1Im5Ci', anicle ' M.IWOf"IIlZ". miTlOOi"'" ocll"azioo<: oocial· ",,,..,,' [ts cen'I1I1 po,n, "'111 '''''' mrmhe" of,he umon ,,00 "'" ,n ,he
i.,a' (,MaJOri'y .mI m,oo.ily in oo<i.hl1l<"",,")'" "'in!o •...,d Leoneni', (;>elory co"n,,,I. IIL"<pI 'Il< ordc:rs oflh. ""ion. in "'''''0IIIi< dispule<.
earher po>lllOn. Although 'Il< f.elory c"""",I, not giyen absohlle P,",
of 'Oll"e ccl>o<:d ' he Qf AIII"IC., HOWCYCT. there w., a ""'8
1","<iom in"'ICe in Ihi•• n,de. il'Illph"d ,11",1", leg, " "ll>CY of"1C llo l,heyik III ,IS 'ail: t h,• • ' ' ' pla"ce of Llnion d isc,p hne "as on ly legllimale
,",'oT",ion was g,,",rn n!ce;l by base<l poli li," 10'l;,"w.lIon, ", pol icy wos foom ulat.d by Ihe f;>etory co,nm;s.." lloe m"''' e, . III ,hon,
On 24 May. publi,hed a Il0l. On ,he comm un'" ,Ik: commis .... ,,"wid dcc"Il< .. ,,',,",,'. <om"'nICe of the union', j"".1
,no'omonl. "h,ch "'''c''''od oOl,,,i\isl Ih.",.s'"' In Jun. branch. The .utonomy of II.. "n,Oll \'oa> funhcT ciTcum5Cribed
Democracy' argued (hal "o,;,en; ."""IJ el<:<1 f.."Of)' Ikkg .... "" tho !lnt.'e the eomrn,SSftrs had to'vee 10 any \'o'lse .."Iemen.. her"", 'Il<y
I».i, of ,he slogan' All """.." 10 the WOI\Ihop COfII1nLII""' .... tlh .be b<camc ""l id, ... A, 0 ntttU"lI on 31 0c10bc:r ,he rrosrammc ",.. Il'P""'ed
,nore ;enc .... , aim b<:ing · ... n """..,. in the: S,., •• o Worlie .. · and I'...... nl<· unan,,,,,,,,,,ly by ,he l 'he meC1'1Ij .1"" PU' ro",."nI a .I.'e of
Coo""il., While Ciarlo. brli., •• ,ha, llu. anlele .1111 CIIIjlhl$ill,d the rol. .I.,en nam .. '0 .",lIe,' ror the el<cllon of'lk: ne" FlO;>.' nccu",·•.
of ,he &eoInp/oOe.' ",,,rd e<;ommitltfS "'lher ,han the .toopnoo< ClIpn· Ciark claim. lhe og".""" 'n TlU1n "as la!i<'ly one of opposi.ion to
"a"ons. ,,=m. 1h.a..... "f'C'CCh doli"ued '" ,·ariou • ..,btlrban duM Ioxal ,node uni"" ond .0 ,h., "".n' lhe Commi1tec of Sludy
(,n • pm:i, of 'h" an.d.) doe; .",ph.MLe ,Ddu!-lnat <.><glIl1iu'joo, ,OJ d"aged ffOll) Grom",i', t1>O('t ... blie .... of the: "'''"""h,p bC1wttll
'Til< eff""" of GJ1IntKi'J ani, I. and htl tp«<"hco " ',, n"',ced ... f"",Of)' cou""il• • nd un""'l .... While II Ii qUIlc '''''' lhol L '&.1;"" .\uo,,,
"'''''III'B of Ihe Cham"'" of I..buu,. Il<ld from 1S '0 17 Jun •. One of ,,,,, pnn,.d oq>calW .... rning< ."'",he '''0 inSlllmion$ ,houlJ he kcpl .Cp'''.'•.
p'",cipal que,,,on, ....as "" ... hal "i,."o ' he fu ,un: ge""",1 """enhel.s, ,. IS h. nI,o S<c Gr.",sc, dof.mlmi ,he poll 'ical po'ilions of
cOI,,,,,,1 of ,he C hornbe' Il< con,lilUl.d hl<a \fa" '. a dose ..""',.,. of ,he FlO\ ! refonniSIS . On 'he O!iH:r il.:tnd, ,Ik: . ulooomOu5 dec i<oon of

144 _ 14S-
 in runn during tnt Okn"io R",so

,nc Pro""onal Conlml11N whith rontradlCl> Onm""i·, pOsliion. I"',nt< \lool:Ignana. V.ianle. Roc,1I, Apri..lan&heri. Sonl1\lnlno, thignol!. G'n<)
10 ,he poMihle ,nfluen<:n of the S,II<laI:.lc , ..dio< the CommlilN Q""moori. (;0"""""". Ilrnohnl and LUI" Ik"lIIl.}ltS1icl.' wen: '" ·der.""
of I'nllctllnan It IS also. perlIaps. Ind,m:t c> idcnce of .".."h1$1 Ind the "".bonsh,p' that !ohouJ.l bel".." "'" Tradr Uni .....
I nO..."."" • nd Foctory Coonell,. in order '0 "'Old cOtIllicn of compet"""" and
The".." stage in the SJKl'ad of,hI: cooneil no;»cmtt\l OI'rwTCd rapldly. the ""i1nls,"i(>1" from tl<lng lOukrned. and '0 en,ure
/" I >lonny mceling of FIO\!·, Tunn bnneh ,he radJCII motion of Boer<> thai the)' OCqUl" gm'"" pr<"$Ill" In the C)"" of the mas!oO:.· II, By thl: """
.nd Glrin<) ""ti ramC"d by. larse ....JOIiIy Ind "I"'wi.ional cxecu,;\'(, of 1919 Gramsci', po<IIlon "llh,n lhl: f"'tory counc,[ """.""""" ",:as
eOm""IIN "as "'«tcd. w"h Pic'fI) H,m:fI) ",,1e<:1C"d IS ,hi: n"W >«rrtary bcc<>mlng M.rnabl", On tile one IIIInd IllS comrade. ,,'anted to
of Ihe branch, :01 dc:fend the unions. while O<l tl>< Otller.• yndicali ... c:lscwhl:re in h all'
The Tori!ICSC deb>" WII .. pc>lC"d on a selle when on 9 Ind ,hought tile factory c","""iI In ..celie". ,."",Ic to unJcnmnc FIOM">
10 No>'omber.• mostly ,.Jie.1 deleg.t ion of Torino," m<talworker< I.g",,,,".y. To thi' ",,.,,1 Gram\Ci ,.maUled ftli. ", upon those foctory
(Ga ri n<>. 130<<0. SanmaMlflo .nd Ccm for lhe ""lIeals; C.nn.W'ol. " p". cou ,,,,,1 a.,.",him ,,1>0. if 1>01 '''r1'''Mlnll l", pohl'c .' phiio",!,hy. did
the ... fonn i"sl .!tended. h. ld in FIo .. ne., Th. endorse his indus" i.l "",t.gy
,0011011 p..",d at tbs '" oS ,n.: fi"t official . x p"5Sion of FIO\ 1 An.",hi". intcr.'.ned ., thl: mo$l W"'Olllcully imroM,nt Ju"" tu"", o f
d,»ppro'.' ofthl: Ton""sc mo'"",cnl. ' ''' M ..n",hile. in Turin thl: mo'o· thl: r.", phasc o:>fthr t"a<tory "ooneil nlO> <11'1Ofl1. TIl< of r.".,...,.,·"
",.nt 'p"'. d boyond the nI.tal ,,'or\crs to coxhbuilders .nd .u,omooll. .,.- Gari",,·, roles 10 the "fly Oisemblles of ,h. "Othhop rommi,sal'$. in
booy" o<lers as "'elias ,hi: Turin tnnch of thl: Chenuc.11II<l Ty'" \\ 01\....' the SlOOy oomrnm...... aI,hr FlO\! in "o,..entber.nd tlte '"P"<"ial
Ln>on E>en ie<:h"lC,"nS In the f-KIOnCS.....oo.sed thl: ""'" coogre" of Turin ·0 Cllamber ofLal:>oor in December "'-en: "'" ",I.ot<d to
mo'ement . .. any 1,'l1". "apt".• anan:h'" "". The (Jet II t!tcy rcpr .....r"C"d a ,,""aln
The culmm'''on of the ,nll'" >uccc",ful phase in thl: hi5lOf)' of IhI: conlCntpontJ)'. if tra"sient . ..,n"nt"'" localC"d on ,Ite .hop floor, A, "me.
fac'o,}, council mmemen' otturrtd 1,1 drba,e on foctOf)' eoonells II ,he ,h,s ..,Miment came .... "'<t to G ... p<»itOon in reprd.o g<Sn""g
con8"'" of the Torinese Cltambtr of Labour on 14 and 15 lkeembe,. to ,lie non·unionlttd fot lhr d«"ons of ,,(>d,bop comm,,,,,,<"< or
I • ......,;"i defended lite mo,'.men. 19a.nst thl: O'<M """ihty o f Bia nchi of ... abh.hllig a ne .. relallonoh<p be1"'Nn ,he fac,ory "ouncil. and 'he
tlte CGL 110",.",;r. "",nl"'ns of '''c !nIl'<menl laid """,ial emph.. io on uniom, J';ooo De BaMolom<'5 .'plllncd In In In icle for JWonl,; 16
dijf.rent 1"'''''', Tcrracini Sl!UN Ihal the councils would h"'. '0 bc<omc No' .mher 1919) whe", II><St amMi.s I.y,
mol', 11 • • ,he uni"", ·m onIcr to ,lIem d)'in 8 of i"",,'i"ity· Grnm""i ThI: ana,chi't workers .nd te<: hnlCi .'l> hod workC"d ",i lh tile ominm'iJl;
cmph., ized the rolillcal dim<nllon of tlK: counc il <' ""rk , TlK:y ',ho" ld ,hmugh'''' t the ,ummcr and au ' Umn I><.>(;.u," brllh "de< .greed lh . t o l<k '
be ,,,,d,,rstOOd pri manly as II>< """". <lfpoililcal 1"''''' ",'em.1 oommis<ions W"'C 1>0 IU"lIer n:pre,cm" 01 c of lh. "orke", The
thus ... ",o>'ing
ony r,," ll ty from 11K: l'1l:s.enl formal ilructu.. of pari
<lI;mocr.c} · 110".''''. lie ",'as forcC"d ro admit th>l. befon tlK: ",,·ol .. non.
g.... ."""",b li.s in ",hich tlleir reprcKrtla",'b had been . Iec!rd
",.nipul>!w :n the el«lion ofh.nd·pichd c.ndidat., Tlte older int.mal
w.,.
rho factory council' werc in "'PC<lS .ppcndaJ1t:< of tlK: tt.de c,,,,,m;«i<>ns l"",nd"'l1 >cry mt«h like Gram",i) "Cf< 'Op·down orp.n
un""".'I. '''''''''''. ·,00 di.tanl frum ,I>< .. 1I'c psyd•.>logy of the "orl.;.,,; '" he
I he ,icI",iou, moIOon \• """'" 10 Gntm .. ;'. tao""
.i""e i, clio! not ...,111<:<1. through tile ac.i"i,;u of Gram SCI and Garino.,lIe worl.;cI'$ of
holtlte COf1\m,....n; "uh the: un""" H"",c'.,. by· thl< lin" the foctory IIrc, .. u·hlt. and In Ie" tlllln I mo<tth Ifl"""rds. thos<: of fiJkc,n othrr
council mo> rn>cII' '" IS trrandred IS InU-UOllon b)' the .. fonniSl leod<n;hip ntetll",,,,k'ng focto<ie •. had elected "o,Lihnp deleg a", •. Hi, an,de
ofl IO.\1 and ,he CGL. IS "'-cll OS "'" m.. "nali" di='()fI." ofthl: PSI. "I e'1"" ... d tile opumi"" Ind WrJIn'" 1l1li1 lhe raditll, folt IS tlte fOClory
On II ["",,,,,,bcr thl: In.."h of,he PSI endorsed ,lie "oo""il coonell mo,'<"I1lCI'It
mo> ",,,,",,' and r-slabl,,1IOd • ncv. Comm,,,,,,, of S'udy on ,lie r rlOl)' A. I propagandi<l oflhe fl<"1Or}- coonell mo,,,mcn1 ,,\thin lite ""lio,..1
'0
Cooncil' rq>lace the I"U' 1$""'01 comrmll"", Th" ,,-as """"Iy ""'mnoled .n>rch"t I'T"". De BaMolomei, WIS Imponant. 11o"""",. if F.rrero
by ",limen...,i (bu, no! by G"'I1\SCI) if .. fumi" influence "'IS n,,, and G.nno "ore loss oonf1<knl 1$ jottmali!I'. tile .. ." hctOf)'
rompl.,,,I) .bscnt (Thc mcnthel'$ ..... To¥I,,'U. Tas.ea. Boom. Mana. Ol'\:O,,;zrr< in TUlin " ........,ml. 1 fo< Gram"'" Th. que"ion of ..-1K:1h<:r

'"
,.,

,>t nOI Lhe n01' umomzed , ho uld be gmn'cd a "oice in the ciections of
comm i",.. became a mojor oone o f oo"I< "1<on in l'o,"ember
.nd fuember. on" il wa, the .narc hists wl>o supported Gra msc,; pos,tio n
the 1MS' enlllu«astically
Ilow,\,ef, the wntroversy was in fac t sp.1ded_olTby a d 'Sputc among't
the ""iali'" lhcm,eI\'os_ On 16 Augu>! Ona\',o Pastore f" '{ I,roposod
thot all worker< should be eli gible to CicCI "'ork<h<:>p commi,sars, O n 30
Aug"," Viglongo endorled th iS pOlition, "r,,,,ing that it would reinforc e
n>o' es {o",3td, ,ndu ,,,ial "n io" " "" Iluwo,'or. Gm m,,'i al thi, poi nl was
st iII sens i{i, e (0 the concerns o f union "cti, iSl<, l ie ,,'anted Viglungu in a
postscripl 10 " "ew,pape r all id o t hat the prob lem of t he non_u1((o""cd
remai ned ,en,,, i\'e , ' " A Ill>oug/1 p.store and Viglon&o may have I>ttn Iho
f,rs, 1,,0 soc,aitm '0 ""s.< t h,S issue in p" nt. G. ri no clai med (ha{ he "as
the firs t {o ptop<>S< "OleS for 'he non-u ntOmttd at m<;rtmg' , E"en Tem><: ini
,Jmilled at lhe 'pe<:i.1 congress of {he Tonne>. Ch"nbe r of L.bour th.l1
tt had beon work ers mlhcr lh , n socIJhSl j oumalim ,,1>0 h.d Of,gmally
ad\'OnCCL!'he ,dea, '" Ganno, too, was a, c. ", ful as Gramsc, in spdl«tg
oul {he ,mplic, ,,on' of Wldo nmg tho ,ufTn gc , At t he Floren<e FLO.'!
cungress of No\cml><r. for Go" no .nd Boer(> both u nderlined
lhe fact th.'l the f,.cw",,' council, '(are) li mited 10 OOrtl"" ,hat ,ii'pose of
Ihe bes' o'll'n is.« 1 aod specif;- lheir role, In a " , y lha{ . "Old-;
erootLHg '",' pie lll u"uns in tho {hat would end up ,,',tlo c"",i ng
h,nfi' to wOll i',g-ciass org3T1i<alions, ,,5 Garon(>'s .• nLl Boero', caution
",Heetcd " nl ib r worries found io radical worl <'TS, Db, ,,,,,s ly G uornieri ()T
Culomb,no might dc no unce thOl r programme for undenninmg {he u",on
or O,OTt handing ,t O,er to tho US I. but thoi r owo tl en;e>! opponents wi{h,n
were not as emho,ia,{ic as {he oubidcr Viglongo.t g.r.t oting the
'01< 10 'he llOo -union ized. \ lar;o /.1ontagnana ",rote 10 L Nuo''O
,n NUI'e mber l'J I'f hi, fears , Ife "'.n{ed the "niinl)!'i,<li '0
,oJ ",,, the problem ,n p"-'Ci,,, lerm, . <>tho","'" ' unT\lly indiv idu ,ls' '->ould
",i?c the hcm",,' counc il s for {heir o"'n dtSrupt]\ 0 pU'T"»c' , He ,upported
' he pre, o" , mo.'cment bec.use he was aga"", {h" Ourrent
refO'llli" e,ocullve con"", lItt of rlO \ 1 " ho had bee n on obstacle io {he
"a, oftbe prng,-.,., o f the focmry coooc iI 111O>'O ,""lIt . unru ly ;nd "' idu.I,·
"anted (0 Men um ""y exec uli,'c comm inee
Tbcre .re ir.<ij,',du.I, ... "'.on 'he rar.ks of 'he ,ub, or';"o, .. ho fox yem .nd
;-em r'Sh, • o""',n,,,.. ,. ten" ;",,, 'I>"i , " 'the hdm' of oor <ongr<ss i" Ikllogna. he ,upf>OTt<:d a mOlioo t!:a{ laid tiN n oon<- year mm i_
Wh" ,he rr« ;>e . i m "of thetT mltmm . .. oJ tbe" .,,,,,1.,;, "'"
'Of)' e",ly to "'.<I<", .. nd ".-e, for ",,,nr lc h••• ""'« "nu<",OO(i it' They
'.-e th, <l<ma l maiN"','"". toc,' .I",.y, go .1 ;l1le to the ext m nc
Amm,hiSl,f in Tu,-,n 'I" ring Biennio Rosso
len. >e<mdmg to ""CO,,,... 'hey c... c, ll ,ynd«.li<t,. ,nm h""
or .,en d'« ;""nl 'yo"".Ii", In re. ltty """he< " ,od ;o.h,,,. "'"
.n.ITh,m· They.re ,f on good f;..,th) d'ng"""" muddkhe,J, ' "
A do"" <,am', nalion of <"en Gar; ,IO', po,i{ion dcm,,"llmlos si mil ar
.mb,gu,"e>, Ilc. too. ba<1 li tlLe time f,,,. ,10<; and at {Il<- Flore,\Ce
congress he agrttd !hal c.nd idato. for wQrbhop com", is,", sl>ould I><
IimilC'd to lhe unioni,ed '" 1>0 'UppoltN the cia>, . trugg le and a communi,{
program mo, Ho"c,cr. at {he UAI congress he ld ,n Bolog" a the followi ng
Jul;-. he pfesenled a d,amCl ncal ly opposite pos i' ion Banning the ,IOn_
union ized oftke ",wid, he .rgued !Il<-n, rncn;ly mean lhat lbe C('",-.c,)s
would bc'Come e",a1<.res o f the " "ions, In hne "" th Gr"omSCi', theOfie,.
the unions ond counc,1; wcn; two d,rk",,,, "" ima ls: the coone,l, SO" ed
prootIC.rs , union , wage ,"mcrs ,' " This retl«led his earlier defence of
lhis pr"I<,ple at the crucial ntee{i ng of Tufln', Ch.mber of L.bo,,, lhe
p",,,iou, 'whe n'. Gramsci "". lled. ·tho anareho_'yndioali"
G.flno dotended Ihis 'hosis .• nd defended 11 wilh gre3t dialec'tCa l
'lil l .,," ".nmh' '" For prHcltcally mi nded lrade un ioni'l' t he d; Il"",nces
Oelv.eo n proo ucer .nd ".ge eanter "oro wme{imc, obsc ure Gari,lO.
fur in"., ""c, cited lhe exam ple> Gramsc, h.d ob\]ou> ly kdurod h,m
.bou l: {he ,hop o n the CI,d •. the Am,,,ic. orld the
0" Lc"On,tc>, flo",,,,or. o,ber It.li.n " ' do un ion ists " i{h in{emal!Onal
e'pene nce "ere not so ,"'pr",,,,,! by tho:;c "'llumem" O oe Searoni, for
na mp lc . a{ ' he Florence FIO \ i congre>s . cloimod there 'H, no direct
para llel betweon {he org.n izot ioo of highly ,lilled ",,,d o,, in Bri l,in and
lit<, ro, il"'" "f' he Ie_" ,kill. ,1 nletal of!he Italian labour martc{_' "
Gu'm ieri ".> fi"t 10 admit ' hat lorge numbers of noo-un ioniLed ltalta"
wort." could nClOt be 'gnore'! duriog str ikes, bUl he d ,d nOl '"'0 huw
lhlS could be .110" ed {o alTc,{1 mlomal uni"n d«tio",.'" And as "e hoI'<
"-""n . ( ;"""0 " po,i' ion was nol lhal di" nt"lar, Dun ng ,he \'CT)' same
congre" of lhe C h•• mber of Laoour whore he lhe thCL,",,' 0 1
proo ucers and "age "a .....,,,,. he . 11;{) the new in'(;[" I,on. tha,
'UJlI>'""d ly t"'nscended !ho labour mo",,, a, moan, to iocrcas.< lhe pre"ige
of t he un ,on'_ <Tho unorgani7.cd wOI kers', Garn,() e' plamed. ' mu" dis>
"ppe.", We are con" ",,"" ,ioa, ,hi, "ould come about more easily "''' h
urg.nizati<)n in the Counc,ls, tban by ('<>ere i, c mctl-.od" .", The follo"''''g
month, 'IOt" ,th"an,1i ng arguments ad"allC,d in tho suntn' or at the U,\I
ntum union membership in onlcr 'u quahfy for declion " a conulIi,sar, "
TIo<; conlraJ ,,,,,T)' allttudc5 d i' r l.yed b;- G3< ,no may ha' c been mOTO
of a hel p than a hindrance " hen add"" ",d his fellow "'ode" , It " as
149-
 Gra""" umilhe Allarchim
th is praglll"!!'m Ihal won Garino'sand Ferrero '"uppon Pu,i ly
of rrincirks wou ld meanl >leriic iwlal'O" A. the old In lcm,,1 COil' ,
m " , ion, were .,,'nsforme<! onlo faCiOI)' couneils i" the a" [Umn of 1919,
a nard",,, would b< chosen as workshop OO1Omi"." in disproponionate
m'mbe" ,' l'
Acconi ing 10 Garino , FIO.\!'s local membersh,p 'hc hirnn;o
m,I',. " m.y hal'e contair>e<lIOO anarchiSIS, seem> insogu,r,ca nl. it
has 10 be rrtallod [hat mMy oflhtm were long. ' ime ,m io" 3<ti ' .>1" Ganno
a noI,cc.bk aoa",h"t a1 Acc'nene Fiat, Gral1<li M<>lon, II"" c""TlCl ls tIC«pt<d reluct.ndy, madc them 'pfl'Car a' oolhong olher lilan
Ferriere Piemom ... and $ma ll ,hop, in the suburb" The Fiat-ow ned
fo undl)', Forriere Piemontese , '''''mN 10 be ",melhios ofa stronghold
F,fty (Of LIS 2.000 work" were ana",h i,,,, lhe secre,al)' of It>
comn,i" i(On was lhe "narehl" Can<lela, In hi' I.t. lwenllCS. he was • Iypi<al
"'If-educat"d ",.",hist. '" On Nucalion lh al was ,upe,,(Or by • long
,hoi 1(0 that of the ",,,,,age (Of worker<. because ho "'as really an
3<til i>l fonnetl, .Ix,,"o all, in lhe M"""m Sdx,,,1and on '110 in the faclory'
Si,n il" type> such as ranlom, Bandcro .nd Ron<ag llero, were fo,,"d aI
Gr'ond i Mo,ori . nd elsev.here, ,"
For acti\'im "lC h OS G.n"" the elnerg"n::e of the "orlshoo;> conun,;."""
ere.tod '. "el)' w,do el ite Ih', "'as >I, imcnnedl>ry betwoe n u, ."d tl ..
Ilenero li,y (Of wo"ers·.''' \Iuch of 'his el i'e had il> pOI itic.1
e'penen"es in the prev.ar Sind"".,o Unlto. bu"he", fon".r "",c"ionISl<
I
\\ore .ble [0 \\ ,n '" or lifelong flO' SUrporkrs, On the new ""'"",, 0 of
the local (Of 'hree (OfII, ",,,",I,,,,,,
"lne wore an.rch""
Gari"" had been .pproad><"<ll" be tho "'<rctol)--, but he rcf">cd I{) bc<ome
• ,alan",j 011iei. l, • f"""i",,,1)' 1i "nlH (OIT th< working-class "'O'Cment
It \\'a, dc"dedlh,l "nl, the incorrupt ible, iro",co ll y named fm an anar_
ch ist, 'R<>I>osl' ,orre'.- Pietro Ferrero. could Uben i 116
Th is ,.dical exef ul,,'e roma.""d in control of Iho luc. 1bra""h of FIa.\1
unhl'l>< April strike discredited Iho" roli cie, The unity oflhe f.<t(Ol)'
C(oUtIC it n""emenl WI, impeded by the '01)' rapid ity of il> S"<C"SS , It
\\ould h.n had 10 a<hlt\'e • quali,.ti, e brea, lh'vugh in early 1920 50 as
IlOtlu be thmwn on the defcn,iR Accurding to Clark. 11O"'" ,'or, by Janu'l)"
1920 lite mU,'Cmen' had los, its (Orig inal In'pe[ U,, ,, - What d id Gramsci '"
other ominMisli "naglne tho eou"" il , d(Oing befure a "'lCial re"o lUliol\
changed tl>,o ",I.. of 'he gao",,? Tht tao\;, of Ihe wOlhhop <"mmi"".
\\ou ld be thos. pre, 1"",ly done by lhe im,""",,1 cOInmissions (malle" such
"' handli ng S".V'''IC'' (On app li '""ons of agreements, .11<1
They WeIT ,upr<=d to ma intain dlsciph>< on lhe "orl$h<'I' no", and
"",Iy ,he mo'hod, uscd in ,h. ir I'I.nL Equoll y, Il><y Wffl: '0 earry
out LnduSI!i.1 and fi",n< i. 1 ,udil< '0 make sure that lhe pb n' was 001
150-
1n TlIrJn dw-mg B,ennl(O Ros>o
,"eiTo<lenl (Or hellll!- saootaged by (0"'''''''
for short-term profit Psycho-
logically, II>< f"",ory COI'lIC il, would CIT.'"
the de jur.! Uml}' ollhe "",king
cia", "hich would Irnnscend p.ny labe ls, B;- early 1920 it w., l>eroming
IIIC",a, ingly diiTooult 1(0 aSSIgn wu"cil, 'pe<ific I"" 10 <arry 001.
Garno(O =med 10 probic m, whe" he reponed '(0 t hIS fd low
"",,<him at Ihe U,\ I cong"''' in Ilo10goo, The o""ncili" nlO"emont ha,l
rmd""cd meagr<: rC$ult. and", nere change h,d occufITd li>c cOII""iI. "crc
''>ed 10 e nforce wltlract ual "£-I"'e"",o15, but th i, rok w h,ch
" co", in".,ion (Of Ihe old inlern.1 c(olnIhl"i<>ns' ,l'
If une o f the I.adlng allarchi" """'i>ls " ilhi" II>< Tor;nose faclOl)'
cuun-e,l,no, emenl sa\\' the li m'1Oti(O"s of t he enti re emelJ' ri « .• SUTWY of
Ihe anarch ist pre" in I no by Carlo [)ogl io demonSlrates lh.t aoor-ehists
()lJ" ide Tu"n had only 'he "'gue" id..s of how 10 lran$iale lheor;- II\!(O
prac,icc , Ralhcr tho cou"<11 mO,'ontenl ",as UsM 1(0 >core points 'g.IIISI
" ,",i"' all,l ;o,,,all,l ",'ab (" 10 <nlil"n in,uITectional)' rhelOric, ,,..
F", all iments .nd put"pOSeS the leaders oflhe fae1",y e()lJnol l m(o",meni
had only e,«lled Ol org.nlZing demonStration" A demonstrallon Ln October
191 9 aga inst D' Annunzio " !tlture of F,ume In Stp«mlx-r was f(OII(Ov. cd
W1JeSpreaJ "£"OlI(On In mid·"'", ember eoncoming • fille impose<! by
""' I'"'YOrs on WOl'''-''' aftor Ihty had sll..ok on li>c ,nni ,,,,,,,1)' oflhe Rlls,i"n
Ro"o lullon, Thi, was followed by" two-doy genoral S1nkc aftor th< <I'Ollts
in Rome on 2 De<omb<r when soc i, ll st deputies were a,,",ullN by ann}'
oflic , rs, A,wrdLllg 1(0 Clark, ',II Iho"" "l'ub lic" agltali(On, "ere, (Of comse.
dcpr<"nlg ly tr:hlltional in kl1ld, and fa, ,onlO'N fron, Gramsci', .itllS' ,'"
The otho , ta,k of con'tllissa", to disc ipli"e workers and prtwnt
"nli·producti\,e strike,. w,! 00, "el)" lucCCI,ful. Ikl" O,n Qc [oo.,r 1919
"nd 10 M"y 1920 SOO d "pul,S (m,inly <>n P,""O."I" an d di s.cip ll1le]
\\ erc refl<)ned at [he Fiat worb '" This d id ooll""an lhall he radlc. ls did
1101 seello 'Pl' ly dis.cipli ne, Ferrero .nd Garino were forced 10 repbcc
Uberti and Colombino .. ,h ", i plinarians, In NO>"ember I'll (iarllt(O l(Old
I,al work"" dtat lheir .ct ion, "ere lhreaten ing the "el)' " i.lellC. of
""'hhop commissa",'" ,"d at 'n a,"emb ly of commissa" on n
Ferrero w ,- reforred to lho (Oflhe "orkers at r ial-
Celllro , ", Indc--ed, il is ,h.. burde n of Giu""ppe Mai(One', argume nt Ih',
Il><se . n. ,chim be<o.me the grcOleSi en-emie, of'hc ' cl""",,onscil>U;' nonk
.J"J file, Althuugh Mo,one "rore IllS h i,lOl)' thinking ,el)' much about
Ihc Ilot Autumn of 1969. curiously . "ou gh, his argument' are ,,,,),<wha'
.lnti cipalcd b}' 'he anti_org.niz.tion, li ,t anarc hl", III""" M,rg,,,la" '"
Marg,ma affused bolh Galll'o and Fe"ero of d.mpening d(O" n til<
No\'ember di'putc,- M(Orco,'cr, wm ing in I- .h<,.",he
-
 unport.m n>c<:1mg of,he wor\..sh.,)p held J I 0."""", 1919. he
(he c",i", ", erei$O as beonl au(hori(an.n. pa,liamcnlanan and
I'""e ,hougm ,n.,,,, ""'" i""tinll'''''' of ooliabonol1011_ \lanani " ... pleased
"lib tht de'elopmenu; in Turin fea .... (ha( lhe """nnent
.,"""iolly ",fomu". al (he ."""",1 mQ\ rmm1 "'lIS boo"'"
00 (he ,.loa of
m'gh' fac,lita'e a """iali.t d'(U-tonJ\,I' lie " ... ra,1)Cularly concerned
""'JOn!)' ruk Tb: '""'<men( IeIh:cd m,IIIan(! inca """'cpti", public fIO"<T 11m poli'",,,,ns, mno,nI from ,be hfe Qf be "'''"''hop, m,gh! us.t the
,n (he bourgro;" .nd (ulllO<l (hem ,n(o politici&n$ at .hi; "",rey of.he
'"'" cmcnt fOl" the" 0\\" ends_ Ikq.h, bfll<l&ll' ,he d,S"ussoon '0 • dose
",fomm(, "ho ",II boob (he ( .... moo of Labour and FIOM ' ... b) fll'Sl d,Slancing him",lffrom the ',mellecnws' ofthcrouncil mo'"""",,_
From \ largan .. '\ ' .. n(age: PO"\( lhe 'OO'clT'lC1l' "'" boond 10 dl$appOim. II" could"", unde ..... nd "h)' L 'Ordmr ,\ 1It> .... in dn tdmg ,he
bu, .hi; in(Cre'hng po,n. 10 pondo. is (0 "ha, '''lCn' \1"0""" 'clan ,ndu .. rial "-",,lic.lis,n Qf ,he lJS!. "b,eb u"",d ",om, from ,he mther
"""'"'","-, _00 f,lo' ","'" "",,,,Iy inll" iduali., '",f""'lan",' ,,"111., 1"'1;"n uftl,e Ame"c •• , IWW. wh"h "crr pra,SC1l , lie also
had become s<> w i'\c'p",ad ,11:11 ,j "an,,' odcl",.",d on .",de'o thi; ,m.1I ",,,"nded the Torinose th., lhe lJSI "as. mcmNr of ,I", 1 h"d Into,·
group, o f "o,ke,.. \\Ito had pl'Olellcd aga in,t ",,,lemon!
11"'01101. so implying the by tloe Ilol,he' iks of the 11.lia"
of ,I>c l\ovcmt...r >ln k." 'Work"'" >Cti<ln', ,t begin., ' i, not a 'pOn ,
/'o.cvonhe\o ... llo!oIhi also e'p,ess.:d hI> <kl ight at tile deci,ion
t.:llh.pp dy the .. c,i'l many bad,,,,.rd mdivid"al, in th, midst of Ihe
to gi' C,lie ",)Ie to the OOn unLoo,ud, and aokoowlcdgcd that ,he ,nlollec-
<on""ou, ""d workeD', bullllcy mu,1 be cut down to ,ize tuals, ' the «Iue.ted youth' of L 'Ordin" had hi;1p«! th ..
'h the ....orters (IIcmsel,'CS', and, ',f'MY .how themse!>es 1I,("",,,,ble to pra,seworthj de .. I"""",", The rqolUhOll concem,ng the Tonn.se
"""Ull.ion anll "i,h al .'''1)' coo, '0 ."boN,n'le '0 'ho:ir "tnd",du"lI" mo,'""",n1 w •• hi8hly ,.,
OJ.lO" (M ',Ial im."",. of the ma...,s. lho:y m ..., be .,.
Dunng ,ho WIle m",,"b one of ,he rnos:o "lV'ifioan' of lhe
In e;11ly 19M GramiCi alld ,be ""'m"",,,, "'''''' completely
popular lIf'I"'al of anarchi,m (or., 1n51 fa/tlQUS anarch,..,) "ben
from ,he CGL and ,he "",,,m.lI., d'l«lO"lIe of the PSI
\1>lllesl. ""t«l T uri" 00 29 Doc.mbe. ,nut>tdlltely afl<T h" rtlum 10
a "me .. hen " .. '","nl' >cries of.n,d", sp:lling "'" ,he Ilaly.OO "-as mel by. crov.J of IOO,(XXl,
,<: -
b,u the open,ng '0
J,ff=OC<'S beI\\ "'" (be fa.c:tOry touI>I',1 mo'e"",n( and ,he of 1he """(>nI! alld .I) nd,col,., . . did ".,. laS!. n",
.) nIl,c.h,m and """",hlSm, be and Il1be .. "''''''' 10 sed SOfne son
""h m.>J<l1' e""Oun'o, b<1",ecn (he LSI.not ,he "n/,,,,,,',,,' O£CurtW \\hi;n
or """iell anangeme'" ,he le.Jer>lup ofbooh ,he .... rch"I> and ,he
lISI, 1918 ,"" USI h.,J \\'a,ohtd ""Ih ItIkrc« ,he In
\"Iong<> .nIl Togh."i, 011 behalf of the SlUdy CQmm,ltcr, we", sen. '0
n.-port 00 the occupat"'" of the moin ''''''''I .. .nd s)"pbu:ld,,'g ",ods
Tor,no)C faC'<>I'.', A libr;!1\do G,o"anneni wa, ooe of ,""
,n
firsl promlnCTlt ,ynJical"" U) romn"'nt <'(tnsi, ely,,,, the t"'tory cou ,,,,',1 ...
!;estri Ponent., Corn iSh:!oo."" ('."'!", In L'gII,i. Toghalll and Viglongo
had di!<o\-':ITd a'""" '}'P< of "PJ>Of1""' \II\ "'" oppommlSm Q re,,) , . , "'"
On 6 D<comher 1919 he \\rote on (ju,'",) di Cio$"e
th., i, de",,,e<l 'UPI''''' b«.use 11 k'ented IQ , tel' from crafll" union
I'ho ,ynJi,.hst organi;"er, Angolo roglli. had ,,!-Cd the """"1"'"''''' ,""",Iy
I".,,", i,. employe" and tl>c ,tote to ",'tl k • 1n1l\0I dISpute, bot th"
the '11't/{"urc "'a, antl·bore."" .... 110 ond the elld ""Hit might
report, .TId ,/Ie ';,'ng tide Qf On" ,.)"nd;",I1>1 in L 'O nlmc ""0"0,
be Ih" of the f..",,,c>, ,-', Through the .yndieoliSl Ct,n (ooc of
d,d nul l!,o u""n,w<re<i Ganooi ,,'prtsltd diS<J'"c1 a, lhe fac,Of)'
the members Srudy Cornm,n ... and a.c:oord,nw (0 \'igJonJ.lO a pOI",.
<1')'1, ,he LSI ,m L10d ,be mo'emon' '0 <end One oklegalc 10 ,"" L'SI'$
,'oo,.. il mo'."",,,', 311d in. leader ,n JI CI<lIMpubhshed ,n \I,,,,h.
,he T<Orin.,.. f ..,ory .'""1>1'11 rno'rmm1 "a! no longer gi'en 1be bencfi'
I',nna congress, beld oo:!O H i>«nnbe, "
"f!be douto!_ '" Botgh, JlO'runi '0 ,he Gcmun left whet-.: council. <ook!
One ofGtarnlo<i'. ocoI)1<"$. dcl"ered .ipctth and oorn be s)nd,,"li'1, sociilli" or commun,,,, JcroOO,nll "" (he local bal:anct or
po>c<l by the Commll'« of SUid), bul th1J a m ... "''J'OfIse '''' Further dc,doped "lib ,lie Tori". .... the \ .. Ianes<
from the delepl<"< :'>1>"0 ,ha, L \-""VI) did IlOl "'gard anaroh"" and ,)'ndl(:al"I> beU>llC 'he ch,ef proponents of 'he f:oc,OI')
'r><k unlOlt§ as poI..,."i.1 "" OIU"ONI)' '1l$',M'ons, fOl" ,he .."'" IU<.On$ ,n
,'oo,,,,iI, that <ily n..y "ere ,be counc,l. 10 ",n 0' <T nw.imali"
lhot (iarino had a.]'nccd a l'C'\O" ".,.,k. corl,er II tbe congr= of (he
"",i.h", alIenated 1»' temponllnK_ The \ .. Ianese 'trike
Chambe, of lobour of 1unn.' ''
at 'he end of b«.mc nl\lrt tl..,". d,S(urblng oo"ide uampk of
In ,e>j>Or1sc />;,001. Vetoh, o'P" '>SCd douto! ,,1.edKT ,hi; f..""y cow",,!, clashes bet""O"" h.li.n ,,,,,,a h.(. a,1<I . """,hi",,_ ..
anyth,ng 01", thon the old intomal .. ,on, ,,"h a new ,"le,
Aftcr ,he nen" of.'!8 and 28 Febru.!') b«.mc l'lO"'n in Turin. the

I
 AnOl"('h",. In Jurrnl( tM Blennlo R<d$O

ChlombN "r Labour pkad<d fOf on ] dunnll a "P by on s),nd,nli .... and .natth ..... 1O>de«l. Gramsc,
<i<m<>n"ra"oo In "'f'pOn
"f II>< ,-jel"'" or reJ>"",iOfl by .he """ "gh,< ""1"'''rn1 """" ofh,' mos. polem .. al and "'Ii""o' .h.of..., both ,}""m.
"'"H I lung." . .. dh;laj<><sh,p. a sm,Tkr \ crs,OfI or lhe M ila",:s< trouble, "r II><>ugh .. 'eH"hck". ",lh lead ing _i,IoI" In QPpoS,lI<H1 10 ,be
oc:,,,md in Tut in , A ItO' Ge"",,; .nd s.,"""i h.'Id 'poken. 'Oe 1IoI"''''l'''rrd ,O/'dlltl,..,,-II and Ihe f. ,,101')' <0" "<11 ,no,'eonC"I . Om",""i "as f<><tod to
a".dcd (he mi. "f the _i,Ii>!! dunng Tile '«oM ,,,. llow his ptido 'nd . . \\,111 ' ho In Tu,in of coon,.
grn',,"1 mile Some of his comr;>dc<;; Slornoe;llh< pod,um ofld lI.rW."
,II< "","I .... rchi". ""h,n lhe f"".Of}' council m,,,'(mem were <HI much
...., l'K'cnl"<l from .pul ,nj.•'en ,IIoogh Garioo IYd mro 10 Slop be".,. lerm,. n.o... •.....,h,-,\ f""nt1 \brgan ... ·' beh.. iou, di"."oful.
Tbe IIcclling and fillhlina The police 'nt ..... Ct>ed and h.lted.he .nd boIh ><XLOI".s and l!W'Ch,>li tnhzcd ,h.lllht fadOf}' coollC,l m()\ e
I." .... _
lI\C."e1'ng. ' "'' _,.10>1,
"err funou •. TIle nt" <by GIl"n"" hlcnro mem "oold I\a'e '0 btcome. nal,OII.1! flC'or 'f"
"a. 10 fICO "Ilk
""'ll."ra I". Slril.·b",. h,. tlc untkrh..ro ,he Importanc. of publIC ",,,fidenc. 111< ch,lIoniO' I1IO\on,«I empioytr1 .nd ,ho m:oon§l",om
onc"c,mg'.' a OCt,,,n wh>ch tr. n<ecll<lrd .h. crall d "-,,ionj (If
'<1<,,,1,,, .nd I""'" tnO'emcnl.
tho ""' king da;" The 'meeting brcal.cr' "as." insens il;'-' cgoti<T .nd !.l'Onclll·S re,ul'ed '" j " Q a no",h i" fllelOf}' .ommissars refullOa
prc'cntcd to. cia,s from """)""8 001 'I, demonstration, and 1<> d ..",bot. 'Online L N,,,,,,,
in til< .. \\o.-kshopli. G",",,,,,, pubh,lItd I
orqulring I d •• re, form of coli"".".., class c<HI><:iQUsnc ..... , rd>u"al ,n his 'LniLii proll:ta,ia' r Proi<fln.n Un,,)'j IL ,\',,,,,.,,.
The ct,,1i<-; tn \I, I.n Ind Turin ,,=
.""hd olT .he 1m" m, \lareh 192() 11"", Gnom><:i ,","'e. his ... rlier poo'''on
pOpUl:m.)" of.1It 4",n:hLS'S ond .j ndlcal, ... ,n boIh In di
,.,uhnN dunn/! ,ho ..-at". Although "".,«.1
to .. on. In un"y ,,"h ,he
\hla"" and BorJ1O Sltn Poolo tilt .",,,,h,,,. K'eral "".1 .",n:h"t>.. h.. han anarch"" and .yndlCliI"... """",COUn,.
demonSlrltllQns. The .d"l.. ion of \I. I. Ief>' •• 1<0 ,""uK(! .. hie (Of .h.i, ""tion. and men'I)' di,·ideo.llhe labour inlO )'e.
tl\( pOpulan.y of thc Dn:l",h"" thot spn ng. <0 Ih" Alion<o Leo",,"i's Gram"" i con ,ras,ed 'he $''''el orato ' O• • ynd,.
lo"r, from .\1Ll an. rubl i<hed '" I J Ma rch in I. 'orn,",· /luom. ",prtKIlIN " Ii ,' t,... d< umO. poh"cln., ",th l!>t produ,'''''o ,,,du,tr,.1 wo,l.,.
a ""ponse 10 "h", ,n IIIe ofOm"""i "',.n al'nning gro"'lh of "'1"'.ti"S hi' elaS!oir":a101')' ",he"", fitsl (1(1'.111<<<1 durin8 lilt "3f
·SUb,.,',.,,-.' poillic.
As ". I\a, c seen, I.wnctllllad noIll,,"),s hem ho<I,lc ", the anartlu",. 111< I,bonan." """ ..... n' " for tho ""'" pan I • •. ,"'. rna..... '"
1M. """. Leont'IIr had cltanj!c-d n,htr dnm:o",:.lIj. In 1918 lie had $1111 dw.,I .. ,he mo"",,,, ,n 0 ,,,,,,la, >C11'>< Il»T of ,110
b«n able 'Q support. UM«I front e"onJ",S from ma\"nah.ts 10 ,n ""'d> tho I"O(><td"",pI,n< of I"""nl jW1oe>, di5Cirhno loom
tilt libert.n "., ond anll·"., o",ly 1920 he had bc«,me f,,". J,,,,",>o,,o ' N"' ,""",..< . .", <l<r<oo<,,' "port a f"t>da,",,,,.1
«.. msci·, ",eg3 pl>on •. '" r l>c per<on , 1 popul,,,i.y of Mo l",.", "oj !"J1",,,1 ",".... ,,",,'01
by lOry <t"p.>r.. < "<> _ n , 1 . ..
.xpla,"ed in dis" ",,, ,, ely ""linovUft) lan8""8< tht rrc"ii< of. n."",. til< f<.r ofbomg <oIIeJ ,,.,, ... , i. ,ub" i,u,od fOO" ""
,,,",r., 10 _ IhIIt """"""",,,,he! ,he "".".... of'he o.>kI ....;..".1 """""""""
I m.,... , .. WaLl....,.,"" r'f)' b<cau.", orlns boweIl ..., lie boo I and ,he """'1'lI:""V""
,0\0,",,,01l0I)' «tftt<pO""'''''' mutiI be calle<! _ _ '" and P"P""" He
<""f...... vea' inJII>If,.1 C"), ,ha, 1"0, and eon 001) In. !brott," 1110 In \1." h the """",h"b ,n .110 ra:lot) <001>1:,1 "",,,,,not\l
helpc-d dl'1lln •
O"'an=.! "'W'''''' ,ha, ''''''''''''
000 1'0<'0<)" 10 ........... 00 ,,. pn>o/u<'"'" m'Olf(Slo "hich .. >< v. ,ill"" by Granuc, and ToghauL The 1':asc1O
to ,110 bonl. ""h. <,00,,,"", """. mp""'" of po<M' p<> ..... " for \\I><>m 'to 1 I"""orio "," one of III< 1o<;01ilroUPS th>t ,ililncd 11; ,II< mani_
"...
<1,,",,n .. 1"',,,., "ftil< I><<>r l•. i"""'"
n, ooly 10 ,n,..I<. I'IF '''''e. 110 ho. ""',,,,,,," ,,"" Ln , , ..
Ln ' I.. <om,,,,," r>«>r'< ,for h<ln 11 "
',110 p«>f!le' "'he mJ>I de<,.t<!o Ar>d "'M"", 'he 'prople' , ...
1".'1'" " nat i,,,,,1 of m'<m. 1co.-mni,s,on. w .. "","'.,. helJ
Ih. Apnl .. rik. ""." "ned in lhe Acoorulng 10 Clan...
,he of PO"'-.f h3d sh,nal '" fa>ourlbly '''''l,d, l 'a ""a ', "e'"
h"!ldled ioudrn<lll!it... ho ptOcl.,m "',",i",,"<1 OIl<! ..,;,r.,d W< 0.. ,I><
J>O<'I'I.' ,.., lhill ,f "LKh a <O<rgtrU hod bttn hr:1d. a PfO'un."" J1'O'5ilion "'wld hl\e
predomi ...loed. Thi.<. [ f""l. IS too euucra'oed. II v. ... Gnmsci ",tho'l,,"n
Lwno"i', M"'''
.tu ,n.be r"'''. and., I
T.",... "" " .• , bohilld the m:onif.sto and ho SOl .. ' It as • '0 ou,.
""'0000' '0 """'" mod .... ,C .Iomon.. , Ihus ,ho roll: of'he a narchi,,, look
mentioned. the Ma rch and Apnl i""es of I. Suo", arc g.really
<'" "n,.,cr In GI'1II"'SCI', poi<rnl(al 'Add",,, 10 lhe Ana"hi",'
-1$4
-
 (Jram.<d and 1M Anarchl51S in TW"/n Joring the lJienn io Rosso

(,ram"i conclude< wilh. fina l ' pp<al,o lay .. ide lhe ddwes cl." The to ll "" mg J"y .nd the mcmbees "ftho 'rlterna l com n,i" ion
consciou,ness "nd th' d,c'ato"hip oftbe proletariat that had the ,,-eTC J",m»ed for insubordmati,m. The worke" calle<1an mterna l stnke.
ordi"OI'iSii fro", lhe "oal'd".>1< In" ead Grmnsc , . ppealed to sp"it of Sllnult.tleOUsly .n",her .rose . t the Aceaicr;e Fiat owr the rights
'" ofth. imem.,1 comm,ssiQn' _The prde<t's '"ppoTl for tht new
cktermincd stand was cruci.1. The profC<t agm:J to expe l "'or • • " fwm
Piedrnontesc St rike ,he Indus,," , Metallul'giche "<irls 'm the of 24 March I./matlira
\-o,a repot1ed that 111<; police h.d ;;L>Cctt<kd in o'e,,,,hclming the work'"
In oarly 1920th. loc.1 t mploye" d"'ided to take me,.UreS 'gainst the beca "", whi te·coll " '" had let them in lhrough a back ,"
hClOry counc,l n,o'-c one"L The in.b ility of loca l tm,1e union to ,' Ithough la<er nogot Lot ions fa ilod 10 ,"1<]0 tho que'ticln' of p,i""ip lo, the
fomter a se ries 0'- wildeat 't<>pp.ges ow, p''''c' managem'Tlt e,'entu.l ly agreed '0 res<"'cl dismis"" ls, bUllnsi<1ed that
"'te, "hlCh h,t prod""" on, the occupatIOn offoclOfies in l iguria the members of the fo rmer Inte"",.! (onunission should not be "!lowod to
a'HI tho go,enu,,..".' rtq'Jls'lIOn of the ,\ Iauoni', factorie,. greatly . Ilger<xl ho ld otflce for " year, although ""cordmg '0 Gram"'i. would have
.nd alanned local md"strwllsts _led b} th. " >e<retary, Gino Qhetti, the the commissars of their' proletarian c,,,i l ri ghl5' .."
Indu" , " I League declared oll·ou, w.,. on tbe f"c to,), cou"", 1mOvement On 26 ,\Ior<h flO\1 ca ll ed a n' «tm& ofwotkshop commi,s"rS from
Oli,<ui rea l,S'i,ally sutru'lari"d hctof)' council "Ie" in • series of att icles "II the meta lworking f",,'ones. TI,e), d«iJed to go 00 Intern.1 on
for hi, 0" ",n,house journal_ In a 'ptoxh at lhe Genera l Confederat ion of 27 and . Ithough ,t "a, <oiled ofl"he next d.y. the ,nlemal su il.e
I on 7 March. he ca ll ed fot suppress ion of the f>ctol'l counc,is '" fact <onll nued "nomci.lI},- On 29 [lie industri alist, locked out
on tho grouods th',"" could n{J{ be ·two alllho,it ies m tho f';"tol'l', "3 Lh' "0' . =, note, lhe pt<:uhantie, of lh" "'i ke wh ich III
He ,,1'0 ITali:<ed th.t g",-ernmem migh [ not eomply f" lIv with the re'p""ts 1'<"f. ll s lhe 191 2
mduw" bst" w,sh., .rxl they might h.,-e to brmg the matlel' • hoad by
calling. loc , out rhe began O,er the introduction of 51'0",1<" The ,,-ori<er<' ma in .im " .. to detoud a" 'u""ffK .. r io;t i,u,i"" 'oat had been
time Or! 21 Mareh, A5 Clarl explains; b,ued, ., ,,0),<.1 by 'Il< Union. y" thO ""g"'''!Lon, both then ,ud I"or,
fO"TU lly _ , the J"'" .... aud It>< rol< of 'Il< I",«mal C"",",,,,",,,,,. the on ly
body """gn i"," in fociOf)' rogul.""", _'f:><to<)' Coo"",Is' and 'Worbhop
L<g.> [ t""" ",as. OMf3C["'''t,e fe'lUr< of ",, ·[im. Indu,,, ..1 Mobili>..>, ion
Comn, i,>l', ",.r. ",,-or m,", ioo<<I , ,,-h i,o ob'iou,ly m.d. , n'goti "oJ
ilS in[rOOU<,"oo 'hought to ,nd ,,,," 'he boo'll_"'" go, ",uncot', de,,": ",n l<mcn' OIl the i«"" imP'l"'' 'hlo_'''
to "",m",," "'"'-tll1l< mdu"".1 e"",lIt,,,.,,_ ,"

Secondly, til<; wurke" "0'" not being loJ by t",<k un,ons "'presentati"e"
rh" Ch'mbe r of L."",,,, dedared Lh., Sutlllll<r-lIrnc W", 'i ntolerab le
but by a (o'TtTniU"c of Ag,t. tion, elected by ,he work>hop <ommi,,-,,,
to semiment> _minMul of the dictatorial d<"fr<X' of the "'3r
on 26 March. fhe fltst (ommilt<e la<tcd un!il 3 April , .nd consisted of
p<; riod' ," It wa, .11so denounce,l by the anorchi". in Umanila ,\'0'"
'''0 an.rch is1' (Gari "" and FerITro). a,ld the ab'te "tionist R<><;TO. On 2
Such is,,, es of p""c ipic were e' ''emdy imp<>rtant to many "ork",-s'
April 'he Commi!!ee agITed that the inte m.1 <omm"siuTl had no I'ight to
",t"es< the Slrtkes btfoIT the war and in 19190'-0' the .l>olnion of the
. It"r the cl ock hands, that its memberS should resign and finally lh "t
It tlwrdur< ,,,mes "' nu ,urpri.. that an 'narc h,,! "or, er wa,
central to tho c"" front.lI on th.1t pr«'pnatcd the lockou,- On 22 Maret. workers ,hould not be paid for hour< on sui • • "nd 1hOl they ,houid ha'-e
consultod ,he 1",,"1 before Attompts to ba.e the
'he 'otern. 1 comJ:1i"ion of [he Fi. t·ownoJ ]udust"e un i-
f.c'ory counc il right' ro"",i'".tod at Ac<"iene Fiat "eIT met by. rebutf.
iat,n ll y put back tho h.nd, of the f"OIo')' dock. The secretary of the
A negot iat ing "am met on 6 April, Th. "orkrs' side con,iSlcd of
,nlemal COmm""Oil. Ga"no rc<.lls, 'was On . n,,'Chi't <, Ik d Ikmt a
Rruno Boo"" •. Gari oo. Camklgnoia, O1igooh. (atunro.nd Gino Guarnieri,
V'ITelle .., carpenter One '-el)' ocr.,-" In the Modern
<-'"rino "as TIl SUrTound« 1 by the wry ITfonn,sts he had b.>lllcd
he a glass an old man,' ,".1t,po, as they say_"xp.",i" , h"J
one fia". he " ' cd 10 d"nk a little too much, he W", "dl cdL>C ated, I,.. through""t 191 9 _The negotiators, the prefect ""ted, were in • Nncillatory
was. tol lowe r oft', lk.",', I" mood _BoolZi ",e!'led to be intent on removing II", 'abu",,' of the intem.1
COmm1SS10n, The (h.'pute was settled" It h workers p.>ying • on< hour.

'"
 A,wr<:hiif,' in Tu,," durmg ,/'r Bi.nni" Rosso

fi"" "hll" ""'''''S<1l1cn, prom,S«! '0 pay """mbers of "'" rom. ....",.. '" and Pa, ia, whICh" ",{lItr opum"''''ali}' u,,,,"la,«I (o ,he
mi"joo in f,uu,," fOf {line spen{ (>II ,.. ,n Tunn. In the ... bulbs"""", h.omcadc bu,ldlll8, a, "'ell •• ",atlc",d
The lerms of.he by lhe local branch ofrlO\1 oftelegraph, lei"""", 0IId ratl "'en: rqoortcd by .he ....,fcct
0IId by "" .,,,,,mbly of" orl<hop commIssars. A "'f."'OOum of I 1.579 Out,ide of Piedmon. the ""'len In GeI\OlO and LIlOfnO. and tbt ",,"'a)_
001 of 50.000 m..u1"oO;m;. 110><",..,.. Hll<J 79-1 In of men in Hor=ee ond P,,,, ",fused 10 ' ' "!o{'Oft tfOOP'l 10 Turin \1>n)' of
,lie ""II L \\'nd ,,-a,1O rcwmc on 12 Apol ali..,. h. (I """"Y mec1.np the"" acls .. ere by and syndicali.L< ,..
.. .. h",h lbe worl.<hop """"",<;sa" ,,"rd alb", .nnultbe 110" c"cr> 'hc ",,"onal council of the PSI oclihcr.ucd ," not to
II", dlicmma f...,w by lhe .""",hi!" lbe pIwt of 'he <tnl •• ! """onal ttJO' ement of wl'I"'fI \\ hen lhe PSI refuo;cd 10 commit
.hrouSh ,he woosbop eomm i<I->'" ",x ';')n {o ,h. '"",' ,ore '!>elf to tbe lno'emem. Ihc Torinc.., Chamber of labour ",alt:<e<l.ha, only
in lhe r.f"rendum, Ahho...gh a '<'tum to wNI< imp l,ed a ""ore I;",,, •• ;on • Il.gotl31ed ",ukment ".s pos;tblc, Unton leade" ncn p<om,><d {o
of t ho: princ lpic! of {he Ill lomal <omm'$liono, bolh Buozzi .nd I' elKro ne801 i.,C lhe fu.ure of'he "uem.1 com"""","s, and .It .... I",gmi.l ioru;,
fe lt t haI {o de n}' Ihe VOle wou ld be In und<mocra{Ie an C,orin<> w., ""w ",,[rioted to (he mo .. l"orl. ina r.",o"" w<re COtwuctw be,w""n
cO"<Cm<d of the danger lhat ,hsc,,,,h'nl«l "'Or\:ers "ould igno,. lhe I)' Arago"•• 00 Oli,."i I" efleel, II", of was reduced
0.'" I"es "f the Inlom.1 comm.SSlOlIlI Oft theit ""Urn to "or\: , Cem and !Il I po"orl ... propagand"t oc-g.n .' '1"1>e dyn.omic! in the A(IIII mile
\'0"""0 (a""JIOhi,{ <ornm .. e' en offen:<! 10 elIlploy (lit;, be" ",.ny resembl.nce. !O ,!Ie (II"wo' slIugj;k of the $100""3'0 Lm<o
"'''tcabl. mandat ... and m;ig.n if "orlot'$ d"pl.;ed lad of confidonce SyndicaliStS Ind .""reh"" {lItn, and a CQIlli!ion of rad",alliOC •• h." and
In them aller worl reW!l'1Cd oj Ilu"",." al thIS poin,. the emplO}'et'$ IIhcnanam. no", "e", quile uMbl. '" arT" ••,. sali.fa<torily ""goua.ed
their frap "itbou. tbt IItlp of ,he """on .. ho$c leaders pmcndetl '0
"IItn.he it>d"".nall.,,· and the "aden· "'pt<S<:nta{" ... mo1 a' ,lit de",i"", UnoffICial orgamUIIOfI> I.ad no (IltJIec1N)n un<kT.1It Ilw.• OO
on II A(IIil "'.,'" tilt '" end lbe dlspu{e. tbt former "''''''' ,hc$c moon,«I I diTttt rhallenJtC '0 the Slllt. and (he loou<tn:..b".,
.. IIIx>u1 .. ammg dcmancIetl,h.l,lhe ....... " • .u."""d .ntemal rommi,>lons trade unlOfllc-aders ignored llItm, Afi..,.,1It 1"\1.1Id the CGL refuS«!."
Ie"" IJIOIt of l he" I be """,edu", "as changed so t"-'. onl"" e"" '" lC<ure. 'pollllCal wlUI',;,n', a n<.'gOfl.11ed economl< senkmcn,
the .lI1nnaJ romm",,,,,, could onl) be """"".«1 all.,.woo All compl.inl< based on "'hCT tennl had .0 bt ""c<pLed J">l :as bef"", the
10 forst bt H"en to the f",,:-mcn ("Iork, "'IIh good "'ause. "-3', "rik«s ".r. ,-.,d",,<d '0 penury W"lIo," g<ncwu; ""le fund.,
.uSIl.... Ih.l .he were emboldened to i",,,,a';e , fle ".le, ne.ghbouThood solldari{y and high SI'''''S wc"" 1101 rn:arly ",,",ugh.
1><,,,.,,>< of the apa.Ity di'pl' }N nmund til<: ",rc"'ndulll lie ,,1..-. sugge'!ed Tbe mdloab knew IhO! in order 10 """ure ""ne ..", of v ictory ' hoy
tha' "'''' el'S wcr. i<>, enamoured "f tho f.ctol)' cOun<; il mu"c"'en' .han ".,e,Jed to forge ".,ion.1 al lm-.ce, HoclOf)' <""lXil. <>n tl>e Tori""'" rTKKlel
"" '''ppos'''!, '" On IJ Ap ril {he '''''hhop CO"",,,,,,,,.. rejo"cd the "'.re "i""ally lIOn·. ,, "'"'' "uI>lde thei, Cll}', A n.II"".1 OOn,enllon of
""'rlc,y",,' I""ro,als.. ",ell thouWh Iluout <laimed Ih.{ .hey w.'" • ,",,,rnal com"",,;on "o...ld 1"",( meant (perhap' u""' Slly) Willi
••!lance on the om ... l resul.llon,. On lhoe "'-.nc day (it. Chambt. of ,ynd,calo.l> from l.guri. "nd hn, IcadinK undoubtedly 10 a cbllenll.
Labour procla.med. genonll",Lc '" defeod tilt f... tol)' co...11<il •. Both 10 PSI and CGL domt""'''''' of"'" labour mo,.,,,,,nl, nil. "",,,r Iuppencd.
!he 1'51 .1Id t1J. Chambtr ofl.aboor Joi""" a "f Agitation....J Garino and Ferrero 'pole on . . I (l<tISiQnoln Apoil of"'" ntttl for
robll>hcd a <pee1.1 un l c nc .. >papcr, Ll>Of'lJIlH1 ,'M '''''h I ,,"';onal politicol """omml. )'<"1 P",hops lhey re.li,cd unity" i,k
In lhe ... burbs a."oo addre.S«!a IlfiC angl)' .rowd in Barricn d, the L$l and ,be LAI ,,'" no! cnouglt t.a1.,., (;""",,,,1, !he)' blamed
\I,Ian;" A. he proclaimnl • >lnke, caruN""".,olld RO}aJ Guuds di>pm.ed .fle ,ct} rrfOfm"'-' of ,lit CGl for "'" "''''"g ,he "",.Ie. Gam>o and
lilt dcmon.tr:atll"" •. "I, aOO fleld lem"""""ly in .he I'e,rero realized lhe aboiurdtly "f Ihtl OCnl,nd "ben they denounc.d tbe
C"art= .... "'" c'''' Tbe Agota"on .. confronled b)' d,icmma. r"", of Alhance as. dead end .. WIIl>OllI a "",,,,,,,,I rno""ncn. "hich
Althougll" needed """onal ""!'POn," """led Ih>1.11t leaders "f'lIt >Onl,,""" t"'''''''ndcd KC1;>n.n boutKlanes, {lit faclOl)'council
eGl Of .be 1'81 "ould no! e""""" ""lI01tJtlOfl.ha,lC<lil'l"d .he "as"" i>ol.t«l as .he pre" a, SIII(\ac.,O llnie" h.ad bern , Such a n.""",,1
or'fle fac.ory ,"OUlXlls. On 17 Apnl {fle Conm"u", <ailed a g;;ncnll SInko org,n12a1lOl1 wOIlld h... 'e h.J '0 h., c been .!rong enougll {o race olmos.
Ih",ughout P, edmon{, ."d •• onrO\ll1Ogcd I peasan., stri ke a. Vorcol." Immedi • •e oi.. il war tl.o 'u,h Of8a"'''''011 e.",cd bc)'ond ,he .. orld of

'" ·139-
 manlf""os. 'or for lbol ",.lIler dId In llitmalll e CQlTllnun,S! part)' c .. sc.
C\Cq>lIS I ,Mo.",.al cOfICCJ'I In ,he mInds of Bonliga 0.- Gram",;
TM .narchlS1s w= <kpre5sed .nd angcred by .he 5Irik.·,
i'rcdi<ubly ,lIey O<'<uJN .1Ie -"",,"IISls ofl><:l"".I. They <nll"".d "hat
[\C'" ''ffY ,..,a] allcmpn 10 >oock .lltH bt)'<m<! Tun" hoJ 'he"
proble",s. Con"",,, "ilh lhe . n.,..,hiscs ".n: II"a}. Open to I1lbUndor_
tlln """,,00 "as • fol..., . ... of lbo! had bound "", .. II>lS'0
,he;, 0" n oo,,·.,dl), kadcr..hlp. 'They COI1lll1s,cd the disc'plioc .haI placro
... ThUJ. (0.- n ' '''ple. ·Saneulouo·. L''''''niIJ r<'pOf\C1' UM<r lhe (0."', "'"...'" .nd po."blc
II>c "pnl • . ofl';;nded m.ny .IOC;, lim by what lhey felt was hi. bell') . 1, of.1>c l.lI<leB· 10 ,he o,lIer tI'''''ph". 01 ,I>c '" orlelS of ScSlrl
i"a« uralc "'potli n8 , Duri ng Ihe h" gh l of the ,tn •• .s"1l1C anatchi,,, dIOSe PO"O.I< woo s,,,,d, in ",II<larit)' w;lh TU fl n. Ihe <lII<"pl",,, of 'he r'.J "".y
to a" 'heir ,,,.picion, Ihal """iali", "'e.. tn(Ir. inlerested ' he alliumn ''''''>p<It1
,,110 .. f.",,1 ' 0 secun,l' forcel T",in .nd lit(: 3113n:1","
municIpal and communal elet'io... lhan ,he tutn:nt ensis_ In \l,lan lhe .nd members ohllc Un,,,,,,, Sindocale ,,'110 fotll'" con,io;kTanon, of party
al13"h,SI' "'C.sN lhe .IOCiali"s of doing <IOIh,n, '0 p<epa'" for I ""olu
lional')' """frornllion,l"
a'
"nd <ce"O PU' .ho",,,,I'e, .he di'(lOSlilon of the Ton""". ,,.
1I"",.,.r. lu'g' .. lim.lLun of ,"" s'nl. ... (101",,11" "a. far
lhe Tonnesc 5O<1all'l$ dJd If)' 10 ""h ........ to the l""llm,.m Gram .. i e,prt'lo>CII both ,n July 1920. and ,n
........ h"', 'n \I,bn; ro<><tdcnng lcone111', unllinering portrait of .., The rc<Ul .. oflhe 5Inl.. for f abbn " .... u'ldo:rn.bly bad. Unll!.c
.hl< 5cftn! ."raonllh'ry. On ,he ""f)' do)' . .t11de ,.-'O . dunn! ,h. Red W•• I. lhe 8",emn",nl was ".-cv.am:land md secured ,he
113 Mlrth>, Togh . 1II ,..u in Milan addn:"tng I 10'1le "ud,.nee m"nly ",ttl> durini Ih. firs' da}. oflhe d"pult f,'cn. h. "cn' on.o .".... I
comjXlloC<l of anorth .. " and >},nd,e"lom 0 " .he Tor,ntS< faclol')' cOI,neil "a1 ion.'lIC'OCral stnh "ould h" e IlCcOInp l,!bcd llIt l< '" .a>c lhe pres,ure
' ''''''emen' ' 'l Once the " ' ike bro ke oul In "p,iI, the .natchim nn 'he Torin"s" '"
lhe" IOhdon.y. On S "1'fI1 the questlin' of\lila" Ma l,t."" ha, Ing
ursrJ \lIbn 10 nR In <Iof<nee ofTunn . "I As ,lie link" CQIIti ,1U<'d anarchl>' \fle rm olh : 1920
and .)'nd"'"II>I 'nl1ocnce in MIlan aPl"'amllo 1"0". "hich in 'urn
halcd ""SI"'ll<"n>IOOS" "hin !he bnnch oflhe PSI. On ]8 AI"'lI. The f."o", of ,he Apcil d'''''Nilro .tIC fac.ory """""il tn(I, omen,
as ,he gc....,,1 .n,le <",<Jed '" su.h W). Malal •• ,," puhJl,hcd on Iflock undenlM: 1eadcNtip of,be llI'1f;>IOIIJII. \by ""as In u ....,."fortabl. month
c.lling on anarch .. " 10 "d lhe IInl",,_ In .he same I" ... of for Gram,.;, llo,h of ,h. Chamber of t..bouT ond Fl0\1
\"'-.-. ..... T","""", 5O<i.ltm an appe.,.o Ih< Il3lia" ,sola,ro hI> f'O'i""". and nuo:z:" and ,he ",fon",'" mmnphtd •• 11M: metal.
... ort'"8 da.,. "1 6ocro Ita,<lIed 10 M"." '0 d'5\;u'$ 'I>c .trike with "'or\('f'> cong"'" .,' \loan"hllc. Ih. .urned on 'he r.<lory
.\lala,."., '" On 20 April ",port. of solidanly "".;.,", by "'ilwaym,," and ""uneil .n.Rl".... wllo 1Il1",-n beg.n '0 , _ "mllb,lity .mong" lhe"
,,"ors lI"'OIly plc.",d M, lal." • . " .. llil .niclc , like similar ono, \"',Il"n fc ll ",.. 1Ib<;,-"".,,, , ,\ I!hougl1' ",,,, IoI,nce of hel", •• " SOClall>l.l
b)' Toglo.lli .",1 Ora"''''i. praised the .. 'penla"eou. ac!> of solida",)', .",1 a""d".li n"",,ICd.l ib ,iIC llilingo <Iu""i! Day """h. l<ko--
On 21 Apnl. i So,a publisltcd an appeal 10 lhe halian ,.-orting loglC.1 =nm",alloo. SOOn r'"l'fIOared.''' lJy Mal' .h., OI13",hl>l> "ert
db> ,,,,,,,d b) the Smke Corn",,"",, It 01", appo<ared In ,j'-.m,i' (Tunn). oocu,ing the _,ahSlI of <naclioo I.... .,ri •• , (TkUln\ rtloneJ
001 ,j'Qnll' 1\I,lan) "'fusN 10 pIln'" . I , ... lIy. dunng!he I13h<m.J c.lllng ,II<' InIITh,,!> demagogu.c> A debale bc1"een Otta,,,, PaSt"", and
conf........,,, of.he PSI. met to di5cll" "Iw help ,he ,be refom,,'" of ... 01.0 draprd In the .,..tch,,1> Ind
aI13ITh,.u m'illilend to !be Tori ...... luigi FobCln ''''gt.-d OU. TenKlnl
f... dunng ,'''' «Inforeoce of sori.lls""
ddcSales ,,·110 demanded 'I>c pany Ind an ""u,""",lion'" HO"CH' .
a. bting <me of the fe,.,
"·nd,,,.l,>! •. l.1 .. nehl had 3CC1&<l,he 1Iko1og,<.(S of L .\11<)>'0 of
,;,mng up ,he put. .nd he hl.cned .hciHI.,,,,, ofbc1ra).' by
,iIC COL to I'}ptcally .yn.llCaJi51 ","",.hty. I'oSl"'" In . n anocte
Sr:n;.'i . ,Id O1h •• Mila ...... rn"""" lim "en: concerned ,h'l 10<.,
"'<ORert
,ha, I'"
","und 10 lhe """, ".adfl$' on.IT1" •• supporter of L
mighl acl on ''''pu l,e. DUrl"g lhe cons.en 'he anarch"l Sori. nl of .h. \"om, . . cl,· mro ""lCn ,,,hdafl'y oflne """"h, ...
\ l il ."e.., SFI fi". gCIICml byj Ill. 'oicc "'a, nol I< ron 8
to o'emd< ,he pa<it;, in,en'''>n. of M,lan 's ><>CI.I", .nd lrade
on,l 'ynd,coli sts ""It lhe Torin<sc g.."".1 .If,I.., o f i\pri l w", a "" ..

union leadOr<, ' For ,he pe" .... h,e qlK$/<Jrr of Ga.li. ,h.

Mal.!e,II" ","",fHIO in L'mani{" \'O'Q had not .ddod . ""gk Sinker 10
!it.c r,odtn(ln,o,,", S'T<l< The of 5< .." hJJ not <n
of''''' "1'fI1 >Ink" "'... ,,,,m<.Ii.,,I)' =osn.zro U a g,..,.1 defo., '" .ohdori.y ,,"h.he Tori""", bit! '0 'fIi'. the COOkdcral. of Genoa and

161
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p.>«>d" :>I0J"'''II pul '"""",I!d>JJ ,"""',"" JO W)O P'I'"; .. ' ''!JJPC'I ",,"un I""'" 01 'Iq¥w"", i>->,oid
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OSW}l 1/uuwp ul,ml U.' 1"'" ! ""'''''9
 pre« nc. i'l<rea,ed in Junc and July partly duc tU the vaC uum loft by the
failure uf lhe ominOl'is" , partly bee",,,. of growi ng diseontent O, er
partly by the tnte" ern ,On tn Alhani. and ]{ u'"a .nd the fou h.
conling contractu, l negotiation,,, ilh Ih< tTtcr<a>i"gly imran"ge nt tnd",.
Irtah"s of the ,nd mctalworxmg mdust ri ",. In I"" July the
' .<"" ul,,' com mittee of die 1c.:,1 br. "ch of the PSI rcsigned aft., T,&<;,
a',d Terrae"" «pressed the ir 0I>pO<ttiQn to Booro's p"n'Cirotion at a I.rge
dcmonstmlion otg'n i7-cd by the libert' rtans on 7 July. ,.. Thrce ract ions
fough' for control of the Pa rty: ' he el«torahs" who represe n.. d ""''' of
the m,x imali sts (as well as r"slialli, Terra,," , 'nd Ta&<;a), ,he ab>!entio".
l>t>, and Gram",i's mmu",ule I 7·member CommuniSl Ed,:cation Groop. m
Gra m"" '> pos ition .lic mplCd 10 ltocr a CO""" bet" ecn the dogmah'm
of the ab>!cnt io" ,, [s . nd lhe opportun"m of ' he eiectorahsts, Ce ntral
to Gr.'m",i', po"tion wa, a" anompt to linkage " nh a ma"
th al tran&<;entkd pany lines; the f"ctory cow ",ls wore 51111
i<km ifiod .. appropriate for ,uch. "'en if ot present a, ked " hel her in order to ",oid ,,., Ial i,," on fUiU"', Ihe lOC i.Ii,,, were
anarchISt' and syndicalist> predom,n'IOJ ,.. Allhough Gram",i hod
donounced The unotTicial demonstralion org.m7W by the ,n'rchislS and
'y",hcal i,,, at the end of I n",, , he w"' 'hl l prtl"'red lO eng.ge <It <I,,,,,,,, io"
,,;Ih Ihe ll bertari. n,. ," A Commmee ofSludy "'., el"'tod ,n Jllly
headc'<l by O"'msei', do""t o",x ..tc i" the ;ummor, Andr.a
Four of its nnoe membe rs "ere ."arehiSIS, alld in July .Ild August Viglongo
>ought out and , 0por1«1 On the acl"·,,,,,, of the an.reh"",. The VA l
congrc" in Bologna,,", g"en an e",h u,ia,t,c ,f slighlly collde",ond ing
pat on [h" back, '" Viglongo wa, . lso sent 10 and Ancona ,,) reron
on the teeent muti ny . nd ri" ng m , api.. 1of the March ...
In Vjglongo n:<e iyed cre,kn "ab frOn] Ma l. t",,, that allo"w
hin' '0 lntorv iew the AneoMn onaTc hi'I', rnony of "'hom werc " ill in
h,d,"g, V' glongo h.d been oul"'ge<1 by the I"l.'hly inacc uratc reportmg
IOLnd in A' ''nli' II; reporter had dannc'il that the rnulmy had bee n COn.
(,-",led hy officers nl lhe I I'h "'g,rnent oflhc bcrsagliNi [hreatcned with
decOfluni» wni ng. Viglongo (onduded lh. t bol h 'hc mUli ny and ,h. ri ' ing
locked ,uffici.", "'!;,ni"tion but "<IT genuinely 1"'111,,]'" A p",medil.oed
plan had not c, isted: in fa" mntiny had COrne OS • complete su",rise.
The ", uti"e"" h.1 d only \'Ory brtefly used 0"" of [ile h e .nflOured
a, ailable, In lhe e,ent the demorahLed bcrsaglieri had retreated to
barrack; before ,he in, urg< " " ><" eral hundred ligh ' ly .nned ih. n,
h.d ,nOHd ",10 acti on . Although the ra'iway sta"on and the hill fons
"""",,,ed
to the insurgen!> , tho Cmoddla Ci tadel) firm ly in the
eo""ol of the "" urily foreos , The ",il",oy <Wion ",a, ,helled by 0 gunboat,
alld "cry soon Ihe msurgc nt' relrealod before heal' ily .rmed troops . ,..
\ 'iglongo d"", four oondu,,,),,s in hi' a<lid. lie de nied tha, ' oyol,,·
lion " ie, could rely upon th. mu,i''''o, Army ' 0 k.d .ho re,·olution
" ""hnKa l' prepa'a1 ion W", imp<:mli, c. Ho,,'e\er. the Soci ali st
Pany had ,,.,'er wn .nterested on ."ummg ;uch re,pon,ibili ne5. Th,rdly,
Viglongo dema nd ed a 'communist' ,n,l,tary organIZation . Finally, ho
accused the . n.rch is" of d"regarding the loca l soci.lisl\ ' allempt at
forging uniled a<hon. Th. local .n.rchi,.", he d . nned, had refuseJ 10
join 'n Comm ittee .nd preferred to tight in an ill ·coordinaled
fash,o n."'"
11>c anareh,,, response to Viglongo 's .nide w3$ .w,1I ,nd fOf the most
pan hosu le. First Ihere "'as II>< question of Viglongo', fae", , 1 accuracy.
According to Malatesta, lile anoreh,sb had re f"sed 10 j oin lhe Agilal 'Qn
bec.UU in fa({ n h.d been est.bl i, h",! to nego"ale with the
prcfec. and h",! nolh,ng to do with the risi ng.>01 Gig, Dam.. ni, one o((he
".ff of Um"o irQ ,.\"0'" , also defended lho aCl" <1«, of the .narc his!> ,nd
prepared 10 j oin lhe a,,"rehists in short·term tacti cal .1I ,0"ces ."" Fabbri
v. as sli gh'ly Ie.\ antagoniS!ic He did not dism iss Viglongo's rerort out
of ha nd. I,ola,ed ""011" os he h.d >oid .bout the April suike, wcre
u,ebs.M But he did Vi glongo to rocall th. t the UA I congress h.d
", d , led tho; prob lem of oooroina hon allho grass rooo;; be',cl<,> hadn't the
an.re hisls orgam,ed ", [h« eff"'li"e joinl co mmillees wilh the SOCialists
and repub ll cons dunng the Red \\'eck' Malal es [a had the laS! word. He
wa; particularly re"' nt n,1 " n<e ho had helped Vig longo "ppr",'ch the
"nareh,,{S on firs! pbce. Ho cnllCi,<'<lthe theoretici.n, of \1«,"lOrta l
soc iali sm' who had not troubled thomseh·e •• bou, real prop"mllOn for.
revolu1lon'f) m,urt",h"" . Li ken ing the Anconan .nare h,s!> '0 ant iquated
\/animan plotlc", as Viglongo h,d, "'"' . bsurd . If the anarc hiS!s had
)'''' ertdor>cd ,be ,imoes of. re""lu""" organ i/"d and " "" ,"ged lhrougll
Ihe Commu nist Party, ' hey cou ld" ell a,k ,hem",h es whe re thiS myth,eal
ent ity « i<tc(l.l<><
When ele<lion, for the PSI " CIT hold on Tun " '" the middle
of August, ,J.'anli' (Tunn) h,d already engaged on. six''''eek eamp.ign
again" the anarch"l contagioo in lhe Torine", labour >05 Only
<'" ,ile .b'te" "o''''t, were slill preparcd ' 0 ,oarch for .lIia nce, w,lh the
ana rehiS1>. Dc,pite the Communi, l Eduea"o" Group', encou"ler\ wilh
,he anarch"" dun ng the sumnler, wh ich . Iso included Viglongo', 311ond ·
oneo .1 the an"rehist organi7-<od polnical prisoner:< congress he ld m florence
on 15 ,\ugust, thei r dectoral d"" ument ",..,ed the ""ed for. unifled
><x ial,,! pany w"' better to count"r ' Ihe empty (k magogic pit ",seo logy
of lhe ,yndicalists' ,"""
'"
 n.c eiec'OOII"u "on lhe eleclion ar>d Toghl." ""U ....1c lhe ...,mary loodoct. 1975. 193 9 ("""-c,...... "" rtlt .. "",",;Iy upo<1 Clatl l: \'
of lhe local bIn Gramsci·. manifos.o had OlII"'g.-d r ...... '" and
\Ia:um 6/". U. ""0«' <kllJo.mu. \lIlan. 19 79.1'1'
Ganoo. ,,110 rcsponckd in"" ""gty 101101" fIllblosl'led In \"on' 1",,,,,,",, PO I
Gram",,', Clol.esl allie, in."" f"",ory cou"",1 nIOHrntn, tkmandcrl a
4 S« moellnK of 4 Oc.obet 1919. In rtpon uf Puf«l of Tun". 9
pcr;onal lpology; I.. in an 4r1>t1c publt'hell on lhe la>1 Sunday
Oclobe, 1919, A{:S. PS 1919, 81 48
l>c/("" ' ho 'ICCup"flon of ,,,,, f"","';e, Hi& answer. I ""gl ng
5 1. "",nil,; VU\'iJ. 23 Marth 1920. p. 3; ACS.I'S 14J. Il.ep<>n ofl'",f"",
of .he "'IC. ", l1 eta 0... of 'he I""me& ofC h'plCr Fiw. m
" ( T,,,, " .21 1920.
6 /;mu."J .\',,..,,. 1 Jul; 19 19. p. J: r-epon of P/'Cf«. ofTu,i ". I 5 July
1919. ACS. rs 1919. 8.148.
L'",onIlJ \""•. 4 aDd 181une 1920
8. For Ihe .narth, ... """ emcn, rn P,O'drnont Ott ACS. PS 1919. 0.19.
PrdOCl of"'''' ...., 19 Decombn' 1919: ikllln,. 1972. p 273: ("
lX"""n,. 'JI Sctt=b/'C a "10,""'. II Jl Oclobe, 1971). pp
1377424
This ,n,r1)<J""llOn d",w. upon. C. I.ny. ·haJj . n Ana",hl$m. 1870
9 Dc B'''olo'''ois 'he di'rule In L 'An .. AnGrch,eo. 12
1926'. m I) Good" ay (rd.). Fo' AntJ,,:M<m ' l/uII>,i(-ol alUi Seplcmhcr 1919. p, J For G,u>tppc ACS, CPC 44 S I.
AI'P"""h,·.• , London. 1989. pr. alld (" Lo,"}·. 'Chori,ma on,l 'R "h,,") (il""'PPC' U<tm 1900, )'o.; .p lo<. o_'l"'"'O" lie lefl l;" PGS
Soc,ol Movements [m.o )..1.lotes13 .nd Iia lian Ano",hi.m'. Ilod","
Ilal,·. "01. ,. 110, 2. 1998. pp. 21}S- 17. A 0."'" 'Gh .narch""
for lhe ,narchiSl> ,n 1921}.0<1 wroto for 1I1.1l"""a.,o and l. An .."i....
An""'h!",, lie " ...1,0 ""Ii, . in lhe Fein' ('irtle. For Giuseppe De
italian, r,.. SIJOm. d, d .... e ren,,,,,,,". 'n I' Al."i led Ssona d"l/a lUI" . ..., AST. !'rocu", dd Re rn Torin<.>. \loti R"oIUllOr'!an 1915
,O<".rla UJ disgrqa:'OIIe del/o 51010 IiNrolt. "01 21. M,lan. 1921}.l.qtone Tnri.oriale dci Carabt...,., Reali d, TonTlO, 1920.
1'1', In 98 for, ....... C')' of,,,,, rouo Ott. R
\".-...,11t. SNno drl/""·'VIfO L 1,.>/;" granth g _
For ""'WIn"", '[ Rcf",nari·. ACS. rs 1919. Profoc. of Tunn.
al/a ",an", S" ,,,Is I .JId 2. U<tlogn •. 1991
19 Decemboer 1919. " 3Ipnll1 ""lI' ,.le" \0 by fcllo'"
for hIS Abusive pc"""",lil) . "'" In 1/ Lil>crumo. 15 Jon".,)'
2 ACS. PS 1919. n "9. Roporu of.fIe Prcft'C. ,)f TUM. 19 Decemhcr
1921}. P 1, whe", he is IoCCU.etl of '," rTlna the pot' hIS fricn'"
191 9. 16 July 1920,
"'orc (\J'I"'",,,',I b)' his «centrio loor
1 For .ccoun" <If the an"rth ,,, and .)',,<li.ah.\t 'ole. in I;"
II} For 00'8 1i1ll.l. M"nIQ' ani, PI'. 18 I. 20Cl. 212 .• 16. 249. 268-71},
f.<wry couneil '!1O"·,,,enl. see M Clafl. Om"''''i o"d the
II [m",. rcm.ro "rotc for Don"a Ld.""",mu hcfore the war . nd fl.>r
Reml",,,," Fail"". "ow H'''en. 1977.1'1'. 113 19.135-8. fDr
lmanUa Va,'a (192iJ.--2>, He< pcn name " •• ·A",.rylh,·. She
G3rin<.>. 5tt 1'1', H6. 89. WI -2. 118. IlS. Fot fcrrcn::>, SOC
born in 1 "nn tn 1895 and ",.. , "n'or. S« ACS. ('PC 11}32
pp. 119. I 72, 185--6. 191 rOO" De Banolornoo", _ P 118. AI", >ott. r
12. G. Pcnllo. '1 comunl>l •• \a Iona di cia... In L,wura, nexl; .nni 1921_
c. Mas'n" ,fMrrhi<'; romunlsfi ",1 ... drl ("(>IUigli a Ion"" 22' . e SociallS'a. ,'01. 9. /lOS. 2-1. I%J. 1'. 199
fP""", 1919--19!O). Tunn. 1951: GraM,ci
/"Ort/int "iJta do "" libuumu, Tunn. C. Doglio. '1
'0
I.atcr he Ik<l South America .0 ="1'"
Il. A('S. rs 1919. 0 124. Repon of the Proft'C. o n"nn. 21) Marth 1919
r.",,,, jlCTSeCl.Ilion.

<on, igli di f. bbnn e ,I m("'i",,,nID <It, 1a'0",1"" In '13lia·. For Galle,nl S« Abo,. P
\'01. 6. I"J' 16(}-1, 424 ·7.5% 604 J M Clm"",n. Anlonio
I S. Tho inddont i, oovered ,n Avnch. 1988.
On!:"" 0/ 1101i01l Communi,," • Stanrord , 1967. rP,
leWf.>'. Princelon. 1988. PI' . 169 70, FOO"Sem.u·. hf. >s ajo"m, I;!!
122---!l; I' Spn'TIO. L 'om"," mll>'<> I {'/)""gii dl/ob/>rico, Tuti". 1971. in ' he USA and hi, hoslil o '''''"unt... "ilh 'he .narthi>!<.•0.
pp. 5.l-62; G Mai""". II bie""", m<.ro, .. A. Ro.ada. nel/"emtgrtl:;ont 1899-1911. Rome, 1972. S
"fH!ro,a Bologna. 1975. 1'1'. 22. W. :\6. 58. 60 I. 77 Gamll". 'Scm.u ""III, Sloti Ln,,, i l'odacaIe. ooganiT.f.lllO<e
8.127. IJS. 192. 225-R. 257. G \lllh.nu. ProIriarian Drtkr.
".hu,·. lfo'i..... D,N""II) $nt-ill/i<la. >oJ. 8. 110.

-167
 3. 1984. PI' M",;.oI,ni 'ultcmprl ., ""'lU,ung G.nran,. \'1IenI"'" Toni 1901 Med,an't
see M.nt,,'an,. p 11!2. The: btesllCcoont ,. In P. \- s,.", h mo- 1901 Me<:h>m"
'\1",.010",. s..cc()-Van,"'u and IJK, Anarch"ts: The Transall.nt,c GOU>fPp<' r.sII,..lIi - 1902 _ Tumer
J"u."ol Uoocm I/IS'''')·. '01 68. no I. 1996. pp 16-8 \" 1902 "''''''''01<
16 u. redel ,. '-"'/'.i r;Qlleam. Q=ron,'unni dl JO'la (M9/ 1931 J. Cosen) . 1898 i..aboo",'
1956. pp 143 SO_ For Gan .. ni durms the ..-.t. • ,-"c Fedeli. LII/g; Mal'lo Ilur:ml 190 1 Sho<m.hr
Gail,·an!. 1'1'.151-8.161 9. p. Mrich. SllcN and Janow •. Thr G,ol'a",,, I'crm,,", - 1903 _ Driller
l"a..--hl<I S"'txro""d. Princ"'"". 1991. I'll 122-36_ 17_ F", ACS. cre 1943; t'mall"'; V",,,. 18 M..ch IQ21
17 L Jk1um, dell Florence. 1972. p. 289. L.
P I f'" n.. I . ..,. AST. LogiO<l<' Ternl",i.l. de, Carabi""ri ROlli
Fabbn. 'J ui., Galleani·. SlllJi Social/. 10 hn""'1- 1912. p_ I. 25 Api'll
d, ToollO ... M'l 1920 F", I'Iolani. M'C Ace;. cre 3989_For Mu.s<>.
18
19U.pp' 8
P Ikllllan. 'Tho Torch Tho .flam'ln of 1M
= ACS. CPC .>4"0; e",,,,,,,,,
\'0\". I] June 1921. p. L
1H For (), DonaIO . ...., l"",,,,,,j V"VII. 18 \i"",h 1920. p .. For ,II<
Sa.:,()- \'anle1'i AfT.". TIl. "I/ag<" 1"..-t. 17 \by 198.8. pp. 17· 10;
A, nch. Suao und liJnomi. pp. 63. 76. JOJ. 108. 112 5. 146-8. 158,
.yndicllo", ])(fore M.reh Apn] 192<1. see elm. Ant"";" v",,,,,";.
p. 119. A.an/i'. I 1919.p, 2. ACS. PS 1919. B_126.
,,
r Avrich.Alla,.,.hm I . .411 CWulllnlln 01 .11 A ......ieu.
of III< 1'",f.cl ofT" nn. 2 April 1919. U. S<iuillu. 12 Sept.mhcr 19 1S.
Pnne.llm. 1995, ACS. cre 469(), Um"',,/,, No,'a. 5 O<lob«r 1921.
p.2 l or Raine';. se. ACS. cre 4208
29 For 'he """ il;.s of 1110 ,n II.. "U"'IOcr of 1920 ... Clark.
19_ r Meh. 1""IlI Val/ralli. pp. 162-3, A. Borihi. fmro .I/a/aldw. Nc"
A,,,,,,,,,, I'P 144-7, Umblli/li Nm'Q. 30 Ju"" 1920. p. I; I
York. 1934.p. 1119. 1IC11Lni. 81b1i"l:",fja.p. 2119; ... Gall.an,·, .nl<le.
Jul) 1920. P I (i.'.n'l.ICci "oJ Pialll \Ie", acl;'. among.<l'18.m
, .. ,.110". Cron,"" \fa)' 1920. p_ I
dri,('T1.; Alios, anJ lI>rtoicn "",i. c al Ml<helin; V;l10ri0 llrogi. Ale;.
!O_ A. llurgh ,• .\1...._....«<>10 di """,",hi... '''Pic .. PI'- 189- 96; ...
..ndro CaNk Ind Cern "'''''e """'"B>' me .. l ,,-ori;crs II Scar. Idea
c_.. Sc>" ...." .... 7 Febn.a<)-""" 6 Ino. p_ 1_ _nd 1'&lI<"i •. In July 1920,1>0 LSI e'en c>Qbh.hed •• moll Sindoc.,o
2' Stt C""'","Q S".' ...... i,-Q. 17 January 1920. p
S,Jc"''lI,ca. Sec. V"'anl/O \·OWl. 192<1. p 4. III July 1920. P
I. ·C"It. 1<Ipp(I' ("Wilh'M 14 1920. p. 1 f'" Anc:on •.
""'-" . La July 1920.
d' Ancoo. prommpc la rivolu,ione $0<;. 1•..
So",,,,,,,,, p l ' !hila ,
18 AUll",1 192<1. p_ I; AI·anli'. p,M:nonlt .. Mili"". 3 July 192<1.
)
]0. For Ilroai. 1« Guura di 19 1920. p. 2_
n F«lch. f.uigi p 168. ] I 1'", !uN>On of US I 'fIO'" Un il;-. I t t C1a'k. A'",,,,io Gram'CI. 1'1'. I
23 H"llInI. Blh/i"gmfiQ, p. 288
24 L. G.II •• R" 'Ltl'in', Cron""" .\O'W'S/I". 12 l une'o 10 July 1920.
r.deh. p. 169. Qua,I,no ","s.1so IfRS,<:t! fur anll
'"
12. Anl""io pp. 36--9S; F. SoaH.. Appun'i sull" orillin,
m<liran ... publlShC<l in '·",n • .".. Manco,-aru. M""..n..
,,,,,,,,,Iw:c ""'Helle dc. con,illii di fahb,... a I Tonno·. RfI'lSIQ
s." \01 7. "". 21, I 964. PI' I 20
216-17.
:q Clan.. v"'''''ei. p I'ar III< Oanno.Colombi"" dl<pult.
16 A5T. Le,iont T"mlonll"dc, C ...buwn ROlli di Tonno to Pm;;u .. -
Itt ACS. CPC 2290
"". di Re. 14 Apr,I. " September 1920; {'""muiJ "0"0. 2J Augu" Clarl. GrulfUci. PI'- 3S 4O,
1920. P 1
15 II IIeV3. '11 sindacalo d, 10....... Ira '''''pn"""i"". c'pilali,I' e
I M nu l 'o t,l. 1'.><""", ( 1915· 1925)'. in M. A nton,ol, II . Bo=, IA 1'10.1/ dallr
Ciarmo 1892 - o'igini ,,/ f"sw'Irlo . I 'XJI 1916. II",i. 1978. pp 116---17_
Em,l,o Ikn, - .16 CI .rt . vrultlJCl_ p. 39
lo",'kn, !'i·A N A 37 Ibid.T'f' JI S
C.m,1I0 'IoaretlO - 1902 - Dy., '8 \nl""IOIi.OO lie...".,. La FlOI'.p n

'" '"
 W Ibid .. p. 459. For of rdo",,,,' proouc""'m and role of (,..j IMd.p 289
\ Ie"""i," ,n h,,,,,<. 'oCt)( II Rn.,lu"onon- S,-,uJ":ali,,,, M.lh,d'.1'1'. 318-'l.
and Pubik Sphnr. C","bndlC'. 19%. PI' 168---70. lW---10l. 66.lhid .. p.411 .
40 \ '- Anlonioli and B Bun (t<b), IA FIO.lI 01 {OJrulfJO. 67 Ibid. p. 417.
1901-1916, Rori. 1978. p. 4S9. 68 INd. I' 4J8
J 1 La Squlilo. 12 S<po<mba 1918. P 2; 19 Ocloo., 1918. p. J; Clarl<. 60 1",,1
GramKi, p ..1S 70 P. Sprl3no. Swriadi TWill" _,01,.'0, Tunn. 1972. p. 298.
42 AC"S. rs 1920, B. 79, Ropon "ftllt arTu,in 22 Ocrob...- 191 11 R...II,. 'In,o" "'" a G.II...:o·. P 90. For ,h.c n"p",tanc. of atw"Ch""
41 laSqm1i>,19OctOOerl? 18.1', I <Ce. \lasin;. AMrchici; \los;." -lltl.m/a Grnm«i. ,\ <>arosei.
44 Ibid. pal"'('a e >fOrla8"ujia mO<ie'"flo, Pi .. , , '154. I' 200,
4S di Cia,u, J i Srp'c'"bt, 1918. p 12 r-; . d B. ' j Cornrnlll'" d, ,.""nll. TIl"no·. l"lom';. I 0« 1919,1'1'
46 M Rc'clii, 'l'lIe ... i<l,. M, Ganno', \is,. 'rutIn. 1975. p, 90,

47 ,\CS. PS I no, H 79, Rcport of,,,,, Pn:fcci " f Tut;n. 27 August 19 18, 71 Sola'e, ' Appunt ;·. r p, 9 10
ACS, PS 1919. n 124. Rcponof,h<: P.-.ftcl of Tu,in. 22 0c,OO." 74 INJ
1918. The campaign by ,'''' SF! IH,plalnW In La Tribi",a dei F<7'lJ- 75 ll"nolomc'l 1"011. '0rrJ",., ,VIIO'., mI>Ch oflhe cm:lit foo- I. unth
.-r",. Jun< 1918. p. I. 10 1918. P 2. 12 No'",,""r 1918. ,ng the """ omen! IQ/"m". I Ju"" I p. I
p 2. La 6 July 1918. P 5 Oc.ober 1918. p. I . FOf P"'tOK. 76 ACS. PS 1919. B 148. Fkpon of ,'''' Pn:fec. of Turin, 4 Febru>ry
sec La Tribun" 12 AUiUS! 1918, p. 2, 12 ,",o,,,,,,""r 1919
1918, pp. 2-3. nn, f<>tm<'d poll' or. deNto .hl! 1""luJed ,he '7 ACS. rs 19M. B.III. Rep<t<1 21 M;mh 1919
anm:hiS! leadm.Itip of tho SFI C.wucc, and Angelo Sbrano) 78 Ibid
."" <tlnorial stafb or d, and AmnII' ''I ACS. ps 1919. 8148. Rep<t<1 of ,'''' Pn:ftc. nfTurin. 31 n
49 CIa,k. An''''''o G"' ......". I' 69 Jun< and 13 AuguSt 1919. FOf P.nlh" .... sec ,he /)rnJt/.
Ibid .. p. 39 n""ghl. "o""nber 1919
Sl/bidp,j9
,,,,,t.
1'1'. 40
80 ACS, cre 3053, Report of:W (l(.oo., 1919
S 1 Ac"s. rs 191'1. H. 148. Rq>OD of the P.-.f,'<'t of TlIr;n, I 7 .n<! 20 March
q 11,1</ .. p. 42. 1'119, ACS. PS 19 19, H 126. Ropon "f the Prefcci of Tu"n. 19
54 Ibii/, hnu3f)·. 2 Aplll , I I May 19 19,
SS \laione, II bie"oio "'".0, pp 12-4 82 ,KS, PS 191 'I. 1l148. Repon of Iho of Turi n. 18 May 1919.
S6 Cl"rk. AlIlonio Gr"""CI, p. 4 I ACS. PS 1919 [j, 126. Report of P",fw " f Turin, 18 !>by 1919
1/.,,/.. p. 43 ACS. PS 1919. 1l1 48. R"JIDM of t"" Preftct of Turin, g June 1919
I!>"t. pp. 4>-.--4 The lnet:lin8 held OIl 7 Jun< 1919 "as ",,{IIlo:J 'GIt """rch",,. 11 partl'O
S'l I",d .. pp, -U-5; sec ,IS<) Qu.gl"..o 'J In IIliMmmo. 27 "",i.l iSla ""Iron auu. l.- ("The • . ,"" Socialist Pall) and
1919 In whi<h c. l1. fOf 'JOei, 1 bo...,d on "Ofl<n' and lbe I'rc>ctr. floor·l.
pc:Isa",,' "'hi<h all poh'ician,. 84 ACS. rs 1919. B 126. Rrpon of."" ofTunn. 10 Apnl 1919
60. Cia"'. Am""io Gnll'uc,. p. .Appunu·. p. 17. INd., 2 April 1919
Ii I '11 prograrruna dell"OrUIII<' ., ...."' .. 14 Augu.t 1920, l 'Orr!iM . , _ . M6 AC"S, rs 1919. H. I48, R<ports oflhe Preftc. ofTuriD. 4. 9 and 30
in I. ·Orr!m., .\ItO'" 1919 19}Q l<tllt<tl by \'al.m,no Gcnata ......d Oc.oo., 1919
... """,jo A. SantuccI). T unn, 1987. pp. 61 20. . .. 0'-'1 M7. ACS. rs 191 'I. B 148. Report of the Pref"", ofTllnn . 12 June 1919,
62 Sola... ·Appun"·.I'f!. 1 4 SB. ACS. rs N19. B. 79. Ikpon of.he Prtfec. ofTunn. 19 Decom"",
6J A. Gnom",,'. II """", Marx, 19t!1 1919 (""itcJ by S<'l(IO C...,nogho). 1919
TlIr; n. 1980, p. 27(1, 89 A('S. PS 1'119. H. 148. Ropon of ' ht l'«flXT of l ·u,, ". 27 1'1 19

170-
'"
 lnOn"A"" in Tunll I"" Il,.nnio Ro>so
90. "moniol, and (ku.•. La Fiotoo. p, 4S$
d<'f 19fJfl1l1tnll'rno ''-''<SIr, .. >1,,_ ....
1<> L 'Oro;"" ''''''...
,,,
91 P Spnaoo. Slona <kI Pan"" C_""iJl" ,'01 I. T unn. 1967. {l910-191111. Tunn. I96J,pp -8(bnnn..,
V'glontl:O. . \ m.o
1\\10'"0 istnwioni' , 0.\ .'¥on""", 1'1'. 'f'ost,IJ.. ·,
Cl3rt. (i",,,url. P, 80
O\.'\prla."" p. 2SH
9)
,,,
R, M.ni.-.:lh.III'un'M C()JtIMu,,,d 1911 1926, Rome. 1977.
R.. dl t. '1t"''''lSla a Gari""'. 1'1', 90 I For Tc-moc;ni. "'c
(',cJmoo,o", Mlti"". 15 D<-ccmbc. 1919, p, 2, 1l>c '()te fo< ,he non·
Anu",,,, (,"rurniCi. p, 12,
95, I'.'nnen 29 s.,plcm"", 1920, p ubll<hcd 35 '11 mOl ,mcn'o d';d« II,
no'
""en prol'O'Cd by I1I,ell"'lu,l, but by til. a,,.,,,·
bli e. of won:C" "ho Ii,'e in '1>e wo.\;shop and are union;zod'
l(aha ""I 1920'. L,/),enant. 22 AJ>l11 1922. P 149 liS. Antonlolt and Ikua, La F/0I1. P
96 d, 18 JanU3f)-' 1920, 1', 2,
116. O\',!;p'ww. p. 36S
97 Fot ,ho::)'OWIi Ikmt:n . ..,.. p, C. \l.,;n,.·U fonn.uionc mt.II."uaJ.
• poIi,,,,. dt c..
",11o Remon'. ,n Ant dol Con,,",,,,, d, Carrullo
117. Fot <0« Bezza. 'II .indacalt> massa'. p. 124 for d, ,h.
l.AI Con&r<'" iCC L-'IItJIIII" S"'a. I Jul} 1920. PI' 1-2
Ikmon. 1979. 1'1'. 7· 2(1; F \l SanIOS. ·Slato.
118 A. Gntm>C,. ''''''' Po/",,'lllllrl/lltJl' 1910-19!O, '01, I
b'If",,,,,,,, il ""I pcn,i"", d, Clnullo ac"",n', ,n Arch,,';o
Fon"sioa Ikrnon. Camillo ""I "",,,,'.
(,.ltXt«l and ed"ed by Qu,nt," 110'''.,l",n,L""d by Joon H",he" I ,.
Loodon, 1977. P' fOT OTiSlMI. 5<.'< all. p, 540. ", an
Pi,wia. 1986, fo r , f><, pa"'M ,e3,' I,on '0 G", ,,, ,,,,,,', attach. 'tt
of n>et. l"orkc.. G." "" def"n<l<d ,I>e 'Of< fu. , he non-un,,,,,",.d in
Bo"",. i '5 'II mol-;monlO an ardito', f.il>rro Acromo, July 1920, p,
' he,", tenn" ·On. is deal ins " ilh ,I>e cre.,ion " f'he org. nl oflhe
I. esp, 'L'un itil ,holulion.n, <d il PSI, II Lii>trran'o. 18 Marc h
di'lot"... hip of ' he prole"ria'. b;II if l>eh". lhal ",II really bc a
1920.1'1',2·)
di('lotorsl"p of the wholo da ... l"" can't male d"l,o.::"on. bcl"'",,"
98. rot CIt OanoIomci, •..,.. 10000ta. 16 ""ember 1919. p. 2; . Amaryllis'
thoc unton".d and $CO. Piedmont.... edition.
I Fmma r.rrerol. 'In ns.posla a IIbno L A""r. 2 \0'. 1919. P J, In Juno 1920 De 6anolorno;. descnbcd 'he
cArro. 19 \by 1922, p. 4.
d,ITo-rc""",> 1><1" .....""",,;1 and u",on ,n G,.m"",LOn lo-rm>. The
99 Clarl., 1m"",,,
Gru"'Mi. p,
.00"",1$ "Ut .",.·I<pl org>n'7.;u><>n. 111.01 1,.,nM .. OIl... 110"
100 0.\'.9,621,
'0 <OIIqII<f ,he f,"",,,"<s. Trado un'"", and .),,,hc. lism 1"1
101 IS May 1919.0,\. 1'1', 22-'
102 0.\.1'1' 37--8 <.pable "f,n.(.a'mg a ",ob""",,') ch' ng<: b".::.u,. 'Iltey fonneJ
.. ",pon<lmg 10 lhe .. me I,,, rltal g,,'om 'oday',
103, Clark. Amonl() Graltl'u , p. S6 QIIOtC-d ill p, Sp.iallo, I. '
..... iCly'. I;.r","ci. 1 June 1920, p, J,
111<0',-, r , ,'(mr/gli ,Ii [abbrica. Tllr ;n. 197 I. p, 49. A,ami', ('",mon.
119 7,
"'" 24 J919, 'La ",zioDe 5«",ItI" 1'<" risti lLU'ODe 1)0
do::, S<" '
I! I. p",d,,,,,nlo,, .-dllion. 21 January 1920. p 3

1().4 'Appun,;·.p 16
I Clarl. Gral#UCi. 1'1'
In. P,<drnon'esc <dllion, 16 DKemboe. 1919. p, 3.

106. Ibid. p. 85
D ,\'o,a. I 'larch 1910. p, 4 'W. """', TlO!;"cd with pko;.u,.
lhal In .11 thoc "odshops "heft OUt .omrades found. lbty ha,'.
107. Ibid, II &6.
108 IbId. !>tt'l it"ltXl<d by thoc" .. Oil eomrades " rommi .....·; 'db <"on<>
109 Ibid. p 87,
De 1l.l101omei'l. ' 1 con,igl; dl fohbric.', 1(;1,,",,;. I June 1910,1'1'
110
III
Ib"l,
Ibid. p. 9il
I='4 "Re. cll ,. 'Inte" iSla , Gari ",,', p, 1M
112 !hid,p,9l, 12,1 Ih"' .. P 101
L!6. Ih"l,
I]J O ,P (Ot,,,,,O r"I"",I. '11 problema dollo Comn';>$,on;
127 ('Iarl, C",m,C;. 1'1' 51 9
L 16 Augus, 1<119, in r Spnal'lO (<d.l. La cui,,,,.,, 11g. P

- 172
 Ana,.,-hl</., in TUrI" dUring ,h.' 11'.,,","0 Rohitl

I DOIlI>o, I ,v",IXIi dl jaMnco ' ",nc "as "'hanced by tho roliooali" "lIhl s.c.. R Gennon.-
130 Clan., inl""'o Grt,.,sCJ, p. ,Ire Fim "<>rid lIar. {hford. 1993,1'1',220--1
111 Ih.d." 9(1 I (Ian.. Inurn'" Grulll!rCl. I'JI. 98-9. lbe re",1118"mSl ,urnmtr.lime
Ill . lhid. p. 89 ""lIh, also be an onmpl. o( a ,,0<1<0' ""'01, Ig'''"<1 re&ime"lalion
1.1.1 p,t;dmonlue edItion, 28 "",Ix< 1919, p. 2 .rod ,,0<1< 'Iself. a. documcnled by \hehod in ,110 1930s
I H /I rouo.1'I' W· 89 I'opul. F""" go,ommen!> ,n r nnee and Spa'n 5<-0, .\l St.dmall.
lllan" 'Con"gh d'offieiNl co",mt>ari di uXalnst liOn!:. Ltlb<x III Po". 1M
I l.T/H ..... Ana ...h,,.,,, 16 Jan",,'Y 1910. rp. 2-3, Populo. F""", Bertole), 1991
1:>6 P,.dmont<IC roi'ion, H 1\0' 1919, p. I I R... olli. "n,""i". a Gari""', p.
1)1, Anloni" Gmm,-ci. p. 116 IH, \'"m.26 M,rch J920,p I,
Pau los" Q,,'oric,oli , Grwnsci 'IIY', r 126, l or. ,,,,,,mary of thc liSI ISS, Clan..AnlOllloG""m;cl,p 100
>0. M . /I !lmlacalu'''''' Daile Ihlll..p 101
1I11"s""o.o. S,"di e "cerche. Pi .. , 1997. p, 67 If>O !!,,,I, P 102
139, C, Benn",d •• Re.oi""on>'Y S}'ndic. hs.m ,n It.ly. 1912-1922', Ph D. 161. I'JI 102 J
Uno, OfSl1y of \\'iscon,on, 1969, p. 2,"",. I (,'manil" Suo,'a. 14 April 192<1, I' 6; ""mil' Piedmonl<se
lolO G""",,d, CI....... 20Do=nbcr 1919, P 3,3" CongrnlOdtll'L n""", IIApnLp2,
S.nd>,ait. I ro'lligli di A lWrg/Ii, Bologna. 1919. pp.

"
141 Clark • . G",,,,gl. PII. 116-17
14, Lt'!. 'Chan.rna alld so,,,ol m/),.."",nl>'. pp. 209 II
164 . . Pf'. 1(1.1 5.
·Inlen,,,•• G.n",,·. pp 9S-1: t' ..... nll" .\0'''. IS Aptil
1920. P I. Ltlwn",," A'''"li'. IS Apnl 192<1. p I
1 Clarl, 1977. r. 9-.1; 'Rapporto su, fo", di Su,"', ,n '- 'On/",•.\110"'>. 166 \'0'0, 16 Aptil 1920, p. I. 17 ApnllnO, p. L
13 \b"'h 1.. 20, p. 31 7, A \ 'glooilo, 'MOOIf"" <kill 101.. di cia"., 167 C1art.,Am""IOGra .. lOS.
ndla primo "",til dol 1910'. n P"",."
31 O<:lobtr 1970.1'1'. 1309 I.omro/QI"' A,,,,nl'-', 24 Al"'l 1920. p. I: A"'OO,oh and Ik=. /.it

"
I ,I, C/=.,,,, J I hnuary 1910, p, I
14S, (iur"o dl C/",,-c. 13 Morch, P I
nOll, p. 589.
1(>') A'<lnli'. 10 Ap.il. Ino,p I
1'0 117
146, 1\1," L,,"oni , '\/m"r/", blu . Pr. 184 n; I>'om. 7 ,\I.rch 1910, 171 MS, 1><; 1\120. B.60. Report "",fe", S Apri l 1920

"
In Ibid.. Al'ril l nO. Um""I/"N<>l'u, 18 Apr il 1<)20. p I
147, . 1I''''"i' piod"",,,,o,,, od ilion, 4 M"",h 1920. p. J 173 AS\t, p",r D.J 17, Quem..e, IS Mr.1 1920
0,\,1'1', 4S2 J. Tho gal/ronl'" ,n . ngor, 5« ·C"",re'. 174, I' M.lal'lto, Pagmc d, /olla ,,"OIII/III"Q. So",,- Ii,/. I. /J'manll<l
·Ch, ......... , dis('''i>!i della 51>''''''''''0, 20 "v,,, 19:o.·'U. Cam",. 1975, pp.SJ-4. La''''''''''"'
A,'unl.:, 18 April
March Ino. p. L 1920. P L OS, I' 503: r,'",onila V",a. 21 April 192<1. pi,
149 LCO<II:1.i. 197&. 1/111"", ",,!June <kilo J'almiJ_ {'RSS, \hlan, \brt",,,lIi, 1/ PaTIllO. pp. 82 3
1978, p. 162. 176. due o... me do! "",iali"",,', {'m,mll" H Apnl 1920, pp
I SO LI 'b",h InO, pp. 458 -(0 L
lSI O',I'JI. 418-4). 485----6. "
177 Pref R.l I -. P",(cc' of M.lan '0 ,,'" I Al"'l 1910
I Gn!ItK'. p 189. oni'''''ll)' mllah_n...., 0..'. p. 492- 178 INd, 25 April 1920
I GramsCi, I'JI 9S-\I 179 "0'''. 25 Apnl 1920. p. 1
I q p, 9\1, On ,urn",,,, lime al>o iCo J Adl .. I.d'era/um 10 I Antonio G",mul. pp. 13J-4
Fa"lfm. lla/um !ndum,abm, 19(}ij 1914, Cambridgo. 1995, I'JI, \0"0, I InO,p. I,
217 18 Al,hough in Germ,,"y a '"II il., campaign Igainsl ,"m"",,_ I Clark, "olomo Gmm",l, pp. 135-11

'"
 183 N",,,. 4 May 1920. P 2; OS. 1'1', 518-20,
184 A,tln"- Piedmon,,,,,, rolhon. 6 \toy 1920. P I
5-
185. l'",amui V",'II, 14 May 1920, p. 2.
IU. Clark. AIt'(JIIW Gra ......i. p. 1JS---6
187, Ibid, p. 13-6.
1$> Pirdmon'H< c-dlllon, 2.1 'by 1920. p. L ProduClil'ism ,and Anti-Jacobinism
189 Am,,'i' P;"dmon,= Wlllon, 29 1920, p. I .
190, s..-.. Sprwno 0.\,1'1' S09-12, SIS-J4. '14 -42, OS. 1'1'. 538--42
191 P,edmon"", .d;I ;9n, May. 1920, p. I
192 An'9n i91i .nd fA nOli. P!' S84, S87--9() In 'hIS rhap'er I lit II di",uj, f9ur "'poe" of G",,,,,,,; 's ideology lhat
19J Ib,d,pS91, IInp,,'ged upon hi' . . '' lIh lbe I,boen.nans: rrod ...' i"lsm: ,he cia"
194 Clark,AnlOnioGmmsri,p.l4(i bam of w unc tl weiail!m a, and . nl!·
195 Ibid" 1'1'.141 ) , JacOOI " ,sln. Much 'If lhe ,u!»'allCe 'If Gra m",, ', argument has alre.dy
1% OV, 1'1'. 567-8, 'bi9"'. II ......". PI' 20-4-6 !>Nn d,,,,,us<or<l ,,' Th .. JU'I as h'i ,IOI'OIIS 'If pre fi gural!OfI
19' \';gloo£", " I"""",, ',P!' 1318· 24 antlClpaled ,n wartim<: .rtlcles. .0 tOO Gram",i', .""I)'.i. of 'lI3«'h,,, . rId
198, A"m"- Picd"""'leU' rd,,,,,,,, IS July 1920, p 2 ') "J",ali .. ideologi<c. " .1.. ody >C1 btfllre I. '0nJ1no! "UO"' .pp"..... The
199 A",,,"i' P,rom<m1eSC Nllion, 28 July 1920, p 2 diff.",,,,,. In ,t.. muo il one of na,,,,,1 ... and o",pha.i5, Tbc
200 Run,an SO\ 1<1 and .... Ton ... facl<><y c .... ",,11 are empl9)ed 10 heighlen
201 t'""",,,,, .\'"a. 7 AugtJ$II9M, P I: M.lolcsta. 12S---27. h,. •.'''tlng cntici,m of rhe UI"Pl.lnl>m 'If lhe libertarians, Tbc delNlndo
202 ("",mla.""'" I AUil",1920,p. L of"",l>Ior rewnstlUCUOfl as "dl as tM ...."nlS _r<lmg the Ku"ian
20) (,'""uril"N"",,8AugusI 192(1.p I, ('i"il War and ,be downfall Of'M Ilun&. nan So\ 1<1 RepuNic inc ..asro
204 l. -.....nil" .\'0•.". 27 Aug<riol 192(1. II I 'bl:llo!l.>. 1'1' 1J 1-4 hi. <1nPI\as" on the role of eoe .. i. e, e. en dH:lal9nal polilical ..",...1i"".
Soc 'Soi:lahSl I, e Am,," -' Pirdmon.
lose c-d""",. 2S July 1920,1'. S, I'rudllCI;' ;.1 IllfO lol:.) du r i ng 10 IlusSQ

"" ,'igI9ng9.. pp, I nJ-.l, CI . n:, .,Im",,;o p. 14 2,

:!O7. HJ< Ferrero and G. " "", 5« l'maml" N",'a, 19 August 1920. p. I
For Gra m",i's reply. ' "'' OS, pp, (,4 )
In 1918· 19 Europe raced the "" k of post"' ... "''<'OI"t''''''"", "h,l.
a largo r en franchised polil;- dema,,,kd power 9"e, 'he ir own
do","),. Produc';' i,m w"' pIIrtlcu larly t9 bo,h indu,IIIal"" _"d
the .orly fose i>!, III U.!y !>.x_ .... 11 5«"",d ' 0 herald. n<w l<"fhnul9gicll
'0
""dcr, bu, pwducli,i ,,,, "'.. noIlOlc:ly iI m'led lhe IIght.1Id centre o f
poit' ic.1 <pOC'rum "oppcalC'd (Q ,he Ic:flthroughou' Europe. U, >pm'
.nd ,ubst.lOC<: "a, «rlIICIp.>,ed b)' pr.....:ar .yndicali,II<koIog1t>. Bod la,<1'.
• ncrlhe lhe .... ofTaylori.m "'I
relnf"",. SQ, ie' po"..,.'.
Lnlll =.",1)· i, hI.!>Nn .... umod 1110'1'0)1011'1 melhods hod """'"
inroods in Eu""",an IlIdustry dUII"i Ind o1ttnhe "-..r. Rocrn' ... on.
dc_,m", tiu,a,ieulln lul}.lCocnllf", floun,hrd rn<I«
.. ad,l) In ,he colulllIIJ of """Sf'lp<1l1h>n In If on. ",e.. 10
..,.,k a "hedlis< to m<:llSUre tho oIegrro of p"''''''''lion 9fTa} loti,," in luli ...
iOO.,h,'. cu"or,1 ""hoI3"h,p ", .... Id "'B"" ,h., al' hough ncWCT '},>I<m; 'If
calculaMS ""go' were lhe", "'-'" 110 full "1'I'll<:oh9n {)fTo)lori,m

'"
 mnaill<'d in pl:occ for IJ"IIod ,,-hM 1"",,_ 1J.:I11lru. TelO. OIJl:>Io Ind Schc<:tcr 1,...-".00... n ""'" (;rlllTl"'" uncnl",.II}
rale 'Y"CIl'IS "C1'I: bol"g u1Iroduccd fOllt\lOhlnt-<lpCnlOl'!l and """..... fOlTlH ",.n.fcrrrd ,lie f.ctory . .. "'" of C>.p11.h>l1! ,"10 h" ""n fUlUre """tai1q
of "od>h<,p "10> "xl" iduaI bopn 1(1 runelion. The eW,m eOl1,m""" .. llh Comllio B........ ri mnembtmJ I. 'Ordllk' .\''''''0 in ,I><
10 "hICh Tal 1ori>1 pra.;11= floun>hed n;maHled drptndrn' 011,11< spttifo: 1930,' Grarl1S<.-t'. hbcnan.n 'cousin - III< ...)"1>0-",,,,;,1""'H''*
<unJi,io"" ofloc.I,ndu,,""" Ideal-In'" <0,"",,110... fOf Ta}'lori,m "ould of I"" $'''''' ,".n·s ,dea,_ ea rlier od, .need ")' II>< ",<I,oal
' ''IUI.-c: ,I>< Itand.rilaHOf' of ta,h; IIIe .-corglnlUll"n . '"'" profe"io" •• _ hb<-ral. r iero Gobeni Ikmcri "",.Ikd ,ha' " hon ho ",,,,I ,h. first ed,lI on
i"",," of ""n'He rne n, ; ' he r.arrangemcnl of plont deSIgn; and II", ., te nt o f L 'O"/rn,' \'''''\'0. wit h i" eons ,alll "'«."Oll of Ihe rolo o f heavy
'0 w hIc h crnnpan .. , were rkp""MrH on controlled mar l <'b or ind u,,'" fOf lhe 1'0111,",1,," of a hoInog.nous cla.- among" c""" I
f,ee, 'f1Ik "'Ih • mlrl" of am""n, COn,"""",. In gene",'. It• •y of 'be ;"OIlSIIOpS of T "'in. I>< lhoogh' o f Gram"'i. -Jropped "" Tuno
I""ked a pltiJo.ophy ,Iu.,linkedille COf'ICtptS of higl><r from h.. nal il e Sardinia' and -", kcn in' by ,lie ,,·ortmg> Qfmtlropohs
'0 s.-c.tel producti' "), if h., "M to lbo tdeal -Ilpt. the and it< rich ,raJe unoon lif•. n",_ he thoughl. fuc,,"'..! Gmnsci .r.d
Ansaldo ell,ll'nttring"oo, in L'gtlna "'h,,,h dId noc employ _el ron"1
ofma""'gc"",nt bu1 .-cIted on Sto'e contracts. 1i.....,.,.1 en!;"...,nnS.nd
crea'..! an ',ndltsmal "'l.II"''''· ,n L Ort/m" \-""", that "-as an ''''''logous
rnclion 10 the .."", pher>orneno tha, hod I""n bIMh 10 futltnsm'
''''10",,1 rIlCIhodo of m.uugcrncm on ,he <hop11oor. WC1'l: rqm:_ '.'cr1hc1o». muoCh ofille '5I:ia><c' ofGramsc,', ',ndustnal my"",,,m'
1<;nlOl" e of II>< labour proces,_' n.c.e
findings "",an that man) of ,lie MrilC<I from I.... olllllchl51 Pie'ro \los5O', In lcks "" Ta)lm ism
""«Junl, or Industrial unro" dunns IlI<lNennrQ "'... " arc hosed upoo fal ", r ubh , hetl in L Mwl'O_Indeed. Gram ...·, folt 111< ,,,,d es so impo"-
r roml ... . So "h,lo M.. belie" eJ Ih .. ,I>< 19 19 .ccord. an,. he had "'Io"dod 10 publi,h Ih<m in pa"'phlel form Moreover. MQSSO
we", • Ta)'lons, .sn-c"",nl p"r "«ell.m·,, '" fIe, Ihe", was liul. of t l>< I<'<,ured .1 ,he . 11O!'l_I"ed 51:11001.,(.blt,he<! by L '(Mlm" Nllo''Q . '0
A"",,,con', ph'losophy in lIIe",_ W. ca n 11:10 condude that Gram5l:i's " ao c, ,,,,lIent "ample of"na' Gram"" m'HI" h". mean, by an ·oq;anil.
&s>"ml,"on of Tayl",', ,)'SlC'" imo hI, 'hwr)' or cOUl",,1 romnwnl.!-lI' ,n,.II",,'u.1' A • • f. ctory 01 hot ,nd pan_II"'" a,,,,"n' o f
" .... thercfQtl' jU>ll"'n oh bro>dcrtrcnJ '" Ithm Jl'J!o'''-'' 11lllt3ll ;n'cIIOCI",,1 I'rofC$>Ol' Ann,balo lie ep;lOmi.ed lhe ') po ofrnodo:m ""IIOCII\'I"
life ratho.,han • <CIm'CI readIng ofille ",.IIlles of llllitan industry' nllndt:d "hl",,,,,,llal "ooer Gt;toar:i tq>c:d 10 111..:1 '" II>< f""ory"""ne,1
mo' e"",nl \1 ............. )"'1 one of 0 .malllKolll<1l,e o f loch"icl.n;
Gnm.w:l. .n d and ... ho adhered 10 the Online '110"0 voup As we "",.• secn. II
"as II>< of , ... hnician, in tbe spnng of 1919 lh>1 wa> """ of II><
Tile cnticund ,Klmi...". of A nton,;, Groms.;i In: oS=<l upoo 0"" 'hlng .... I}'stl fOf Ih. formallon of tile fac,,,,}, c""",,,1 "",'e"",,,' . •nd
hIS re' olull on ,,,,ul<l be prod LJC1"'''1 01 not 01 all Len ,n', <'TId""emonl of Ol."ed
"hen I. Nj/"'1J p ub li ," i"" clerks a nd toc h" ici.n, eonl"b-
T.)'1",;,1 method, mc",ly re ikr.!cd "' nlim<'nl$ ,lt;tl (,nunsci llad h'rooon,,j u,ed regul" Iy. 10 demonstrate ,I\< toll .. ti, ist or "", i.li" Jl'01"nll.1
long bef"", he k,..,,· uf'l>< Boishc, Ik.· Gra" """ od"",,,,! ltali.n bourgeoil found a'f\ongl' lheir collngue • . "
le'·I.", such .s fA I"... ond L l.wa .• or.! IIIe I· re",h and A"",rican .-..:Iie.1 Wh,le Ih" mal' h.,." .. po;,iblc in the of 1919. ".ry
mapilnOS such u La J it OU'n.·.... and I.l/'rrul",-. ,,·h .. h ...-essed po<;l_ SOOn anor II>< polen".1 "moog;.1 II\< ..... middle classes dlmini,he<l
hum.Ill" .nd ,,= 11>,. 'o.nd of induSlnahsm He rapidl)' For om of Gram5l:i·. 'monl hf... ·• Amho (-unoa. """I "hllO-
Ihcttf"", 1hou,lh, lho Itahon we.--. .-c' olu"on>.n.. e'en ,fhe had collar "'"nON "t.-c _lin ,u;p"""'" of _,.h;m tn g .... ral ond ltoe:
aboulille ..._'lra,:ag.>-ne., Prolettull"" " ..... model. '0 be faciO!,) eoune,1 mo,.nlOn, in p>-niculor Ind l""hniei.n. " Crt
Imi""ed. and '0 complete til< <i",I •. Lun.",han;l y·s and Rog<iaoo"', 001 .nto ,ntemol uf m.-",,,,,1 .. <>rlers. a nd al though
lheones hod bo<:n <hrc<:'I) and signlrlCamly '''m"b,ed by' 'I><ir e",,,,,meB he hor«l th'" lile """ mlddk would bre.l .,,·a y from
wilh Mari"clli. Italt.n syndICal;" t hco" ,1<. 01 "ell 0' 0 readiog of Sor'" innu"!'l<es of'he hu'n'ni" pro'e,!ional""e , m. 1I <hop'eq><rs. v'
du ri ng lhe" Ions pt, i.xl' of .,ile m r" ly bef"", ,I>< ".r' In tum. Gram ...·' 'he "'""""'. h" h",llo ,,,nfes, to tlto ", We,! o f {, s"",'" ,h.,
beli., ed. ""hough m,,,.kenly. that md""ri31 "000" in Milan hod 1><("", 01<10. ",."".1 hab", pt"""M. Carclla rcc<>i!n ilC'd til< Importa"'" of
191 4 ",,,d fuluns, InaSa;:ir>e< and enn def..-ndocd fu'uri", f""" ,he ph}.. ",.1 eullOT "ill. fur IIIe "I,no,ng >nd uf,l>< """i.li" fac'ory ye'
.tta<k< ofl""It boorg«l" <r"',' • I>< ,,'" bound 10 oJ",,, '''''' m II>< • ..,1 ofeap".Ii" .-cb'i"",. lhe)'
YI(lkmly ..... ",cJ lhe" rrofe,.",nal kCn:1$ >lyle "f hfe " ,Ih M.lotesta h,d .I .... a)'s brcn u""oo"""ed by KropoIki "', beltcf Ih ..
1n.",,"1 WOlke .. , 'I'Mto"e'Ous """Jd be., hand 0"''' 0 ,..,"oJUlion owrtum"d
,I>< old orok" lit ,ha, ""01\.<11 "oulJ be \13" ed de,,,,,,,,Io.ed
W" 'C< ,''''''' ><JIll'" ,_1"<$ (rom ,I>< '..8m bcaluS'< 'bey ""ok 11\cm· ",th," diI)" If produCtion "'os "'" 11\I",llOlno;d IIndc1 1\(""- managtmtm
• • 'SIl(>OI'I{I< ."' .... bceo"", rho) bri ..... ,....."",1"" more od",,,,N. Thc",fOfT. he feh the: occu[U'ion "fthe f..,oo.. I goIdm """""",""y
We o.c< t!l<m d .... """"0 e!cp",ly Itwo ....... 11><", .p.ng ,,,d tl>< occup' "'' to ,.ew """'orh of !ul'flly and noh,nge
dl,"ngui.ru:"' """'"'' 'I1<l poOJnI ," I "J i,u l"". "I1<l n." ... """,,.:r," f G" "lIy, like Or Gram,. i. he un<lc rlin<d tl>< imfJOfl.n<o .of ""GUlI ,ng
",,,"rol o(,he: "",iol functions do<IC rn" iou.ly by tho )13'C, funhennorc,
('.rtll>.·. " ... borne <)OJt In onolh<1' anlck ""I1C" by Villfn""" 'ursey Bra)' Itaf IIOIOd 1hc $l""lanu.. beN'..." Grom",i." he:gemooy
Iblbiori, a ,rehn, .. an Barbim =allcd the ,,","""" )ear's and "laI1t.."'·' form of AIt.1rrh"m. LIke Gram""i. MalalC>l1!aVo Ihc
.tnke gi .. n btnh 10 the" """ unIOn and I n affili3tlon ,h. to noIl0 JU" 10 replKc ,h. "",,,,,"t lIale ""h n<W amogem..,I •. 'bOl, 10
Cha mher of labo<Jr, fio".'cr. Ihl> Sir.dac.to Treni". d,.d .ne, only a abohih the ob>lacics l(} ,," olullon ...), ch oose Ih"t ",,' ,,' ,h. ,"""", io,,s,
bfld mon lhs <>fh(. By tl>< J.Pring (If! no mosl clcrt;s .nd lcc ilo,,' ians prncUCN and ,de.. "fa l1IIXImt ond oi, il socic,{, His Utl!f'l''''sm.
"crt d<-cldodly unfa,ourablt 1OvI·.rds lhe (3'''<><), 'OU"", I mOHmtn,. ' , "" .. 01 .... bc<;am< t, ,den' ",ben he I«mc-d '0 think Il.1ly eQuid "un" e a
Thortfore. althou,h 'here " .. p=ioos httle .,idot>o. ,hot a bIockado by O<hor cap'I.1I", natm, Ir.I=ll",ly "'"ail <Irpendonl "" fOftlgtl
prod ....t"'· .lIia"". "'IS ",'<1' a ",.alt.,oc possibiltl). M""",', fi"" f"I1''''ngth <0.>1 and ".d", .nd " • l.-.di", "'"011. " "a, at ,11<: ,ncrcy of the n"".h
.n,dc In I. 'Or-dml' \'""m wu ,""cd ., h,s own P«" mther Ih.ll tnlOllual
""y."
""rl.c", Th. !M Iddle cia" ",a. dcf"lCd by Mono in a fUo<tion, 1 mallner IlO"''''tr. ""e .narchi... the: \1 ilJI\("!<' Ellore """ght 10 P"" e
10 ,,,,,Iude all tho$<! ,",h,idll3.is (,nd,.,lti.h.,s. profossiona l•. 'reh· 'hot . rt,olu' ionary Iialy OIl" " . Ihrough a poll<)' of l!)Cal
no.: ........ 'men ofut. culture and """""..,'. and pr"ille and JIIIbI'" "h,te collar hf",'e «'old replace (oreign ..,.,1, local IgncoltUrt could f.:<1l tIIC 111han
,,00.<1'1) ",-00 u'icd menial ""he< lha" manual >l,lls 10 ttlm 1bot, 'ncome, • popula,,"" and the <0111"""011 of ' t",,1 and ,ron would supply
\)<»><; urged ,hal ,he: moddle d.",,' be pen""J"" to m,. the,r nil aluable bal'" nttd, o f in,lull!)" In somo "" »:" '"h" «cconn<: pam phl<:\. nllct i>-"'"
(ur r..-olu, iMo!) Itt,,"St""'li"lI. He Ih"' the had \)" ,sohn i., Ide." Itllk-cd " "d ,rr". lt to im.gine h<>v. the ''''''0''''1)'
n.1JIlItd OOur;;r<H.I l{ICCialiSl; and Mptd that KropoIl.,n '. not'O<\ of ....1 "'Hunlng. """"u"un¥ and <"n, .. 1 o f
",,,,,Id ,n futu .. era"" tho d,,'i,ion manual and tll,el· ntd",,'ne, could be accomplishod Ihrough moral .ubl"" 01 ,nm: Stir.
1«1... 1 I.boor SO weh e'peditnh ",,,,,ld not be """0Ma!),. bul \I"'...., 0'1lanI7.I;on." 1>0." 110...,,,..,, r..·felched Mohnari', "tre 'hey
proJu<", ISm wh fa irl)' ",de,pread in the .""",h'.I1 we'" nol >0 diTTe"'"' f",m 'h< o f Gram",,', or Mosso'"
I 'h G,am""t. tit 1920 ,\ I.I. t,'",. Pl""d lho <i,o,,,,, a, ei,h.r a oon§<>,,,,,,, Anid", in ,he: socialL>1 and labour prc>' in 19J8 nnd 1919 ind,cate.n
or re"'IIl,,,, •• nd soo;,al coll .p..,. "'I,,.h meanl ,hat acts of apJ>m:"'''''' ofTJ) kor· •• \ ""n ... mc1h<>d ,,, in<: I f _ prod\I<lIQ11. I,\' "hm
<uch 0' tho dc<1JU<IK>n of It, .. and 'TOpS du, inl! ,he bllltr In) ..:onomic .egimt. i, ..'ouk! fltt Ihc m,nd "f"orken. from m"d"'nlca!
>tn k.. of ,he of 1910 were condemned III >hort. and lhen:bv .U"" them '0 and ono 'mt",lIurgoco
" "late'" ""mcJ ,ho "rik.ing JlC&""nlS to ae<!Ulrt • ... ' """SOil''''· Ilben" " o' nlot. 1 wOIlo" e,on «Iebntod Iho ,-cry divi"on
" UI Malat,,,," told I"s ",.der5 that the workers "'.'" ' on the of uf l.bo<J, Ih.t ",d i<al. we .. ,uppo>«1 '0 . bhol', I'h" ",orka. I", 'fi:u<d,
b<.,<om ing the ma..I"r5 of .. hat Ih"y halO prWucfd· . and ,ha, "'''h ,he 'm onkr '0 produc" ,,,,cd,> '0 '1'"",.10« hll"",1f in his Job. a. is fin.lI),
'rt,,,lu'''''' at lhe: V",S· ",'orkt ... mu", prese1"'e product ...... csp."" ..lIy foo.J all""w 'hlOlljlh 1ho Ta)!of S)Slem' ,.
producc, to ellSUre ,ha, IIf. normall) Ill ... "ictOf), '010', he l11Crdore anarchist •. ,ncl",lt"g \losso. ,ham! produ<'"''''
.Jdcd, ·,,110 n ... ' houSh' that aft .. Ihe """Iu" "" ,tltro " ill be no nttd i!lO"":"''''''. HOI> ""cr. unhk, ",tocr anarth"", .n.d ...:i3" <I>. both Gram""
10 eM" 'The wo.k.,,', ho <oncl"ded. 'must frum now 0.... " _"n,iJe r ",td Mos,"" (""rll'p1I1I>o M.13!<slaj "ere «;,,,,al of u[\,hinkmg POS illl';j m
,hem"" l.-e, as lnall"" Ind t'''l,;m '0 ac, IIh lnaS''' .... To de"ro), Bood, i. Gram!oCi . nd \Iosso shared the f""",u l.,i.. infloc""" of Annibale Pa .."",
lhe ocl of 0 ,La, e: a rtbel .1.. t bUI ,"11 a ,;la' t tho "ad.... do not "hoo" critique of a "",,""' i" inte<pr""'u"" of "",nt<;e "."denl m both
",an, '0. and muit 1'10 Iongc-r be, .1" (>.'" ",en II Mo ""'tor< 11\1) ha, •• in Gramscl an t",,,,,,,,, in An,,,,, io

'" '"
 I ,brOllI.', philosophy ',f l""O,i,,). '"ri""ol com munistn ', \I ",so die "f .. soci.h, n" on OliO b.nJ, from Mani,m ",' ocunStl' d<, iee on
.Ml .nOlc, ""'to""s "" n p'>t!oooph}, "io,ch 'Pf'<Ox,n.at.-J pmgm,t •.,." ocl><'.ll
to dopa" 'rOm II>< 'm,,,I. mmd<d '''arch''t pO",""i,m rhot Grnm.\Ci Th'" of cOlI .... , ,I OI'IC d»p""" .... ,th Croce, bu, neaT'" '0
P"" To ,"1I<lc"'3OO lhe.., .im,larit tcs .... 0 might co,", 1>o..'1e "n \Iosso's 0" n ,nlorp"'''tlO<t of 1'.,10",', "h"'h in
p.1rc (',,"nsc, , aOO \It>SSO $ c""""pllon "f sciooco ro ,ha, of \\d•.,,', ""1""'''' "..,
' .... n)' \\cbe""n to tt, C()", "i",ann, \t",'n ... "n; has '110....,.
""","u.e approath tbc Gorman'... n.;", a", """"'" 1>0.,,, "".. Iopt'd J conceptiOn nn1 far ... mo'cd trom \\obcr' •
• mn,ues bel .... ""n G,altU<i, \ 1"""'.00 \ldleT in IholT app'oacbes t" t,/.:al t}l"'. and \10<5<> di'pla)Nan op"lemology dose i!llked
,,;tonce ,.
'0 """hodoIO$lOal ,nd",d ... h""." \lus", "a. nei'ocr a hah,>, nor a
II"", (irallb<:' ....." uld hi,·" ",acted ' 0 Welle, 's defin""", <If sciooce ""''''' ,,' In h .. fof'>1 an",le 0<> T.) k>ri,m. "hlOh In f><t "as a ""'PO'I>"
u opt'n Quo,lIon, yn il can be "'Rn""d ,hal Gramsci 's <kft"""",
I> to lho poIctn" lin" ocn .""n:h",•• oo """..h"", "' L OrdiM \'"",,,,
"," c\o<.c, to \\ <btr', I1wI h'J .,.,I\kkm
Lul.ats ',. '" Ceruunly, .wnn!! the.ununC1" aQd .u'umn of 1919, \1os"" argued ,h31 neither .
Gram"", 'leY>' ,tood clo$cr 10 \\rbft'. th3n to Crott's, Although lie
.. nplojed ,hie .".",,1 of l",h3n ptlll"""""",ol i<leah"" in hi' bon"" ag"""
''''' ,n all IIi 'U"" ..., I>< "'5 c.... ful to cn tici"" (;cont il. and Croce
.".t.
... ,1'1'",11' ,00" ,Juah,m "'" 'lor""", rould ockqualOl} de",ribe ",al"y.
l hCfe did IlOl ""oIema un" ..... I.TllI1 i, eTSOl syStem'l, but for
"",.." "",OOmS '01) mLl<h Croce or W<"ber. M.n,,,,,·, "...
for ""demunt"" tilt .ulrural pre$I,gt of tho ""''''''tf''' """""""ity In s'mil .. ""' ", 10 f,.11 ,I>< of economic d<"'nnjn.an1.5 obo' e
full""" TOjIhll'i rook th. Lo'o,,.an . .iroh IQ for l>f'I"in8 ana" .11 "''''', rllct. ofhwn.n hfe. \l0H0 d,f'.... be .... ern nhd natural
ch,,!> for tho" anxk. on ""tent ,r", "",;,II$m," "lor dId Gram"" I,,, of CC<.>nomy on lhe one haOO .• nd 'he non-n '>tcnl u""crsal la"s of
h",. an)' for c"""optlan of .. i""".
as an ,drol"llic31 \1"'''1 c<OrlO""c> on lhe ocller. o"t.,& our 0" n egos, Mo ..... argued,
of IIIe bou'l«> .. ,e IO>lead, he ooneei, ed of Ihe «",ntif", the ... " rIO sy<t(m o f .... I"y. R.ahl} he <oncltkled. 'i' life; onJ " "
n:'oluuO<t &I'" 'IS on pool-Gahle. n """ct,., in m""h tl>< "'me 'hI> tha t "" "'<on"""'t'"
fo,h"",15 \l.ct>or. hm,. h" OOIed the affi nn"", F"ononl1< I. ". d,d nol d"ectly offec' human <o""""",n,..', •. Thi.
of ,01'''''' ""h.1 Gram,.i"..med to be $<Iymg '" hIS G.,mil.an ''The
(;""""., '''''''''1'1 of .., .. nc., ••• """''''' of h,,,.,..,,,.1fOo<1. " 001.11 'h" R., ul "I""' aga"lSl (ap ;t. ,·, a nd P",hap> In T91 7-18 Gram""i might h", C
h"'" ,foa, Wober, ,,'hi> . , i, i. ktlO"'n f<so lutely ufll><ld 'he
" ,n."..", ,\ 10$5(1', olllo l" SY YOl . 'I"",.. d 'e"'HUon, .bout hI> pol",,·.
C"t"""" "fUIC "'1<1I"f,c II",OIho.l Web<r, too. 'hought <lut """'''P- For Mus.." \b.,."," h>ll '" ito ""m ,he la\lwr lho<Hy of ' alue rrom ",hieh
""," "f ..." ,,1 rho""",,,,,. I\Od to be fo l,ered a pri"", ,,,umpM,,,, 'he I."" of ecoI\Qmi<s were d"duced . H. ""1<"<11>0" the law, 01
"'" . 1", ,«o¥.,,w ,h;, ,,10," ,h.", '"urnpt'oo, , ,., nicr "lth 'he ,'ap;" ';!' 10,,,. , p", .J Ih rougoout the world , but also .\ Ia"
<iota .'lom.1",>rIJ, ti>cy mu,1 "" d,,",,,ded While ;'io"'; ,,, ,I,dn 't to
I", ""nO. 0<",,,,,' ,",I ;<y, tot.ol ly ;od<p<oO"", of the h' mon
.."h,,,,j .h<xlI the b)' tho <mlC"""",io" o f ca plt,ll
,,,,,I ,I", r.III "1I ,at. of rroii t II """, cr, ool"Je lhe"" Slate"le n" M"' i!m.
"""ho' d,d ,he)' 'r"'"""" "''''"tlfir ,1><.,.;« ill 'he w,,,, ..
Ih.,
t" "o"ld I.tllur. It ,,,,,Id no' ooioni>< 'Ihe foc,; of
f"'\>d1Kf <"""'b ITI;I n otld "",.. ty. Thm: ",1(1 tu>oo '0 betino:ru, GrOJn«,
",," th .. 0103""'''''",1"", of'be >< ICfI" f", m<thod." <""""""",,'.,, f",,,oom "ill, all excluokd frun Mar. " ,\·,1.",' " As
hum," bcmll5 e"t<n:d 'ow \I atx " in "' m""h "'
?",n,!<, "'cop,«j ('"",e', c"uCI.m o f tho i"'portatlon o f Ihe phYSICal tlory p<""",",tiod •• "" .. 1<.1 .... but "1." ","uld "'" "'pia", how hum.",
mothod ,ntO h,,1Orioai In''''''gll ..m . On Iho otk .. hand he """'.,,"'"'
0, oow ' he}, 3N",n:d 01.\> co",.",,,,,,...,, s.c><"". (bet)
d,d nut <kn)' the "",,0.1 for ..,....., t} p<. of ""ien'ifo, ,ritcri • . A Ma.:xist _00 ,dcoIOjlY (,.hll') 10'0'" unhnd¥<ablo .
Ih<or} o) f h'>loncal ",. l i1)o. ,n II>< ,",me fa,hion u \\'ebe,', (oc 10 \ IO$SO ",&""" ,hal an """" 'm,nded a""",l>o-communi ,m "ouJJ a",,, ...
hoJcne, Sorcl'i) oooid only >C! OUt jlO$l.ibili"'" not iron'dad 13"'. hen fn.'CIlo.lm rO,the ,00;' id ...1 'o"her s»pn,.,OOi, ,dual cl3", coo«iou ...... "
Gram",,', d'\'Ij"", of loOClely lIn"ttn "Lf"'''truclures and mf""t"""u",," (I>< 1.10" of """"OII11C "'''lion Of the OIot. coold . .. "'nt"" f"",<Iom fOf
» " a mcr""""'og",.1 rom .n,,,,,,,,,. 8uI II I ratbcr sophi>l'. ,""'h tnd" oJual Of be ,",oI.ed.o . ' pl.", .... h.). For tbc anarrh,oI>. Musso
eltcd ,.,..1. t'en G ..",,,,,'. \bn"m mu,1 be ,I... jft<;tla, a «,.nt ifir .:oo"n"",1, the only ",.1 un'l) I> 'man· "
,o."ohlm, 000 hie .... ""'d hlo,. III ,be famous WMlcrion sep.tn>tion To .urn "P, \I""" "IS • posi." ," 110< • aQd " ,.

182- - ISJ-

.
 Gr""ucl Anu1t"h..."

'.-onh" hil. "'h} Gram"" nt"cr "'plird fo ),.10'$',. <ou""il. 'he ,rad'lional pruc.u of prod...:tio" Id., been ",'c"hrou.n
of \b",i,m ,"" C<>Il,in""" '0 "nderl"", ,he imponanc. of his. <ontnb"""" rho produc,i' iSl natUIT of lhe «>uno;t., "'I) '"a upon ,he harmonious
,",.,.,v_
'0 L n"'<glng of the ,,-,U aDd <""«iou."",, o(,tIt protIII<cr<. "o<lId
H" pn:f>lO<) ph,I<X<>I"h'cII ",mads conchdcd, MOIOso "'"m OIl in hIS tI", '",g,mcnlcd' ,mage of commum"" ba!o«l on a ' .. >tIC soc,al order ,
an,de to ho .... TI) IOf" I)'",.m of "'POl""i"" Wh,le \losso he".<cd ,hal the 5(}'\ icI ,)"cm m1gh, be "rru,rd
.""" Mo»o ......'traclrdlo TIllor', Il'f"OKh b«a .... "<11,.,kd ",inll '0 <pee' fie <"mafic, and 'k""'ll1ll'h'" eondit lOllS. be ,n",ted
,he .'p<nmemal 'y".m to ded....:. ho...- ...-on: ""'\lld be boIh Ie'" un nll 1.... 'lh. fa<IO<)' «>unc,L ....... IIn,,<...a1 p!teno:ncnon, IJ.ucd upon a c1"",
and m<>n! prod...:ti"", A, a ulor,an '1a)'Ior". fIOn .""",.,ion "-lIh ,he: prodUCIl"C f"'l«'I, " '."rd uport ,he ,nll\3T"'. of,he
<""IT". "<pee" of 'he ,),,"'m T'Iooe ,\"",nCln '$ .ySlcm depended upon at><! file, upon ,h." con,roI oflhe" rcpn:"'''f3'''''' ,hrough ,,"'ocabte
the \\ ,11 of lhe worhr ,n onkr '0 implellltnl a I1llionali''';on of ,,,antl.,.s .nJ I"r""sh • d,ff.,.nlla,ion of funtlion, ,n 'h e fa<lory
produ";",, gu ..."'c,J by fhe ' n"u",1' Jl<',s,on of llbour, S....:h I dl<'i.ion of l. boI"
!'he ",ic n' ific org"ni''' ion of worlc " . s fcdlOced '0 four princ'l'b ,m, ld ",,1), f"""' ion ,f commun'lm P'\'chology
I imly. mcl!>o<lI ,,'ould be lubsUl u,cd for h"ph ... rJ f""tOf)' f., ""roble to "",onflf" produ",;on
o'llani''';on Sc<onJly. clTun "'OIlld be .'p'nded "" lh. special. Mo,,,, cm">-1ged fU!llTt unllS of !cchnic,"", . "ached ' 0 workers
""'i"" aoo f",in-ng of foctOf)' "crlcn, Thirdly, nch "or . e, "01.110.1 be ""'>I\"il>, These would be cl«l.d It)- ,he wm." them"," •• ,
n'IOI'I"OI<'d "" 'h>' lhc de""" or dilT",ul,) \If <3th ,ask could be ""icn"f",· "-<contlly. unlike To) lor·, 'hoy "ould 00\ .<!.bh>lt unfair
ally es .. bli,bed_ F'I1.lIl}'. ,he", wl)Uld h.H '0 be. d"·,,ion of and ,n<Li,'idu.liS1 P"""'''""es; ""her ra.h .ni"...." "ou!d det.nn,nc ,he
re>-ponS,bilil)' bel" <en and ,he "crl...-s, "'lh ca.ch ,00,,,,,1001 'IUOOard tasl:' ,hal mu...lim""'. p,<'tt."orL< "-as ,he: .-.cp.
lI"cn I compelenl .... illnm .." """ of commun,sm bee"u,", " comI>,n<"S -"'age ,1"'<1) ""ith ,he I1\0OI
In h,. ,h,rd 0rI",1e \ 1","" .,,,,,,,0«1
the ""I',ul,;! ofTI) Iori.m, """..,... ,m,.-.Lcd '. Tht -".rdor<! , .... - "-" an _,mila'i""
H. oJnlLu...t ,ha, up 10 flO'" ,he l)l'.m of ""'enufic managemcnt pn:. "fl.} lor', eoo<:qlI of the ·.... ndatd· to the toQ!I".",,..ms ofw communiS'
supposed capilal"l """"l To) lor had lillie undcnt'ooi"l1 'l"'''''' 10'0""""
of <o,,,,,,ils. T«hn",,.ns """IJ thc:T-<fore be ."",mel)'
Ill' for the l.bour mo",mcm. '1e,."helcu.. \I.,..., beh.,cd It.., imponan, ,n \los",,', pr<lIlO'Cd .} .. cm "f f..lUI) <"""",I •. 11>c)' "ould
'hc ",,,n,,iie kernel of T.ylorism m,gh' be de'acbed from it< c.p".I .. , tnon"or ,he approp<i.""" of p!i'MI)' ",",.,,11. IIttd«I for prod""". IlIey
con,c' L'" «0.. 01 Jctermioc ",,,hll,,,"t .nd clenc,l pr1l<1I,'" and fhey «w!d "mud,.. c
In h" f"un h . ..flde M""" tra".fcm:d hi,," .. , •• , from 'hc ca p"aIiSt. ,"'" 8<,.n"t,. method. ofworlc, r,n_lIy, ,hey wou ld .,,is! tn d... rm ;n,nl1
",wncr of. firm to its manage" For MO;$<>, hi, for m "'0,, 1,1 bo,h 'he qUlntify and <1,,,I,,y of" ork on lbc shop floo r Although Mos,o
cemen' " p""lucti"ist alliatIC. fi", nb,,,xt\ dunng 'he ,«h:>i",,,,' <In ' e ' hat fh. t«hnl< ;.lIs' un"s "oul,las.. e "pon th e,cma)or
of fho 'prmg of 19 19, Th,s fonn uf prol'lluCli' i.m . 1"" "' li ed uJ'Oft , IIC ,kCl>ion, with worlc"",' .', I>t d,d "'IUme ,har lh. d"'",,on
di!-3fJ1'C.r.I'IC' of''''' protection,S! .nd bourg""i. "ate Mosso bel"«n manual ."d nlcn .. ll.bour "oold p'r<i,t f"" lions ' imc_ H"""
.g.... d ,hal only in a "ould indeed. """Id ""nual prod...:." nun"", . C<)InmUniS1 con,''"OU" .... if
"""'I'IC It, real .ign,foc"",., but he .1>0 sa,d ,1\:11 ...·.n in lhe 1131), of 1919 'tthnical . nd m:lnw! jobs ",err <I,ll "" d.arly del,,,,,.,rd,n a socict) of
",.II·frd prod""",,, ",'hn ,,,,",, de$pCrat •• oo undc!pO-id "orl.... "ouid ...1f_ m.&""grd COO"" il.
be more tole!)' <.",lId"., to u;i>cr in ,he a"'.' uaJl>f<lmlll'joo,'" Li •• \ los",,', an''''n In h,. r,,,,,1 a",oI. dcmo>fIl,'laIC< the clo!.c k"lSInp of
("""""i, \ 1""", beli.. cd that .. If-d,;c'phnt Inmcd In 'M"",) "",.,cd b" ,dea!! to Gram"',',_ n.e of a prodI><:..-;' ps)choiol), .'"
,he """" faIClurabk human ma,."al r"" ,he <,,",<I""'tion ofh .. 'fUI,,'" .-......lied by the IInroducti<><l or .. h;u Kropoo.in Ind fomt'r termed ';",,,,,,,1
ci') '_ .d"":.lIon' Although Graffllo<' t'!C\'Cf "'hcd uplD ,he Ru •• ian ana",h;" Of
The ofthe f3tlOT)- council """""' .... , pr=nlcd \I<>MQ" orh ,he Catalan <:<It>c..""",I", ,0 ",infom: htl. 0..-" form cd""al'"",
In to 'mpkrncnt hil ,alue·f= ,."ion of Ta) 10'"''", 'The app.1ITn'l; Pr<llelcult, with '" o"-n ..:lflO..-lcdgcd deb!, fo both ltahan
producer ce.",d fo be a m><hint aM b«amc an aw . ", 'nd COrtiC,"", '00 French '1'",licali>l lhough', "1\'«1. porposc, Funh<",,,,, •.
r l,m"" of prod...:'i ",,', he "'roIC, II "0 The formafion of 'he w"", .... · Gfotn",i ",,<or "'l'IIJlJt...t 'he rr",cna",. of\I",,,,,', "ltcgnl M"':""on,

,so - ISS
 "h,eh wa, d,sc,,»o:d in \'u,,",,, ju," .. G"""",i', Schooll of
"rga", of mln,i,ion 10 full anan:hl>t <O,"m""''''', .., ",en the ..... ren,"
P",lctan"n Cull"", """ urTying WI II> r.rs> 1«lurn.ll
\1""" Idm,mjo .)'S.cm of e<iu<a1l0<l !hal ",ndc.-.d '.he produce,
M",<o """""i:<cd .ha.
<"",uall" and cox"'''''' would =ruin .f,c..- the
",,,,I,,,,,,,,3I)'
,n ... ,-,-.,.,'IOII
had completed.
H""'" """ coru;c ...... of <0Ilec1l\. life'." Admil1edly Ik rouneil, """Id
hal t .0 coop! techn,ctan •• nd ad,,,,",,,,,,,,, e J'n'<lnnol ,n .he immtd'al'
The RCCeplio n .. r I'rlHl ur. h I. ",
f'O'H... olu""",,1)' prnod, ... on to lhe '''.m upon h,sh .. Ianfi
'0 allrac1 lhem lik. th. R..... i..... In ,he kmg Itnn lhe produto:rs "ould
llal. 10 ge ..... ,,, Ih.i, o\',n G .. ms.<, "-<I "'ritlcn a g.... , deal
h "d,/flCul"o dctcrmino 10 "hI"x,onl Grllns.<i'. Of Mo...,', produc"
nbou, lhe w •• of ,he 1'311.n od"".""",,1 ,y"cm prod"".d .ha, """ "-''' endorsed by ,he maJor,,), of "''''kcn ," lhe faClOry <oun,,1
'1>0'011""". but " ,,,,,,inly did find c3d,... Mild.
pa.-.. i'es .. ,I><, ' han producell. S"n, IJrly. \1.,..., .... 08niled Ihe ""cd
",..,laroh,1' ha. " ",ed lhe ok"rk>p=nl ofl ... O<l ethIC ,n ,he ....... ,nd"",,31
10 3 'j'''cm '" h.r. 0". bet,,",o. n.ilhcr ci'"c n" produc"""
work,ng d." in 13te ni"",ecn,h, und e.rlj' '" rn" .,h""nlU'y 113Iy." h "
,nd",d ual ', where ,he on ly tlia' ok'e l,>!" i, 'he ey il tendeney
''''',>rd, bureaucracy a,," P'fI"'" ark'. " • co",monpbce 10 .",,,t In .. lueh a ",'0<1. .,101< wa, w,de.p",,,1
.'11008" ' hc 010'" "i"ble suppO'W''1 of ,he faelory coune <1 ""', cm,IIl
In hIS ftnal .nide "" Taylor MosS(} ske'ched. 'ys'em '" "h'eh all
S""h s«rned enamoured of a '",lig,oo of wor.... . s 'he '!'lIM
1' 311.n; "e", eompelkd 10 ."cnd ",hool u",,1 • 'echn,cal or 8) onna"urn
un,,,,, .., G,no C."agoo P"' It .. the ..,ademle. has deftnedth ..
od"'''''0<1''", <XImpic'od Aft ..... ard. oil graJu ..., "".Id become pro-
'''''''' prosa,cally as '"on. ,deoIogy' p<rtups too roma,,"C t{)
d"CU> 100 enICr an awn>rril" counc,1 F' .... III .. ort each council ,",ould
he acccr<o:d IR we, fIC,cnhel.".;, cml,nly ",flected tbc ,<kat of <Oo'Ile
<":,,It. i,. own o/flCe in "h"'h hu","olll a4d <pc<:ifically "I'I')ied ",icnHfic
,IOSO'S, ,ollal>o.-..,,,,,, !l> ,he "'orting cll». P......,n, define,
"oo,e. "'ould .. h,l;! Ill< 'c-a<i»1'lI on ,he"" ",hool. "ould ,.le
"".lodeolo8) combini"l
'urns 10 be engaged ,n ,ndus.!). The rtSU11 "ould be .n ,nltgra) Mut""""
and ,he eros,,,,, of Ih. d" ,.i"" of bbour
The produce",' coufIC,ls "001.1 ,rocll><lt.1I of._iety ,n
!'"IIlIe,an>, bu ...au".-.". o!poi",,,, ,"loU"'""I,.nd scien",,, would bt
put'i"" It. tho ode. oI .."Orl; .. monl .n.! ........1 d.'l, ltIc pnd< 01 bc-on8 • P'1'r",,"o,,,,'
"or\«, ",Ib tho "",..1«""",,,,,,< ,"""<fII'on of """"n"'I)' b<l..-.m work
. nd pol i'o<>1 """ \ "j'.'"
'"'-"nbn-$. Indeed. \ 1'-""0 <.""1 pcnt.ou.ly c"""' 10 on authoril>ria" J'OS"ion
he 3'Ol"ed ,loa, 311 po\<<, re.,.d in ,,,., '<>uneil' and 'hat 'hey '00 \\,ori HI""lojl., ,ndu.dcJ. . .1 '0 corry ou, "hil . >lre, .. n,
long"' 1110'" ot her uvni<o, i",,; Othe, po.... ,,', except frcdy ,ho.., the ;onpun.lICe ofa" illd i" id,ul'j .b,llty .,><1 honc'S'Y '" form'"g ,h. 1)." ..
ti cyo l".d by ,h. ,oune Ll < .hrlll •• I"" "Co.. ne iI; W,TC '" the e nd merely ,clf'TCguT.,ion . A hi,m'thy on "t.,,, "nJ Ihe "nuc {)f lal>ou,
i's.<lf w.s nu' quc>"m" " I ,,,ally, A"d ,n COOlmdic!iQn l{) all of ,I",.•
",n," "r ,lI<kpendffi<'e .lId in,,,., i..., ,ncluded vlder and an" ' pwd""",e
,'u;to,,,, '''''h as 'Sa in' \1on'b(. h,,.,,,,,, illes< ,·.lue. lie",
"""=,,ly 0 .... frt,," II hlCh I colk<;'i, ,SI or """li,, mo"emen' m'gh,
tJcncfi •. G"""",i'" produ.r",·,sm >OI.Iglli to p>p<r 0'-':' tl>< inhcn:n1 ,,,,,;.ion,

-_,-
1.1<_<><). " , , _
.. be,,,,,.,n sl,lleJ and un,lin.d .. orle .. , and ,,...,.. """" aspee" of """,l
'deology ,h.JI perpc1ualM p",·,ndu''''11 ,ndiscipline .nd 'enden,i ••
....
_I _'_,""""
_ ofoaoI
......
to" anl> clas, collal>o.-..""" or e,en cfOSS closs
rhe produc-,,,;'" "Oller" i,h,n ,he factOry rounc,l """ernent m,gln

..... ""modIrm..o.O<> be soc;"I,>! Of Th. """.10<1 I nco . . "!iucol,hal ,he m:rn,ly
C....... ,"It""...., ""'" eigh'."""r d.:>y nt."COS,IIJI. an ,nc..... in ,he inlcn';ly of
ool._.....m..nr.q 1"'00UCI,on '" order 10 .,,'" ,n poI.",.r ""'oTllt(DC"on m eap""hSl lilly
"pm ....... "' ........ hen in h aly \ 1.11. belie"cd "'oriol'> ""he, than "nell.."u31, ,hoold
1"f""1'''''' foo- "",,,,,,wl;
th. sy,l<ms of "'ore effiCient prod"""on " Hughe< l.a em",

'"' '"
 tailor 011<1 1.,., Itthnlcian, a.o; "elll.l orpou;<r oflhe uRSIltt".. rul T..,b- A. an onatth.SI he m>y ha,. !ittn opp<>Sed ,0 , be ",,,,Itanl deaden 'IIi of
">Ci ...·, Ln ..... .x.cnixd the iong-auhi,>hc.l ,),,,,,,rn on ,he """'Oil' pcrsonohly due '0 apphc.uon of "">cnur,,, m>nag""""'!. l>ul
on thc tailonna trade for ,he n:a&rs of l. om,,...
Sum". O\-e, ,he 1"" ... 'rrod""o,' he industrial proareSlo.
<Iocatl<. ,he "l"" had ,,,,,,..iCtl 'he "mergenc. of la<ge, coope' .," < Tbe II3P be'wcen til< productmsm of I Gra",;.-i. \.l.,.", or I
"ori,l!or' " hlch h.d ' ended to rerlace homeworl< ."" ,nlOllor , hOI'S (i.nno and "5 ... coptan<:<: b)' Ihe hull of the rnotal ".m;CTS ofTunn, '11.1
Thi, had ''''lIled III< capab,Ii'y of f": loo ttl A"". , .. lor.; 10 5igll ,ndll' ld",, 1 quilc f",,,,,,!.bl. ProdUCI" im ...,,,,,,d Ul be "'lIulTli (hal tedmolog"al
e'-"""'CI> I».,c..:l On P'C"'< m'e' . Hdnd·in·h .. ,,1 "lTn <OOj>C!lIli,'c "., n."u ni So Ih. , Mu"" n"'<$ ,1", Mow>', ')'i>' ofTnyluri,m.
La (mi . oo,ed Ihe 8nodual <m<rg'''''' of In" prod""'''i51 .. ilo, who "'nh ,g 'standard ,all' ,ep lacing 'he p,re'-rlHe, ... as I conlr"d;e';''" '"
rep'a<e<l old.. hab," of .11<1 " ilh rdltCdli,mal 0, .. rotS." i\J ". ha,,, aln:a<Jy ><co>, the m"jOI d iIP"1'" ,n Fial from tb.
'rn li"""r P&SII""" .. G." .... lhe mos' ","rnple .ulUnm of 191910 lhe of 191{1 "t'" on lhe problem of
of an an.--chlS' "ho •• prc»e<l "'''"' io.IcoIOi)'. II. "' ... ('nlployed In a "'&hI)' ho" 10 arPly p,..,e·""",_ If TIylori,rn meanl In)·,bong 10 manag.", .'
.lllied an..! ,nd" IJ .. li" pOi"..",.d .om"".-herc be,"'",n ,n Ih" "5urely iDdicalro a "..,... effoc,cnl mctOOd of
,he Icchn>cWI \1",.", and Ics;o slliled shoplloor "arken; Ganoo deKribed 1"",,,. aDd """,_no,....
,he uniq"" )IO>"ioo of'lor mOOelmal .. llihe pI.nl thc ,,-., ... In any COSt. lhe <:<)I.hu"" of wOOo. prod"",i' ,SI. hm".-.J '0 ""n.,n
beong I COl'"' or mar,!ui, .. "ho<e ",""',hop proudly boa".d ,h" lnon.icAlcondn ,ons . An inlore .. ins rqlQIIln I. ,\""'" (22 \1.)'
SIgn, 'Ie"'ple ur "Mi'," 11,,,,.Ikd til. occupa' ion of tho f.etOllel of 'l'" p' .... iou' Scp""'''''''
I" (" "",,', m illd Inc p rOlluClI\ ", qUl l ",e; o f Ihe <ounoil mo'·.",.nl how • bel" oon ' l illed .nd un,k,ll.d ",,<an>c
«"mo J 10 rll"' gc " IIh Inc cullu", of fial ;I>elf Qual",. c""t rol " .. JUI' ,., ><ulc lhal """,,,ted ,lor door 10 pol;u ,nl."'o",,un," S"nilar ",m imenlS
'ItCh an «,uncil, In ... " .. d and ,mpro,ed upon_ "o'e ""hoW by an.reh,m ,,,,,.Iling Ihe ded,,,,, of m ilila<"')' afl<'
September. '" hen Ih.)' dncribed 'h" ruptu'" of lhe of nc'l I)'
Tho .. orbbop <Omtl'..... ",.. on IfnI'II'O' '''t: "'" ot;eru or 1'"'<'1""""" .... on" ... :rnd \O'.ran u",,,,,uad ",-onm; . .,-en bt::fore
," hI> ,,<lItohop Ikcause """" " •• ptOCIIo:, '"""11_ Il<r"", "'CIIlIU ,he rna ... s.ol,np oflhe $pnng of 1921 brouthl ,hese IellS""'" dearl)' to
,!It 1'fOdu<'_ tiDC'. m) P""" hod 10 '" ,I\n),,;/>. ' .... So. Ih< .0ftYn!.... ,I><""rf..,._ One .... <th,;! a'lltJrd ,ha"n. P""'tr of'h" ""'I' ,,0rI.'1q! cia"
dtmo<>,,,,,,,,
,,,,,,Id 'If! 10 til< ......M.."'"'' ,...., "'" p,,,,,,, ... ...
l<c_ I<,,<en«! as """n) ,,0rI.e-rs felumed 10 ,he " "" ""'" 00 '0 other
1"',1""" . . ·""'d I""
< .... < ".,.-., In"'" '0 cI.,," '''''''''' 'CtD<Il1. and r<>f>«' ." J"'" on 11>0 of 1920,'" <}onn<> al'1 conornded 1n.1 ,he>;! AtW
rc"roil> "c" In ,mpon.nt i("ola,,1c faclur '" the o(,nc f.clory
I.ike Gno",,,,,. Ga""" "'""'od 10 J,'monSlraw 10 Ih. publi c 'h" fi.t·,
wurl<en; "ere and p,od U"III·. e""ugh I" replac. ;,.
<""ncI1 <110'.' ' ' ' . 'I1li;;- ",,,derc..:l older Im<le ""ion """,I "",, .nJ mcllK>ds
o(,,,,kIO, bUI he al"" • .!dod 'h'" lhe rn;w ....o,\anwd"" "a' fa' from being
own.rs. 10k" G""" 'ci, Ga,,"o lnoullh, ,h31 ,h. occupallOn ofohc :lllomol/<1lOu, blocl. On ,he one hand, 5n1,11 KnlUp' of \' .... 11""" ond
f"",,,,,c' had '0 a and mor-e U,dle.., e.fried .... ith lhem """",hi;.o polo"cal tOO,'ions. ho .......·'"
rrQ<luc...-.· <onsciOll'!l/;>;_
01"""" from " I..,,, ""'" '" lhe mountainous rtlions or fUI1he,
H(M IMtt dki Gari .... judge T.ylorism' \ \ 00...-. ,n",he<! in the f.aboca.
1>On uf'ooIl or,hemodel. fO! moulds in h.nn·. "nsin«nng pl.nt, " ....
.f",kl ,n I"" \ <n<10. ,,= en"", or anocoa,ed "·,,h ,he C..thol",
"",,.1 1llO'('1r!tn, G,U""P!>< Ik!u I"" danned 11-..1 ,Ilt 'ang"",d 0('''''
"'" whjtCI ,. "'"" and m.,.>o" Sludies II1Ilil "ell ,nl,lIhe 192&.. AI 8ru"" mo,'ernenl "tI'C m.ulo "" loung" lesl "on.-=. p<q)Ored 10
Beaa r"Mo, ,n <or m>nuf"<lunnH inJ",,,y call1,...,o ... , 1001 ",,,,·h,.,,. qu ..,,,,n ololc:< and thei, paltn,'s al,umpti""" funllCntlofC.
"'PC<:'O<> all<l a c. '(101)' 'n which <",Fbmansl"p Ga""" liS<) (!'Called ,hal ,herc ".illeJ • II<"'l<l <Ie.1 of be",.cn
f,,,,,,d p m'«olt"n, NC\'onil<-le» on hi. old Ill" Ga"no wa, forth'igh' In h,s Iho ... 'I"'".nt ""riers' w" h casy ac<tn '0 ,egCl.blos "nd fruil. ("'Itt
<ollJ.mn'T! on of r"yl",;s", .. h< h.d ,cell ;1 Ihro ugh tn< Bed:!u. Ihe", nal,, " "II_go. "nd ,he ...orm urban wo,kc" c.ught up Itt II",
'l ".m '" It,,) in lhe 1930.. 0' a, he unile'<lood Inc ""'Ihod" u t' So, ,el po"wa, ..;on. ry ,urgo. <omp)c,cly def.n<clo» .g.onS! the ,i", in ,he
Su\;h;,rIo) ....'m ... ""t hIS .,:achmen"O lhe machl!l/;r)' oflho le<bnoi"ll",ali)
"", of I" tltll."
ad,..""e<! 1:":10<) S<>m<11"",S blinded him 10 n, mo'" I>f"'ClS The "MinS cia .. of Turin .... a.o; ,herefore b)- 00 "",ans umfie<!

,.. '"
tbt fac,O<)" """<'rnCnI. A .. ad,,'lI of'- OnJilH' .\""'" demon· ,,-n mtd .. rhrougtl ntj!<lIlOtiort< ""th sJ"lIed "orl......" 11-.0 possibditJe<
.lra'.... ,ha, ,he Md""",,,; ,,= not obi" ious ,(>.he d,lfe",,,,, •• ",hlCh of "",i.1 ",,*"10.) •• ".11 .. technical rotbbonll"" m<anl
",i,tod l.IlIO<Igl:t ,h,m ",""rs. Enta \I.ua ""I'OIe complaining alKlullhe t1l:ot CHn nod",ol. ,n .he factory <","neil n'IO,,,mc:n' d,spll)ed
un","rain.ed nld" ,J""ij.m di,pl.o)'od by ""'ny of h .. \1"tt1 [",linl!' '()\\'lfds .he" " ..... nodical i<k<oloKlCoL po5,,;on Glnno rocollod
''!IlIc<l .h.. hch"oo lile em",I""'''''''''' ,n lh. f"<lo,). u,ina that many tTII'''gen; ,n .nginccronlL mJuSiry rose: from ,b,
Ih." " '1011«,",,1 _nd m"",ul.. ,k,lI, to ad, ane. ,hemscl, •• , r,,,,cul.rly bctwcefl w<lrhrs. a,KI evcn .mrloj' .... was panlC u·
dang ..oo, '" I", orinion ,u, an o<lo<. '; <H1,1 h,enn:hy une found '"lOnll" larly ovide'" '" 10,5 m..:hani,cd plan15, G .."", I I", ,,,,,ail ed lh." "" cr. 1
m.nual worke,s (111< "ory conslilue""y un wluch Gr.:uns<i placod such of AWnd l' •• nS'.....," a nd m"nagers wen: P"'grt"»II" a",! dcmocrallc.
h,gb 1M>p<,) I' ho "rp'""n,ly "'jc"<'od produc''''i'' coil=1I lsm r... "",..."..1 aDd !al... .""·f,,,",l>l, Agnclli. he eOl1l1mlC..t. >P"""""d • p31 .... "1I,,
\\ one" ",'h ""pcno, m,d"",t ...1c",d<m .. l. could usc .he"
...,,,,n· """"h,)" " "b,n h" cmp"" , ror",e, manual" ori<.,... ""h """'"
c"" to dl>'J'1« .hemsclH' from ,he" len-tduca,od ..-orlnu'e," .,,,,,ri""'" If nigh! school. cwld ""h,.,. '0fY prom" ...... "",,,'ion, ,oo.od.
TllC", d"ulO<l' ,,= placed ,n,o ",I,.f by M.unno <>anno's and (;.rlno boR no ill ",II ''''' ard< them. Indeed. on the contrary. h. ".s
beha, lOUf dunll3,be rno<Iolrnak"", .llIle ofrcbruary 10 Apoil 1919, Wb•• proud of'llt" ach,.,.mt11" Dunng I JOb "' ,ho half-com"I.. od L,nB""o
coil"",,,. i:IOrp.n.ng .hre.tencd to pi.... he rno<Iolmakm' formid.>bl. plant he recalled ,he ,,,'', m.n.agc'. an .. ,,,,on". '" ho .,,,11,,,011
"age dlffo .. r.li.1I in je0p.3ro). c;."",,·s oga1o'3l1,ni"" began to unlll,d l\ov.' liS >o:I1iclll)" in .. gralod I)'".''' optratod, Al IhlS
The .. wo •• 0uelled·otT by 'h' rebru.ry accords 'hat lo..-.rod the fulu .. d""",or of Genoml Moton atrl".J 0" th. !oCone .",1Ga"",,
m,, ;mum the modelmak.rs <OI,ld e3m S<)", to n• ...,"· thc "'g" pl ... u," in thl> ill1(>O" . n, Amo ,iean 'ho ,aienlS of 1he fo,,"'"
d,fI".nti. ls of all m...1.nd <"g'''''''''11 wo.hrs, A. Gari"" ,..:olls: ",,",cr froll1 TUlln"
I ,'ctI ":,i,udes ,,,,,-.,d, Ap-.ell, n(ll a, ne ...", •• , onc m,ghl 'hink
,f" " 'ru< """th'J roc.lls ""h "..d. lhat Ag.nelh wU 1\lr,>Otod to L 'OnJ;M \'uO>Q

_I. . .,. . . .
Tl>e ",..xr. of I 10M .aiel ...., carry ou' tho . R...., ...'III <'en
""', " ,m!"nF" I hnle on )'0" "'1<""'- "" 110,. ,ntTno<d!he ..."" of''''' and lhougll' ,11:01 (inunsc,·, an",tO'S ........ , hi.. e bNn ..-nltro b)- one ofb,s
=_
Iov.<,,' In pnn'''rl< .. in III< I.... "''''''J. bu, ... r,1< bun \1< en@'n".".... '" DunnS.he OCCtq>a!l0l11 Agnelh ofl"Cfod W lurn hIS emp,n:
""'tT 00..' ..... hcado '" _ Df ... ''''"",,:I;''''''' mtO a "on.",· e""l""''''.' Al,hough !he pL"" "as .toll,n 'ts n<"l 'lases.
he """mod 10 be olL"cn"lt ",'on"" .,1,"" conlrol of FLlI, or • ,'cry
The Slnl e l< not only u""."a,nly in 111< "'''lOOny of f<>nn of profi' _"",ing A8,ntlli ":lS IkfOOflhz.d b},'loc
the ."a",h", It i< ,Irang< ,"", .Hn ,hough Goti"" won.d for OCCUp'"0'" ftnd G,olitt i', propos<....J leg,sl ... "" "" .... , h."" a,ld
""''' of t hIS period In , smoll c<>opem" .... fial I> "' the c<nI,e of h" icg.l ill"l1 Wine fo,", of" corkers' <on.",I: he'""os me,d), calhng
Slo'y, H•• (hn ".d Ih. factori.>. ,fit Lingollo p l'nt. 'hen utldc, lhe bl"tT of 'hc m'ca l, an<! ,imull'"c'Ousl)' ,he po"tl ons o f
c",,,,mcllon. wher. """ "eo<end I fcl low a" ... h", g"< h,m. gui<lcJ "",iall>t and lrad. uni"" ,dD,",i'" r or G •• n"" Gi<>lini', r rop<o><d
,our For G,,;no.he ,,,, ... 1«hnul"l!Y Ind ,II. I. )oul of Lmg""u "'Olle,' con,rolla" .nd Agnclli', .",,"Sled F '., C<><>t><"""·. w<n: JUII
•• '.n "hM he bad Ik.:,<lcd 10 IcO\ < such >u""'HJdmg' .0 "or!< fW"lh<f abrinB ","",pic< of tbt <Ianil<ruu<ly c<>mq)l'''II inll """,,os of 1..;LIf\
,n 1 """II !hop'" c1i.n,<IiSl C3p11.1<lm Gr.lm .. '·s ....lIl ca .. ", for unease. _ ....... may Ila,..,
Olhe •• "d<nce 100 d!'><m1iLl .he monoll,hlC image of ,he bee. ,he nunurina oftbc .mal'ie> tomo..,.n ..... le .. aDd ..... ""I'"m<nl
"onon. Upward ,..",,,.1 mobility for ...,lItd "'onen ,,-as • ..,..1 pos"b!h,), Gori"". f.". '''''lance, recaned \bat I'\lf\..sMp comm'ssars an<! managemem
on Tlin •. A long"OOtnlll, .. t>dy of the 1& >IOn", of ",,,,,,,I wo;.--.: not al"a)5 a. l"IIloJhcad<. noted ,hal "ft.n thett ,,'as om<)()Ih
g....... I""', ofi",migmnh to T unn ,n til< fitS! half oftbe IWrnll",h <:<:ntury collabora""" bet" ... n the rtprt'>Cnl31;"{ of the "t>rl.;hop and (he fornnan
"'-":lIlTl<nl' '1I1S pro.;:<<$ in,en:,!ing!y," Bigau, hal al,., "",Sled !hal w,thm F()I" "m,,, ,,,i', pan. he rcali ze'! 'hat i f propo",d Coopcrol1\. h.d
the cal ",Justry wd. I ,no blli 'y <<>old be c>pee,a'ly ,w,n. I\'o'kers coul,1 beetl implem< nted, no1 Qrlly """ Id ,I", w,,",ors be ,kpendtnl on
bc<ome f,,',.ly quic kly .nd "ho loft ,lie fOCI"!)' m'gIlt. Iilo financiers bu.,hci, p<(>bable f.ilun: with,n I ho>,," c'p,tol", .nml,,,,,"''''
Ga'ino. be qUll. ,lICt.«ftll in small "'p.;I" or 'nlnuf;ocruring ""rl"h<lps coulJ ha,. d,!oCrod".d 0 form ofprod""""i'm . nd 'oc ........ d lhe
Fut1he"""",... leaSl unlll ,he middle or 131. 1920<. to<bllOl"I!ical change prtSligo of Clflil.lI!! ,,'on,oM proc1ic..,.. And ,,,,,,," foan ,,= heighlrncd

'" '"
"hen "od"", 10 mum 10 the finn al hi. moth!:r., fu""",1 \ I uck of lhe rtl)OfIlnll ,11' L s".,"" <"<,nemung ar<3i outside of
""->nl} die. lhe end of ,he OC<:UJIlI""" of,he r.."oon;. "The Tu,m 10 in"""",,,c sociological 0fJUD""I" 10 the I"'I"'tantY
for .\",,, ""as .ando.hwJ by the heha,·ioo,-of,.,., gf a""",h"m. ,yndicalism or ",'en thc-or cios( ... l.t","" repubhcan,,,,,
"..", l orsofTuM." Anu"" lo<choa "'",,e abool h,. nali .. Romag"". "hero: _;ali"" "-'"
ba,ed on family Io)·alu .. ,ha, lum«l ,,,Il001 <"hild",n tnlO r<p<tbliean. or
"""a,,""'. lender age. Thi, w"' 001 lhe hc.1lhy Torin.se ><>ci.Ii,,,, llf
til< f. clm)' worl,JIO!' but Ihal of'lI< c.r•• ,id In 1920 Alf"",..,
Lcgnetto 'he popularily o f . na,chi.m ond ,}'nd;cali ,,,, '"
Many Cril,CS uf Gra",,,,,, ', L Orr/me ,\uom hA' e "!Cd . da" .nal}'s is lu
d''''I"<d" hi, ,hovr,eJ, F,,,, ,llS <Ia",><,d ,h., he ,he \t;!an d... lo ,he pololi<al COfIf\.osoon in,,""'.r>' m"Mls by ,he
of AB""Ih ond ",ho, industnal",s: ,he) had noI bttn IUme<! ''''0 <:o"ar.h« of ,he 1oc.1 ",.. ,mali", Tho ><>ci11i,IS h.d 10<1 <onlact .. "h
"""'''''' by lhe ".",- «<NIOIt1).• ' Second. ,he ron;!!IU<"1l<Y ,,110 lhe ma ••<s:and lhe Ioc.l pololi<al 'acuum ""as by I""",hi", and ,he
<uf'POl"<'.l ,he f""""'Ycounc,1 mo"'menl Slid 10 be- t",,,,ilOl). US! Bu, LCOfIe\\O al", 11'&1>«1 'hal b«lu;.o the local urban ero\oI)' d,d
'ngl). IhlQUlh rlUon.o.liz."on. ,he ,,'Ottc, "a, be-mg '''''l'' ""·.Y DOl coneenl,,"'. "odors ,n fac'<>fie ... 'hIS 1«1 '0 ,he prt, alene. or
by ,he "o,l (T.o! Th .. idea. IS "'e ha, e S«n. ;, fa"",'ul as sc;cnhf", u",l,11ed 0\« .. ·od.... and a la'll" )lOI)ulan"" of enmi,,"l' .moni
manJgcm<"lII "'IS .h,n "" ,be ground, Ganno .,woed ,hal tt.. malS n:dund_ whom the Iohenon . ", ".1"< 10 noun.h."
• ""i<"5 ., F,., on 1921 can he oscnbcd II} ca ",... ""'mg from lhe I.boo, LroneUt ·Hh,.f ....ons (or the p<1'$"lcIlCt o f a1l3rehis", . nd syndIC . I•
",arhl.nd polol ,cal bladli<l, ng "'ther Illl" rallOnol i,. " oo.'" A d" rd .nd ,Sm ,II )l.lIla,,; tlte polit ical i""ptLIUdc of 1M SOI'"los", Iho pec uloa"li o' of
final obje<loon .. "; fi .., ad\-ao""ed by ."",tiI ISI' ><>eh as F.bbri a n<! EJ,:mc,n. ,I> ulb,,, layoul .nd !he cia" cotnpo:silion of III<" "OfI;,og cia". ,,<"re
a n<! I.,,,, I.l.n up by AId<) G. to" " Qu,"
limp ly GrI",,,,i anticipaled ..pealed ,n Ihorr Own fash,"" "hen Toalt. tu ond ",nt til< ..
lhe oIT"",. of ,oJu,m.h,.""" m hal}' b.,(on: "C", fully "",ked oul f.mou. tqlOfI On St.,,, Pooenle The L'I"".n h,nlorla n<! eha"",'cn$C'd
Unlil the 19<0. h.. l) an ogran.>o ""'ion
IndeM . ., 0< ",.11 k"""n. by In enJlcso lImIy ofship)-anis. $lCC1 .. od., sugar refine"""
"",·f."",'-I ""","h.m dep<nded on ,Ii runo! Pul ,,,npl}. there "Cl"< '"""""" ",oIe,."... n e"""V>. P<)hhCall) II ,,-as ..."'-"'·ned foo- ,he seclanan-
noI """'-'&10 f":I<ln<' ,n hal) 'n 1919-10 10 con>Iruc' Gnom",,', 'fulurc i,,,, of iIS Itll ",f"""",>. "",-,imah5ls and ,),nd,calo>l> - ,,110
cily· ... for ",0"""". lite local popula.cc. Funl>ermo<c. indu"O) "a, of
Gram",i u>td ada" .""Iy". ' 0 di",,,,dll hi,lnarch,<t aad ,h... ""'8 ,,,';c.y 10 inlp;re • I"ol .... " .. n mo\<"rncnt. t)",,,i,,,,,«1
oppetICnl" "The p.-oduc'iv;" cilY wllh • "oll·"''''l'lioo.l and ",\uIUl,o,,"!)' by hco')' ind,,,"y "'ltn who dcpendod "n 8"""n",en,
wof\,:fon:c ""' Tunn" Gmmse, conlrasted lhe" lI<".hl> wilh til<" mom,Jnv i"I1<>I:"'" 1>1:<ld lo nll on order 10 ",.;nt.. n Ihm ,.k·, d,rooSh ." itie,aily h,gh
oflhe rteNi'N ",to til<" liSI" . pro!"' '''" lanff,. ,he .. cnlrcpITo<u" had IUrn«l into specula''''''
In .hon. in con lnoS! W I"" he. lthy in,lu>l'Y "f ·lurin. lhe
.... ,-.: ".,0:.1 ,... ro,," " Ii>< fOIl< lho to"''',,"n;>1 ",,,Ju,""'" bc<. _ hco''Y indus!O)' un 'guna ,,-as pollute<! .. ,'h ehenld,,,,,. r unlletrnorc. ,he
,I>< d ... of Turin,. ,n 'I>< m.. proi<"'"",,, (""'ory .. otl ..... prod""I"'''1 .. orle. " .. I''E''I}' :absc,:! from the L'g ....... n factQfJ . .
rnolu"o" ....... of'l>< 'l'»< pred,«0:.1 by 1<.,1 M.n. "'" pc1ty boo.o'FO" the ol.iUed "oder ""a' in the ""nor,') lhey d.nned 'hot:at s...m th,s
1)"...- II> "'" dorno< .... 0tId .......,tu.m .• rnuddJen.
I; ,........... tIuI "'" Gont ..1 C""f«l<n,,,,,, or i.abo:;ooo ...
mean' ,ha, pell) bourgtots ,nd,.. iplincofpagnl "od.... "' ...... belmed
the d.se,plt<l<"<i pol",<". of the
compo«<i of ........ o( "ork<t< ",.,.'" m.>r< '""<>Iu,,OROr)" ,han "'" ........ :--'o!umlly rhe a"""h;>o, ",<pODded 10 SOI'iolosy in a pm\,,,.bly
"'¥I'"i'cd by ,lit Uni_ Suldotoi< be,," .. ,he ('OIlfodmot"'" "'"
for hrighl m:tn",,' Fann" .. rot. in Oox(mbcr 1919 .. 00" il ,,--'s
'_", f<\oJ";",,,,'}" "<Kl",", of"'" \·.ni\'"d, "h il. ,10." Uni""" 5",<1"".1. i.
P"'>,blc to u!Ie • dA" .n. ly,is '" <xpb,n "by "'Orlffl in ,ne <am, "",.ltty
, ",,,,,¥.n,,0:.1 "'¥I''''''''''" ",b<h " O<Io<o.,f"1 It 1<.. ;" a the g<I,,, o,,,,.
"rt<l Ind" I"", mil< ,yr,<.1 o f tilt C("""f1I ion 0 f Ih. "O<f J of CY f><11 Y l>ooJ ,. sa"'" prof"",i"" eho .. ' he s)"Ji calill' o. 'he soci.lis",
1\>,< "'" b<rorn< •• . .I,,'" ')[>i<>1 . .... P'''!WI'' ,,'''0
.... bc<om. ro'"ow ...., [·00V,." '''''''' " " ....,'''' tt.., the _ . of ,to. m,""';,y (M"i""iKd by
,to. L"",... foo- ..,.". hot>< an: found '" .im'.I.. 000 <'qui ...l ....

192-
'"
 >LImN""in .... "flcn tl>< "'m< ... ,""t of tb. maJOrIty <><pn"',d by the Fnr Fabbn "rom""i', drS""'''''''' "m.",f",ial Ifan>",hu.m
(·""rrnor. ...... \tohy i. " <h:ot .... ",... I,.on..-. of SnIJ1 " - . . - I>< "-as no! me .. I)' I ""'*"'8-<las. concq>l"'" 1"'1"",.. i, ,,-as cqUlJl) lJ1X
""",,"""'" t..:.,.otd. and I<os ..".!nd ItIon t"- \to'hy !O <a)' lhal 'he \ !M><'" dialec1ic "-'" not a prolcunan C... llon.
"""'" tl>< _"itun! """''''''"r .... P,.nc:mtttlO "" inoodvuocOO lIwo ,,,,*, but h,d betn forth b)' a 'm:>1! aroup of ,nl.II«,,,,,I. '", ho ....--c.i..
M .... J>am ....... R.gg;at>O·' Why Ii" thaI.t Il0l_ tl><......""
"."., .... 'n Ib< Old 5)m'c.llIt ChomOorofLobc>w "'W hc cl •• """'..".
,hem.."c.\ th", with i, 'hq Ibnk and 'ntcrpm ,be: "''''''c,,' mmcmc"!"
It "a•• bo "",iou, 'that it i, p,";: isely ,hi: Min "IS of L Q,,/iM ,\"0'"
"'Y . . "nQ r..w 1",«<1 O,'<f to,"" )<"<0\' ('""f«l<,..1 Ot,mhcr of I"'''''''r !
10 ,,·h.t "'oy do the ".inen ond tile V.1 d· ... ITKI. m<"'l><n oftb< '" h<) rn. ' c a,bi"",)' di",,,,,, ion, ""tween of >narchist work ..,
l"""", S,,>d"".Ir. d iffcr from ",i n«"< .1 .... " .... ,.."" arc onemlx-r. of tho and groups of .n.rchi" inrdl""tu.l s aud r rofessional ;deolog"t",
("""f«l<,..11",,' • An • .-rh,.,n. f abbn oonclU<kd. had .[" 0) S tat' larned • relal"'cly h'sMr
.. ge of ""If... d""ale<l "'nrk .... lhan """"II'm SO i, c{Kl1d be argoed
the aRl",h'<1' dtd DOl actqll b an <n tbe: flel that "odtlS In thot the ,doolo&.v ofltaltan \br>."m had bocn . .a'e<llhrough a dictator,
,,-=
larg. l!IduSlnal by n,.. u... "..,... a.j,a""N poIiticolh' than lho$o ,h,p of 'I> ,,,,.11«1,,,,1. 0\ erlc:..-c:d,",II«I INn ...! "od.... "
in """tier """!\S. The AUSlria:n .n''''th,S! htS'Of1.Ul. Mu h:>d 1101«1
.arl.er Ih.! 11 "3$ the .. nallc-r to,,'ns of c<n1ral tilly thot I.y I I tl>< b.>c:k of
tfle Red \led. ond d"rinr tl>< ""'" F.bbri and Bcmeri "'J'Oatedly
tl>< ""ol"t ,ooo'Y elan of . n ".nal "'110"". and peasant And", The deba,. 0' .. ,I", Ideologic, o r .n,.. h,lm . u<1 """,ali,,,, ttl Gra'mci',
I· "rthonno",. h'SM",,1 ",.... ",11 ,ho" .. ,h, t the "it""'t;"'" 10 lhe USI mind be reduccd ' 0 Iwo >epar"'" proh lcnl<; the degree to "h ich
fe, m"ed "">OnS not i.oldy anri!>u' ablo ' 0 I"" duo oomjlQS i'ion "f a 8n.n'Il"m il as a d""",,' bod)' of,do.s and p..",icc ,,"h \t'
g"c n "odf""'e. B,8"lZt ho, .ho"" ,hoI ,he OI .... g' h of'l>< LSI., M'lon', n'
0"" .It!oonmoo, h!>I""y and the •., .. 10 which M.n,s", w .. a ""'''''Hfi"
Alfa Romt(t IIllm, "".. d.., to ,he I<kl" OfganolalJon , ki ll. of j·t,!/M """,ah.m Of all foor founding mom"" ... of L Angelo Taoca
"odt"tlo. T1Ie:)'. unhlc F!O\! un",,,,,, .. haoJ been Ible 10 <><gani .. m,1IOrl d''9la)«I ''''' &"",.,1 tn,,,,",",, and dorlh of knowINg" <oncom,ng I""
.nd "<lmCn ,nlO their unron dunng the V.'ltile Rug.flOri', h,,,,O<)' htsto<y of ",he, ..!tool, of """ial"m. It i, lhu. 1Jt..1 ,he doba,e
of An .. IOO has iho .. " lh .. TOSh.u,·, Ind .... '111""'80 .• figu ... "erc be,,, <en ,I>< lOtl)n:h,,,,. and ,he ordmO"Ull bq: ... 0' er In hi.,,,",,a! con
'1>COIJffi Togh.tn Ind \'jglongo had e'"l!lI"flItf'd the "umbo. of uns!<ill«l lro' .....' concern,"g''''' ""gin' of,!.t Oat tl""" claJmed ,hat \1.)" u.y
"or l e,," al 'he Moc •• ",eo (the h3$i. of !ogh.,,,·s at><l \"glongo '; d .ta ) arose from """ . ir>l a,><l tr..de onion I"""IU"" "h ,l. \b'l;arita .rg..,d
Us,''>: A",.ldQ·. c"'p loymcn! rrturd. lI.ugafiori dcnlOn,traled thot lhe ,ha l lht 'n,,, hi,1$ hod o rigina'ed ,he holt<la)· .....
compos"'ut' of ,"" ",orklo",e " ''">tned UlI(; I", nll«1 bet" Cen 19 19 and '0
T."," "Iua ll)' appe,red be ,I .. tlIO>' con,ilten,ly ho.tile 10" ,,<1. 'h""
19.1 \ "hCrcb Togli'II' and "oiO'>«I Ihal only 25 1"" crr" or 'M,ch"", A. "0 h:"" ><-'en. in May 1920 "" arg'"'' "!:I,mt lhe a""rdUSIS
lhe """'.f"!> "en: . ktll ed. ,n fftCt at le ..1 half",.",." a' ''''' <lumbe, <If Labou,. he xcu""i Grn",s.;, of be,ng an anarcho-
. An . .. Jly "1111O'Un,. at1ide .of r.id, of the """ioIogy i, ,>ndi<"a!.., and he 'UpponN lhe ,radt umUtl kade", < .ttack> on Gram",,',
(""m", • ,"",,.,,,, •• , d,/f..-enhlnn>: the am«h"", ofleadcrs Ind "'101. ana",hi .. aU,,,,, ,,"h,n ,he rXlo.} cOIIlIcil 'ncrtbcle"". 11 "
1.", ...1, from the an.",hism of factory ,,""'en '1 He w", pameularlt llOnlC .... h III appamlIJy ant,·I,bcnan ... pooition <lutinG

'cnornou. to" ants IRlfCh1S1 ,nl.II"",u.l, "ho, h. "rotc. tbe birnnjo ""'<n. A, • youlh I>< haJ """" okc-pl) infiumced by ,I><
an,,,,:hlSm ,,,,,,, 0" n pri' ate tn'cll""' .... ll'ropc")'. lhe" '",;son d·ct .. for S)'nd,c.I,,, theone. of Anuro Lab'iola and Fnnt" I roncoFunh<:nno",.
,he" pa""ol . r It), pt1:Se1lt and futu ..· '-I IlorHhi. Fabbri .nd '1,1. ,,'11.' hIS "". rth fnr an ltahan ,rnd,1ion of wo.... ng..:l ....... If So.. "'.... ", led
"ere "'peatclily dcst:rrbed . , ' he etHrtl'rcneo", 0' d,arl, .. ", of an. I'd"" him !O ,h. chamber of labour. "tr,oh. 3$ " f hove ",cn. had depcBdc<1
,Mology. pm,t ical ",vol"'i""",, •• Ilw be . n'rchi ,ts; greally 0" .north,s' and ,ynd rcah<1 P'''f'Ono"" ('"'. Chap,er 0".1. lit
Mosso ,b. w•• """t,"Sled f,w",rably wQ"'gli,", ,he joomalt>t. ' j also exrre.""d I ,ympa, hy for ' h" ul<>r ,.n the r",e! oprra!,
Mocco'er. 0'rtM and r etttf<) "ere IwO nne .nd loy.1 "onc" The" 'hc POI und ",hot "on-\I .."" Ind I, bo,,"rran,'ingod .Ite"''''''''" (0
prof..... '.OIIIlt<m rna<lo tlleir .n.chmen, ' 0 In .."h'lJI' of little COllOom '0 ,naill",,,,,,n _;ah!",. In /. 0.11",,- .\'""", he ""bl"hoJ a SCf><' of "",dCI
G,,:un.. , on lhe u'orlJn """,.hOb In old .g. Tast:a ,«ailed the <lobate in L 'oro",,, I
19S-

/
 o"er d,c
ong ,n' ofM,y Day•• t><! =ognm, j hIS own intemperance
1<,w,mh ,flo """ ",hiSl<. """ proi>rng ,ha,
ekmcn, in Gr3tnsci', ,oough, " hieh
ca,ne cl""" , t" <yn<l;,, 1ism. N
Ne\ert heless. on I gl g T.s<. eoltld bt a, ,nlokranl of Ihe anarch i>!>'
idea, as Gram",i L Lko Grams<i T.s<' ",,,slot 10 disaDu,e Ihe \\wkers of
lho \\';despread idea that someh"" allarchi'm \\'as a purer at><! ""bier Rllm
of "", ,"h,rn.'" A""",hi,m boded an org.nIC c<>n<ep'ion nf hiSIOl)' 'be<:ause
il lad.d a philo"'phy of history' For To",. an3tc),,;m "an ideolog,
"OS a con fu,ing h<!erogenCDu, <io<1Tine On lhe Otle hond P",udhon a',d
B,kun in h.d been Left H.g.hans. On Ihe olhor. Reclu, and K,opotk ;n
bad ""e n TolI"we" of ComIC and Spenco,. Anarchistn. Ta",. wr,,'e. was
., its \\'hen i' ignoreu hi'toric.1 ut'c lopment. bUI 11 was ao ItO
monge" in Ihe abso lullSm ofi's moral va lue" So Ihal oyon in 1919. "'11 h
.11 hi, pedantry .nd p"'Judl<'e. h",. could al low Ihe anarch,sts a ro lc as
mom l g.dfiy rather than mere ly. a, '" Grams<i', eye;. "elic"1 'lIy,
NO>'<"h< I"" "'0 l><lie,'o 'hot I,,, or con h,o,,< • l1{u,ble at><!
0<><0".1 ... k for to., ,",ol"ioo IIJ1d h"lOr}'. All ,n>l ,'"''''''' h,,·o tbe f. tal
tooo,ocy '" "k' "" a lifo of th<i, 0"'0. md<r<"Jcn,ly of'ho rea",o, ""y 'lley
""0 <",,,ed All fOml. 1<00 '0 Oooom< ro.xe.), or they """",n, i>!'" .00
'impk forn". bet}' ,"'oIUhOo'1')' mu>t possen. Ii, ' Iy and ,,,,,,,.1 '1'lTi' '0
''''''''''!'l"Y' J'!'O< 'ioalooo The .nar,h,,, is, moral di'P"''''''" In"
,he p<TJ><tuJty "rhu",," ,.."" i'y from ¥<ocra""" to
A"",oy i. noI. ')-"" " ," "I'f'O' i,,,,,, to """.I i.m. ... t ,t eoold be defined ••
to., mo.,{ "",,,, ion«;n wh ich pr:K"cal "OO1 "" "" L'" II<tioo mu" 0., "'1\"",,,,1."
Gram", i adop«d T.",.', gadfly itnag«y bot m 'ptiod It of. ny PO""'"
«,"'cnl. f or Gram",i .n.tch"rn \\"S the subve",w ",,""ep{ion of any
oppre,'-Cd "lass bdor. it be,'am. Ihc ruli ng class. Froedom "a, not on
.'orn.II"'hln<'al for Gram"'i. ""ho, Ih,' e wcro only oou,<:ooo< ' "
prnlot,1fi'n concepl'ons "f f",«k,m, bot for lhe booJrg""L> ic, f",edom m.ant
hh.·",Io.",. I, ,, tho froounm was is! co,nmL.ni"n ."
Th is ,urpr""'g orthodox M." ist poSLtwn ad"p«d by Gmmsc, " •
",n""""n of hi, s<ient,fic "", .. Ii"n. 1\, we han ""'It. Gr."n"" ctJr.'tantl y
attacked po,;",'i,t and OvOI'.lionary ,,,,,i31o.m . In sitn il a! r.,Io,oll, anar_
ch"" Mal .. e". an,l Fobo'i Iht pos iti"i,,,, of Kropotk ",
Funhcnnorc. F.bbri ,10" "".ck to i!\Clu<k SttOM and Th i,d
Inlen,",ional," Fabb,, 's anicie, we ... rmho r pr<d,"",olo
Of grcmer in,e ... " "ere l'lerncri's who was <I""" '0 Gram",i', tnllld,n
Ho"cYcr. for our POrpos<' Ih< mO" ac"to critic was I'rOl'" Gnm ",i',
pe""nal and ,J,olos,cal tics ma<k hIS cri ,i,i,m ofthe Sard,n ian's 'enti ,,1
comm"ni'm' more 'harper.
/
As 1 11,1\0 expla",cd, Mo,,," , mcll>o<l"l"g,eal approach 10 Marxism
"as close to \\'ct>er', . Therefore hc ne'er ,,,'cnJN 10 what he
to be tho OO{onom,c system of Ma"ism to the 'ystcm of moral
ph,I"",ph>' ,I,a, "as anarchism To compare the "Ulho, of CQptlQ/ ""h
S!Lmor, Ilal unin, Tolstoy " n,1 Tucker. "as point leSS. In f.Cl anarchism,
to Mo,,,,. is a ,.Iuc 'Y"''" (loa! '-' til onl) b«o,ne <kom i"'n' in
• communist "",i",y. Tho d,fforence """,een """",hi,,, and \ta",i,,, coold
to" round ,n {he 1.11",', "Money 10 .110" ewnom ics to ,olon,,,
"f mo", 1i{y ,,,d ethi" . For Mo><o ."arc l",,,, "os n.. ther a liboral . n"
s!:" i" polo","1 pl"lo,o l'hy no, ' " ppon i' 0 of staliS! coliecII\ I,m. In
aMtcho-commun i.m .\los", fou nd hi' L'Ia Attompt< {o .i oua te
ltah.n cornmuni"" in \!an,'m were mi\ lo",lmg ""cause "'t><h of ha lian
"""ah<m de, i"ed fro", Baku" inism, "here", M."i,m W", .-cStricte<l to
, <m, ll group of ,mellec!U.I •. Indeed. he fe lt tha, many max ",,, I,,,,
o.,h,b"Od ,lte mo>l ueplorablo of " ha, "as ",ean{ by Ma"i,,,,
Mo>so d,cw {he . ttcnti on of 00111 Gram,", anJ Tu>ca to tho ,deologioo l
filiati on, be",ee" .""rch,sm and Marxism Did not M." .nd Bakunm
share a common grounding in Feuerbach' Nor d,d Mos'" accep' {he
,. lld,,>, ofTascll 's cr ilic ism of lOe of a"arclu,,,,.
Kropo{kin . nd Bak Llnm could be placed "",hin ,flo same broad s<hoo!.
,nd on 'n, case Mo,,,, d,u t'I04 accopl the neeu for a ooli,1I o .yllcm; "ukod
Ilak urun', ",.jor comnbmion wa, his insisten<e that ,,.,{om of
Ihought WI> ".'er com plete, tho,eb,. ",klmg ' l{.h,y to lhe baule of ide ..
For Mosso natUTal 1.\\,s wore . serie. of .pprown.tions that could not bo
equ",c,1 ",,10 "'<laph,,,c, of tho u,alec{ ical nlCtho<!. Each ",icn(:c
rc4u,red ,I, l'arlioular la", to .,pl.in the ph. nomen. " ""ught to undc,
"an J Unh ". Marxi,". in(:lud,ng h,S fncn (l Iho unorthoJux Gram",i
Mos", cou ld not embrace" ha' hc {hough, a ".buluu, la" of di. lectics {o
,'Plain the I.", nf h"'oncal dt,e!optttcIH. coold ".\'Or .<cort {h,S
IJ" ufl."", " hich p"senlN ilSClfas {hc ti m1 arbiter of.. hal w"' ,uper·
"i1l0us and what W", ",i< nt i(,<.'<
J"<obin h m and Anti-Jatobinism
Gra""c,' rC'I"""o 10 Ihe .ngry len" published by G"ioo and Ferrer<.>
"t email/I" ,\'''''' dunltS the ir di,pmes in thc su nlmeT of 1920 dearly
'rei' <JUt hi, mdo"cmont Oflhc ",10 ('-Co ,00>" . p. 166).1 " ,I he "ro{e
{10m anyone" ho m3ln!ained a "at. "" oo{ ncce,,",y carry
"''' the fO"olu,ion CD,""pord<,1"" tl>c political Ie'cito a charj,'an ononng
• po!oOll "'aler 10 a >ic!om of{yphus," Ilo"e\Or, "h,lc Gram>c i',
\ ie"." ,night 'pp<ar transporont. thi, bog, the 4u"stion "" to ", ha' tYJl'< of
 ;,lOt< Md In m,nd To .. ""I . _,,"'" d,d hI> DOO-ideah'il and ""","'Ii, is.
d.,h ""h lbe ofobe Ikolsh<:' Ik Whal .I,d G",m",i
pel'<al\l' policies ,ho, und.:-muo>ed !he robc<LOIIIond lqI'imacy <>f,ho pOlI-
.ute. Thu •. lO.he e"enl ,hal boIh ("n"". in h" pohe ....
mean by ,he dlCla'on./o ,p of ,be proIelana,' J JoJ" dId hi. ,n'Orpre!3t'on or
and h,;; enem,es. in 'heir ":lie ofm,nd .• hart<! ."'U3C' OO1,on,
",'olu"o",,'Y mo,"'''''''LI on W""em Europe "' "'ell as ,he BoI.hOl 'k (If n"', and wron, ,hey mon: oh !'foblem ,h.n a ",Iu' ;on to ,ho
Rn"lu'ion In Russia .lTee. h" OWn ""ncep'oali"""n of lhe stare'
en;i, Oflho I .• bcobonosm'. GronllC' Wr"OIC ;n 191 ;n • fu""", .",,< k
Sm"e 'he«: pe",eplion' c"ol,'ed dur ing lhe penoo 1917 1920, "" ,0<) d iJ
upon a fonner h"ro ofanli.Jacobi n·,'l1
Gra m",i's "i,h li!>erla, i. .. , aboul IhI: Nlc nf Ihe alhei'
hi, unonhodo> but M... " , posi,i,," !IC"rt allowed h,m to "i<pcnse .. ,,10
'he "",1<"" of tho .ta'c or ,ho d i.... 'QriI"p of 'he prole"'''''
i,. "'"",.."" '''''''' ofh,,,,,,),: " .I... ,.,,<p<>n<I, in 01><".""0"'- . ,, 1,
II'oge,ho •.
0\'11«"<,,,... ".....}'. shod<. who<h •• '., .I>o<1'u''''Y. ....... "'"
,n hi.."",,, r""". ,,,,,,,hcn _'",,,,., "coonrJ<:t<d ">' .... I'u,.' rne«o>",,,",
In ,h,. !.«lIon of ("""pier Fi,. I ... ,11 employ ...", thomes 10 ,1I"s'"". ..1Ii<:h ",ep...."cd on ItaI) by G.<tmo So"""u,,, md has g"= Ill"" 10
tho ., O/U,,,,,, of Ciraft'l!<:i·. land hi!; 1"»"'0'" Oft 1M role of 1<1<,1,.. ..... of fA ''''T,Q !!Ie PO" .no! L .. the: prc;.tn,
,ho SlOl. Firs!. Gram",,', notion of Jacobon,sm <""nItS drastically from ""'" ",I,m.{ _ioni"" -.x" (rom ,he: """"_ rom.. of"""""",,,
,ho WI , years to 1920. J><ob'ni""" I key concq>lUIII bcnchnu'l. ,no! po,,,,,,.1 I,'•• ....J proposeJ In _ time ...... 5f"'<O _ .."
"tI,,'h how Gramsci". pol""" bec.",e mon: alllhofnan:>n_Se<ond. <1Hb up be,n. ",,,,,ian"
juS!", On anu·h",I"" r<Yo lu, i"n i. b)' ," <>pp(>Sito. SO 100 do(-,
Gram",i', " I' RUSSi"n .vena ,h .. au,ho ri" ri'ni,m Thl5 <ll:f1nll'''''. I..,,,,, .. r. "., nut n>:rdy employed to dd,ne"'" h,;;
On lhe One hand, Gram«, apP"'I""',d "ari(}U.iw:,.",.Io, ","mples and OJIII<>S,to,," w,ho libeml' on lhe "lIh, oflh. !-I:>i:,.I0,,,_Dun"1I
thonl e" fro'n furop<an and '\onh An>:ncan . ..1)' ,he I'l l 1"""00.• pe.jorati ... u.-ge of' boob,n"",' "., '0
to bil coulICil contntuniStn; ... ·hile on lbe ott.:.- <11:",01"' .. '" "ha, Russian Ik,.::oluuoo and domes" c faclory c(}Unell
""nd. 'an"," """Oic,i,,>! Polish WUrt'" him ,n a -=
mo'"emml .. not. HoIO .."...-. tit" ""'.... I.lftlChina mll ily to sui'pon"",-
Lnum;.t d'=IIOIl Oy!he aUlumn of 1910. ,,'i,h ,he de'.a, of'ho f:>e1<>ry larl)" d,m"ul, f",,'" ,hon e""'rgina from RuulI For ,ns!3lltt, Gram..,·,
cOlt"",1 mo, m>en •. and ,ho need for "'PPOf'Im of.ho So,-ieI RepublIC '0 J,J "'" .ondemn ,ho di.solu'ion of ,he C""'tllucn, A .... nlhi) b)' ,ho
f'fI<Iorse rhe Coommc-m', PoiniS. U"""", d"",rded nlOS! BoI.ho, ;kf bec. use ho o.gtted ",tit lO11,n', J""tJfiea,ioo ,ha,,ho ("00
h,; "Mi.Jacob;",,," . .... en ,fho ,I"",ys a ""hor hoterodo. """,,n ' A.."mbly· •• Iec'ora'" had no! fa i,hfully "'tImed tho "nom."...
L en ,n,,' ""'nt",n '" "hange, ,n Ru>s, . thai had occurred . ine. ,he 'Pllng "f 1917_Accord,"!
E\O n " 'a,""r ca,",1 re"""ng "fGra",,,· ,·, carly wn, in", .. ' e. I, """lrJ to Gra,"><,. I d,uol", ion of Ihi ; <kmt>Crallcal ly .""Iod body" . , 1101
dict ion' in hi5 a'IlI·J."ob,""m; or><! lJuose b«ome grtotC' hcohini"al w,u"'lh" Syi"m of """'ct, ,h••e.l and fUlU.e
'" "'on' inf""""'ioo .bo", ,ho poli'ics "i' hi n .he 110>1>11<" Rn .. i. bee ... >: ""JO/i'y in """'d)'. ""
3' .. "'b k 'n h,m. In an}' case, lho lonn "a, no! firs' used In Ih. """'e>, of Gl;tnng <I"'I""'"" ioo. ofllll. """ can be found PCJ'p"",d ,n hi; ..-nlIDp
Ru .. ian poh, ...·.; ralhor.• n"·Jacobin,,," defined ,ho cultura l bet.., KJU. ,hrougt>Ou, ,he ro5.fO_ hen •• I.,. I. J Sept.mber 1920. Gr.o,nsri
pa"c-m, e,hib"cd II)- 1.&110 on'.IIec....1> lie lrlIn,f=td Sorer.. ("rocc', published an anlde .",ollin!!. the ,·,nlle> of. Jacobin"",1 ("omm"''''1 ran).
Of So" om ini', Cn!!" ...... of on,JdIe·dau 1lt"""It"""l Ind or rtpublican the f<)llo" 'ng <Ii} be .... meJ 10 mum '0 hiHII.l<f thorne of an"· )",,,<)/).
"''''''gogucs !<IltIOllltr "Oft,"" ,niral c"",,,,,, I,,,,,. fa, ling '0 mrnIiool ,ho ",Jt, of'ho P.ftj- a, all .. ll""e'C1".
1\, .. e h", S<:efl. tho 00""" "f free .houghl "-''' usctllO cn,icin hbernl b) ,ho end ofSept.",be,. "hen ,ho OCCUp"UOll of,he (..".";,,, >ccm<:d Ioe'
. ,Id an.",his's ' Masoni,' imdl",'"" I,. bu, Gra",,,,, Wop1<d .nd foo de ,h, and tilt ,· . n"", faction, of ,ho PS I ""re p"" .."ng lhe,,,,.. hcs
Croce', ""","n" of 'he be ha< io" , of Ihe Fr<n.;h Jacob,", ,()".,d, f.-" '''''nci,1.11 ,,,,,n,,,,., L" .......,. Gn,,",,: , d,,,,I'ytd • fe,oc""" Jacobini,m.
'he pe"'""'I)'. lIi sto",o ll )'. heobi,,;.m rtprc..,nl.d ,he coercion "f'he perh.ps f" nhe, inflmled by the r "b li cOlion (If thc li,c""'(Jlle P"III'S
pe .... nl!)' by lho ","\emon'I" and ccnlral '''"g i,a,. raking h IS cue from
S>"'e",;n,'$ Gram",; idenltfic..l '" ,ho bu'taucrocy of Piedmon •. • ""'"""""01)' """'<men' "". ooiy \>0 !wed "" 'k< rr<>""",,n \OngLJU<l.
e>petially In i", Jo.::oblnocallOClhod. adopIcd _,hem and ,ns"lar
L">d""", he: kd ",thou! pt.woomWo"......·,thw, tho _n" of
",. a<.emblo«. It«olu,"",,, I,ke "Ir,,, m.... II< trII""'<l} I"<l"mI b} •
-198
'"
 . .. "",T. I"" ••• by ,Ioe Army', ... ff
p.q»r<d the . ,duI"'< m i. <If. ,'anll"anll"'''Y· In fae . ... ".., h. ,.. !-C<n. Grnfns<:i
A.,..",bh., ",11 ".. ly noU fy .. ,
b., . I..... y taJ,;"" pl.IT. <..I, the ."",,<s.f" , wos ,fu,' y .1I .... 'ed to 1.00"n '\ more hbcnanan-lne h" ...kontradts ",'hin
.rod ""r,,,,.b'y """,,b ,Ioe un,u,,, ... f"1 It .. ,ho .. , . of ,"" I"0le"",. the P.n y "loClf
I .n • ...ro 10 ...." ,1>0 ",,,oiu,,,,,,.ty SP'''' <0IISIaI'I'))' II•••• in ,he: ",. ....... to
00f<,I" tho " ...."".,. b", b k""ll !hom oudy for
.. ,II ,,,,mod,.'eI)'
'0 ,"" ""II for mo'OI,,,,,."
act_ '" .
hich "'" p«>Ieu,.,ot.
Thc:u ...."e.II)·. ono can the <""ne ilis1 Len;n o f alUl
" "h,he openly Jacobin Lentn of Irhw ;5 10 "" Done' When
did G"",ms.; 1"0'" ,hese how did he imcrpm Granu<'
r,1SI bee."", KqWI,n,ed ... uk 1I"1uJ11S W be 'hrough <he oClltUl'lOnW)l
Befort the r"mrl'·""r Po",,,. for Gram"" ,"" Ru"'.n R.... oIUlion W3.$ • Rlppopon, Rappopon Ru,,,an J .... "''''' had li,cd in
reah",,,on of"Jeal,,;I phil,>OO(lh) In one early ar1icJe "" related a,.... """"..
!qIOI1 of hew. ,"" common mm"'il ",m.. .., of. Russ ... n .1';1 ",m,,, ... d
r""'nc( "f1C. 1890 Or'S, ... l1y I lriond IlJId supporter of Cerno' .nd the
R.,-oiuI""",,". he """",""",he: Z,,,,,,,,,,,,.,,1d '""''''''''''' dunna:
IInpnlo(lllCd .'On ,Ilt" Ililtl'S had fled For Grarnsc, thl< .n ,b,,,,.,,,and wasdose'" ,he lirOw""...... group. Ahhougb h< ",as.I,,"»"
<... mple of the: ,,,,,,,'1',....
,I0Il of ' '''' Kan, i.n impm" " '" "hln oomc1b,"S of I he ,n fac-t JOIned the Ft<n<h CommUniS! Pony
,"" spm, of ''''' R"s.",,, R 0' oJu" on dunng "'" 5pI1ng of 191 - aller ond r<cmamed a It1(mber un,,1 hIS friend BuUwin ".". e. ecu{ed ,n ,I><
,"" Oc'ober Re'·olo."on. "" publ"hed I moral d,alogue on t"" hm,u'ions G=, l'ulics 01
of ""I" ,d ...1 f1'Ndorn and ,he "'""",) for ea.:h ,nd"'o<I,,,1 (n <or",dor
Gram..,i published scI..".1 an.del. by Rappoport in 1/ Gndo del PopoIlJ
,he <ffec{ ofh" ","on on ''''' .ollec,i, ")'. In I more ,hc:ore1ical '."', in In 1918. litre Rappopon reponed on tbe d"-,sooo>,, ,dun Ft<n<h soc .. l"",
Ju,"" 191'1 II(' dt..,,,bW ,he hber.1 ..... t. ". "b,.h ·o'.r, ""zen i. a and oonlnbu,ed an tm.m"ng port""
of PI. 1to.ano, .... h,.b had bet"
SftS in 0Ihe:1"J .... m, .. 10 <lril. do ... n or ""brnn to h,s
publIShed in I S .. OS> IIC .. La,.r, Rappopon hinted at "'" 'Jacob,"'
_The h,ghe, "<$ ofk",e .n.! solidon!} are di""I,-..1 Ind "'Placed
by 'COInpe{,,,on·. ,he ·p""",,.1 f<>un<ia"O<! o f.1I hu .... n ,oeiety', ,he
I .n in in an In,oIe p ubli <hed ,n L '"".,ro. ",'her<c h. """oed
,be nt«! ror .nIlJl.h,.ned e"to '0 k:od ,he pIlS$". mal""'} lhrough to a
ci'iu" b«omes. 'r<c" leiS .nd d"J""n'ed ,nd"',d,,,,1' " ho " od"f, from "..-«s.ful re,olu1i<on ," In h nwoty 1920 Rappopon r<"P"ned d",,,,,ly on
an) soc,al ntOO<,ngJ. In So, ,tt Ru,,,. ,he ,nd" ,d""h,,," ofll", I)"
II i, 1<1 "" Ahik>ugh Leonardo Paggi aoo Ala<1air D..',d"",
and Itlt< h3d b«n by I <011«" ,,,,, <.. ""pera",·o cI. ,m ,,,,, (Omm,." OO",ngrodcJ II>< ,mpoManeo o f the to", nt,'onloelo"
Thu, , 1110 1> by ',he <omrade ' , soci.1 i><>laoion .. n'plaeN R' Pr<>I""1 l1". Lenm'j ,do.. . dean b,ll ofhe"l!h.'>J L,nm's pamrhlc"
by "'l!"1111311V<l, Til< flO'" " " "",,m!> the oklor ooloful efl'""ts of' freeJom'
Rappop<>n o.pl.m;, "as a ""I ha", 0" ",,1 "" fdunn,,,,, . "hoch "as ,he
The OO,ni'll"on of ,he ca J"lol1>l;. ,,' 'he 'he "",hhop is 'li m"ed' 'The
fIT,t ,.', '0 . 11,h. ' ''''ti ol b'or to b< .,,,,,,i,,.d ""h I.eno"·s "."'"
wtJtkr' OO"'lU<<5 JOnIO effec'i,. fr'ffdo m. It " ,w,long.r "'" . g. in>! "II . '" The ' rgum<n, <If II 'hm If '0 M R.pf'Ol'O" o-'pl.on",' '0 h'$ ltaio"n
ThO' col lcem'iSl bill ,.,hrr libe".';.n '"'.. pr.totion o f tho flol,hOl'ik
... os .",,,,1 u, COtn"'''''II 'km,tton ', fc"om""n and re,'olu"""ar),
' "'OIUlIOn ",cm, hanl to reconc ile wl1h . I."i.ol Len inism . I 'hall now ,y",hculI"" A """I u",," nc,·d,'!!. h¢ odd.d. ' ,i, olul;o!lan qu.li no.,, ·
' um '0 II>< ,.,t\l q""'''oo orho" ,nuch Gram;.ci Imow of len in " poloti •• 1 j IIlme-ly g'oup' of men who only I, ,,,, for {he
1hOUII "' Ix""'" 'no 5«ond h,lf of 1920. T "'0 PO'"" .hould be Slf.ssed ""·,,Iullon· Rlppopon . Iso "",. lIod his 1;", ",,"h t en,n on Pan'
!'",Iy, I{ I,'as{ un,,1 I.,. 1920. he "'eleorned any ... Wi from Ru;,i. tha,
dut,ng {ho <.fly 1900. , I or " "' Iho. firS! onOOJo.'
,ndl< . led ,I"" tlOO Il" '!hc" k suck • • ,he a".rch ,S!> or ,he Left M.nc'I' he h:Id ",<t ",ho unrese-r.-edly CTIIIon.od (he II«<" "Y for ,n'Um:< '
S<;.:, .h Sl R,,·o lulion. ncs. "cr< I"<l'-'red 1(> <ul'P"n (he """ regime. and ,,"" .... "llOu, b<I1IM . fn,d of be,nll de-n/)un«d OS • BI.nqu,'L AI",.
>«ondl). I cl<lr .mphl , .. by Granu<i on ,he: lMolut. n'IOoOpI>l}' of . he mloresultsly, Rappopon "",n,,<;ntd ,n I,al)' fo.- ,"" fiTSl t,,"". len,n',
Coonmunl> ' !'ony ""I)' oeeu""", ,n late 1920 or eHn early 192 1' J
r ......... ' . ,ork, on Lunarrhanky .",1 Bogdaoo', .' en ""WIYlnS " P""'''
The f,,,, f""'gmtm of L .... m·1 "tJtk ,ILt,
Gram""i krKW was hi. le"e,
<>fI.:",p' __ ""cl.I'" '0 h,. r<codol1
... n llen to ."",her G. I Slflro, ,n 1916 and published in II In hIS ()'IIo'n "'I)' GI1Inu<, wrno of R"r9'por<"$ repon on lmm',
G,."I" Pupu/oJ as '11 \ '"", Pe",icro di Lentn,(, The True Thor!Mh' of thou"" On 201"koe-mbcr 1919. «rmn><nIinl! "" • It" .. ..." by lm,n to
L"",n·) (25 AUlluS! 1911/1 5<p<omher 19171. Later ,n 1918 he published
Semi". (O,a","". "",cd,haI Len'" ernphasiLe-d 'he- ,mportance of prof<: ....
frall""""S of lm,.'. Sf><t, ..... ,.. :-''''10 of these thrtt .reid.. soonal or as I>< PU' n. 'n,ohuoonari qtJ:Ihr,cati·. ""hich or

. 2M
""
 Gram ...i ,,"" 1M Arwrrhifl.l

eoo,se ""b hIS pwduc,;\ ;\' ;<koJogy, ·Sl,lled· ru,""'r ,""" l ..."n...... descnbod by Gram",i IS Ihe loader oflb<-
W"'" liknod '0 w",ken o( the (.Clory ew",," mOl em.",. on Ru.. ia. "Ihough I.enin ",-u coosidered an impo"1l11 p;>thfin<kr In lhe
.herofo", .. r.,'olu,i on"ies th. ·",.d"ne' of the re,ol u"OI1·, ,<,'oluti on,ry [,cn ;n h" f."",u, ·1'1", Re,'olution
."d Ihi' ·"'SJ'OO,ible '1\Crl. flO!" merely ·'H>l310r:1· C.pi.ar. pubh,hed in 191 7. G.. nud '''''O<'f'Orn!rd SociaJ; $l
·(;r.urucian· prof'>!i>OIU1 ,.,ol",,,,,,.ry WU """ sc,.ntiflC """i.li,. in R"""lullOMry ttlllCi ..... of on"""". '1arxi<.m. "oold recall
,he: Kn><: .ha, he r.l1SaJ oxoOOm'!oI,c ,,,,h.strial .0 the k' ,I wnh bm('TJlC<S how Sam,':1 COOIK1 bad mi.1ed hIm for ...,m moo,1Is '.'
o(""'olo"",,,ry M.n. .. m_ Ra'htt .he 'ri, olulionano qu.hf",",o· help<d A """'" Imporu"' "'n ...... c on Gramsci "-a!' W'zne<. IhI: R"I"","
word.I1Me '1',1"'" of wun,,,I. The h,'lOn cia". like Ihe Polish fello"", of It"", who la'cr bcocamt. Comi"lO", agenl.
""" ing cI.s,." worldwi<k. "" .ddcd. ·h'l'e unders,ood 'hat IOC ·11\"-,'"IC· He Ii"cd in Ilaly from I'l l II" 1924 and" o.ked in ( ;e n,-", and "ron " a, •
o r lhe ""oIU"011 lIthe 'yste", of coo""il,· ,'00 Ilo"ev<r. by ju"" 1920 .«:hn,",an. fo' the "",st pan for l tal Lmler llw: l'S"u.Jollym, ·Es·lkk·
th" full unporul""" of 111.:11 ill" ..... """,,,' oomncd e' IdenI "''''''' boo' ""'\ an<l 'Mol7yn' be I"'bh'iltrd • itries of a rt,,,,., m lhe Tonnesc .ooci31i"
..."oonl of lenIn'. hf. "" publo_hc:d by LOrd",. ,\'"",,,, .,' ZitlOl IC' press II", collec,rd and .ruulllni for Gr.lJlt>c' OOcumo:n'" Oft I'oh,h
do<.cribod I...."n·"." IS -.hI: b,ble oflllt molOmtnl" In O<'ober !910 .ffa,rs _nd Russian RCI'olu"Oft. lIi5 IttOSI In'pon.n, "",d.., "c",
Rappoport """.-ned '0 'he same 5"bJoel '"' By "')I' G..",sc, 11$0<1 a more Torero d, LeninTLc""'·s \\or\(.) (1 4 SqH"n.bor 1918. /I G'i,l" del
."tllont""a" in"rvrelOlO<.>o as ""'mo"" io" in hi' b11lcr q UaI",1 wilh S<mlll P,-,poio) .nd . C",1I lu,' Ono Sol ;el1i,," (" The So, COll5lilUllO"
and the m,\lm,hr.t" May IQI9.1. ,\u<),"l. both rr<l'iOUily (.-cdltod '0 GramKi. bul
K""" ledge of 1M S'"k "Old ""' 1'001 ""idc<pn:ad on hal), c'-en he lr.IIl§bIed an IlllCk Ii'om Pr-avdtJ on lhe Wlte of the Itl&lin
un,,1 lbe ,urn"",,. of I 920. an<l Gnun"':l h""",lf probably did It(lIll,,,,,, of _rmy on StpIember 1917. in "hoch Gnrmsci ltdmi11rd W,IlIe SoIshe,
" on"II.,c ,n ,he 'Pf'"I, The "ou'".n .'l"'lri01 •. r"", W........ w oil ... ,,<'" lhe: ml)O! fom. bohlnd lhe d"integralion of Ih,s f<>tJ'JIC' p,IIM of
Ihe "mlic.li>1 _i.Io,1 Lnneo l ........ in,isted on ils imJ>Oll in ">lI',,1 pow.... ,..,
,,",J
i" the pointod 10 Ihe w, "" a, an ,,"Iltul io" that eou ld \\\z""r". in G .. m....,'·' J,>eU;>,oo 8""'J'S help<d 0",,,,,,,
.non:h"I' and ..xi.h,r,. wh il e Gr...,,;ei . 1Id l ogli." i l"n,l>led <k ... I<>p m.ny oflhe majo, ilk,! of LOr/liM SUQ,,,,, Wi,ott'. 'Le,,,"',
il from frtt><h arid published" 'n July, to, lOlha,,; .nd Gram"" had "3, published I anya Kaplan·$ un,«<;ce>.f,,1 ,lte"'pl on
".nlrd 1o lr.Insl.,. 1M and .. Jj"" a. Slo.r and Ii.....m'. lenin', 10k .nll-Jacobin'"" W"'" ,"nltar '" G",m'l<i·5 SiDtt W'I1II"
"h,eh pH n • much rrealOT H,,!!cbao flol'<''''. ho ... ,he st ••e arguro 1h..1 "_rl.n bad bobo"ed 101." • Jacob,n!c.1 f..... "', L<'n,n "" 00
holp<d '0 dc, 01"1' g,.ate, [r«dim, on CO' ,I soc, .. ;- Ind«<!. in a" .",dc "'apolwn, raIl\(, he W,O> ·,he uu.,.., of lhe RUS$lan prolCla nal I\( "'..
ent illed . St3 10 t hbot".·. Togliall , ""Ied Ih.1 l."in·s work dem"" ,lrulcd f"S! amongst equal.· 100
how. "",i.Ii,t ita.c. ba>cd on , .y>lcm of eooo<ils. coold tm"""nd bolh \\Iz",r". ", 11 """". 0" O,omICi wo. m."l\(d by ' he onton 0,",""" of
.narch"l ",<>pi., and 'he C""'CmPOrl")' liberal ... Ic C""'Iucnng'lalC ;e,'o",1 ",Iocr ami POl., ... ilhm lbo 1131i.n fOCl.h>! mo, cmenl
pow'..-. "uher ,han aboli'hina ,lit ,Ulc form compklcl). "<><lid tTl facl during.he n:wo_ Indttd. by ,be 'JX1ng of 1920 111 open debale
. .. lit<, fr«<lont of au'<JnoonOU> ",.tustri31 Ofi>n,ulion_ (II lkyeloped bet" ..... '''0 fac,i"", ofConnnrrm 'gC't115 in lllll}, Onc group
cr.ar!) the ",ew.g .. "'e" rd horn /!-1!m is to br nO'h' > and Th" ,opportrd whik .he ",hct s..ppor:ed lhe rm/""",,", In ... mocb
,,,,d d,d "ot pr.senl I coh.nom ""cOOn' of Uni"i,m. bUI ,uch .s the pro.S<rr.lti ilrouP "",.sed the Iuprem.ey oflhe pO"Y "'--., lh. ""''c.
<onl",<lidory "I",ulk. of Grum ...·' Ind Ih. Imlm"","i ,oword, Ihe '" f:>Otory (}",ocil. B-o,dig.l endo,><d Ihei' ,tand, Fo' hi, P'''. L"ntn.
leni"'" mtrd)' ",noeled .I\(or uo<ou,ntics .bool "hal in fac, ""'" appttCia.,.,j DontbKei·, lies ""h I'"m. M,ni,tor "ill, and O1l\(rs In
harJ>crunl! ,n Ru» .. AI.hough man)' R"","", III ed ,n c.ile ,n Italy bofon: ltO'''''nmcnl ... "",an, 10 al Ie_" _<t:lblo.h """"""", .. I ",b.ions ""h
lhe war. and Lenon bad bttn Lno..n II\roup.""idn ,n 'lu...,I0",·, althouglt pm.. ",I), lenin callrd him I ·boarded IIn!>ttolc· _ In 1919.
'" 1911. in 1917 the Soci.list Re,""luhon' r),. S<JCl>ontlin (. Junior·) h.d and up '" ,b. 'umnle' of 1920. Ooonbacci and Scmrlo na"nlrd
1><:,,,,,,,. Sorra u·, chief Ru,,,.u co".spoode nl "" A.dh" ,10' »;,Iur.lly ,,"h Lenon and II\( Russians 10 "'Ole poin" .ga'"51 .ach other. So Ihe
<;.;.ci.lo" RnolullOl,a,y rothe, Ih,n H.,I_he,',k mterp!1.·111100 o f l!1<- Ru"bn .arly Co m,",om ....1S used to '1<1ll1. pc,,,,nol by ,he Iw" Ic.d "'g
re\,olullon "U olftred '0 rca..k ... ! or on 11 July 19 17. Italian ""'''111:110,,,, '<U

20.1-
 T h o< cunOU> Ih"t .,Ieaol unll l 192 I lhe C QItlinlem in ea rly 1920 probably kept the Journal .lIoot.•nd G ram",i ledged
d ,d nol ha, •• pl.n f". \\",h tht le ft. II al so ",Yeal, il in lhe la.1 "'tIC of JonUll)', ," A lth.ough Ihi. group distrusted Scmui ",
Iht '''ent PfC"'"' of a rouih ,ltd ,ead y "I"rali 'm of ""inion< Iha, ex" .. d "" u"",loable .ar«nSl. by 192(1 he had found hIS OI'n bac ker, 'l ,colai
"ilbin the RU;'>I"" <Iornu13led in'ema'ional 0'll.n,zallon all.a <l ,n thi, \bri.o' ie I iubar<ky ('Corio ",,;coi,ni") , "a"od to contributc
n"" of de,'.IOIl<""nl "". ('I' 'hl1 m.U" d,d Gramse; support 1(1 j'''nfl' 191 g and ,n 1919, II. ""bloW:<! h;"g",phi<05 of len,n artd
e'"Ct)'lhittll "hkh .,,,,,,,",ed from 5o;,,'"k, R""'i;I. Altbough 'mpofI""""
underl,mng the of ,he 10""'- fill" til, dc\Clopmcn' of
ht CtIdoI'Kd the 0.,10\:10. ,",um":1""', 1M d,...,lution of .he ConsUl".,,, 'he Ru.s'Jn Rc'olulton ,n 191' ' In tbe autumn of 1919. uling rnor>c)
A<;s<mhly and len,n·' d"l.llOHh,p. he ncHrthe .... m;OJ;nt2ed ,hallht", ioWhcd hy lhe ('OIII'"tcm, he .lIOned • Ihen""",,,1 journal in
"en: """"' .. d,ff=nces I n)(tng" lhe RoI",",,', k lude" th<m<rh <"S. Fill" C_"n",.." Although Scm" "al otfkially ,/Ie ed"",. in f"'" Ljubarsl)
,"<lance.... "n ."'.'" I t ,he ,ime that uti Communi", "I'J'O'CII ,... c<lnIrollctl cdtlorul pol",), "'" ooly d ,d C"",UnlS_ rq>rinl much ".luable
lIrt"St·lu, (>S1 unl). "en ,f'" .""f,,"'" T pro-leninist PO<"_ tn(onn.",on on ,he Rohb< .. ,kt; " also beeantO' , ... chief "I'JK"'ition 'o.he
""h Bulharin', DfII'IH'u"" LO , ... "s"",,,,,,nl, In 1919 Gram"" ",J""",<rI b)' •• _,."ng , ... " "',.sy "ilh syndical i,m. In an anld.
cnllC"ed O"d,.nn·' 11I..,.,p"s .' OI)Cn,ng up ""8"1 '. 11 ..... " 'Ih the Well published ,n December 1919. ljubar<k}- noted that RUSSIan f""IO<)'
on , ..... land of P"n$..ipo beeauSt ,I appeared ,ha,,'" So,jel negoci.'1lI" coo"",11 had hecn ihon·"Sh'ed. '1"",,"'01 ond und,;c,phned illllilUlion.
S.. , 100 many concoSlioru 10 (o""ln captt.Ii" •. E.-en lhough ... n:qUtrC"\! lhe i",da""c Oflhc ..,,,ct. and the ccntn! I""emm"'" on
n"",gni70d 11•• ,. as a "al<. So".. Ru ..i. had ", ClrTY OUI d 'plom,me on\<. '0 run and m:on.l1,,.;,. damag«J tndustrial H. oJ",
"'\1<'4'.1","1. ht ... >011 ....... "IS".,. prq'lOmJ., Ib ,. It"'" to a'-Stn;>d. .. Ilh lhe full en,bul''''", !o<tppOr'I o(Scmll i, ,hal ,he dlctalOlSh,p
polic'es 'hat "QUid 1.,., be assoc,.ted "·,,h Len,n ', norm:oli.l.al;on of of Ihe prol"."JI ""11M eonscious d ,.... IOf>h,p of the Socia list Pany. I •
flll"e '8n ",I.IIOIIS and Ihe NEP '" \\ h,l. Sordiaa. from hi' own pc-cu ha, ",,"tion. "a, ple ... d lha, ,he
Tht dcl>.:tlc b.,wttll ·T.,..,....,t· and 'M, lanesi" CIH1l:lIIem agents ce111,w Russ .. n Bobhe"ks ellliorscd hil ido.... Grarmci. 'UWOlled by hI> own
on Iht issue ofwha, " '1' "",ant b)' Ih" dtClalonh, p o f ,h. proletariat. The Con>,",om •. ci4ttncd ,h) , '-";iccohn;' was m'Sla ken. ".Ithoug h
ro. i""St group ,,,,,11IIk<1 1><>1 01 .0 JeRY Ilcn ryng (who s,gned h" III>! "" .. , ,t1O(\. ing G ram",i O,'ct th" ,,,,,,dent '. Iso Com rade
anicle, b R>'''8·).' 1'" Ii.h eng'''''''' wh.o had tl'oJ " ' It. ly , 11"" 1905 "";cu i",, l>«n "f.,led" b)' Gra",,,,, Olt 'lit ,hwIy and " raeltc. of the
A< a of MOfJ!.lri he had helped "'ga ttile demonstranon, during I'h i,J Intc"""o" ,I' , " Rt odel tlttcnonod tn prt nt in May "nd in support
Ihe pre"'"' ,iI i, of the T." '" Ita ly 0".1 lale. inte'!''"ted ,he specd... "f ofGr.lm ... i l1tc 1\,«Ie 1and ' Nic<olini' had been grow 'ng
lhe Sov,e, d. I'Wltton " ", mll thei, 8r pe,ra n<e. ,n Tun n in 1917. Whil e 1,>< >orne " me, In "'jII",1 while Riede l soughl to support t lte P,od,nonl
l!c nf)' n8 tt'' 't>laI,-J nIJ rty of,he firs' !'agmcnl$ "f l."mn 's "'riling> '0 ",..,h by "n lt><<cssfll ily '0 otc. to "mili ' . ry = Iion
I, " Iy ' n laIC 19 \ ? early 1918, h. Gram",i . nd Se".ti the disti ""t WLl I" " ,h. 1",01 PSI b.. noh in Tutl n , 'N;cco li",' .upported Se rrati',
"npression ,It" ,h. qu ...... I. be,,,,",,n lhe Uv\,he , the Me nsheviks and .J,
; h,,,,n tng of Ihr:sc " "U,t:!,' ' "
Ihe Social'" Ro' ".re 1<$5 se riou' lhan 'hey wCTI: in realil , (;r.",,c,·. we!$C\l the lenin o f the Apn l and rM
. J"",O('. S\,pponro an athall<.-c of S-ociali>\ k eYol"li"na.ie. u"d R... olwlo" In ,h. ""nit ' P"" , Gran,;ci ·.. "i , le 'lll< rJ rty and
and and Ihl>. ' . "" ""I'" """". ".., i<lenl in mIlCh o f G ... mse,·, Rr'oht"""" di"""ly "',pot><lod \0 :;.eml; ·. and Niccolini', ""nl.-n,i"" tha,
"m,ng' ,t"$ "onod • ,he dOCI8I<>r>1"" of ,he prol''''''1 " ,,. the <on",ious dictator>h,p of ,''''
n..e other of Gram"", 's I"'>"""t ".'" ,llI"tt Bolshevik, wh.o ;0< .. 1011 pany
Im"N d,reclly froln ' he cI'il'''aHom Uk""ne in 1919 , '''r<:

Alex;.an.l.ro, ie DegOit. Sofia h",,..,,,,u (Fkn.o) Sololo,·. la .. and Tho Pori) """""" tho l'""'IIi""""' ..... Ih.. mas> """-=>ml
l)an,,1 Riedfl They bad "orI<<:d cla""""" ... ly tn ,ht Ulrai .... in 1918. .n<! .''"''''>t. th< row .rr"",,,. of d,C1>''''''',fI'i. a dtct.ltoHl".,p I=<d on
."" "i,h ,Ite Fn:""b .ynd",al", Ma",el Brod),. had ..,.,ght In di ... rr""t • . on "'" ....... ""'. and " " " " _ "'«fII*J"'< of." ,1\.0,
r "'rtch sa,lan and rna,i...., ba5td ," ,he eri"",a.' I' ,.. . ... _ " ,nd.<pon ...... ,flh<II m,w"" .. to be acromp:'.tK-<I. I, """Id
On.- of !be moll impo<Unl eontnbultOlli Ih" group of Ru"ianl .nd be d, ... _ ,r" of
-=",,_ OOOIttJOIIOIl tho mk to the ",,-o[ul>On
rotc. P' e 10 I. 'o..J",. ,\'""", ""I undoub(<:dly fi ..."".. l T1Ic;r donation
"""" to d.,rn
,il< that th .."""",,,'u,haol ...... 11\ HSWnCd a
rot:\\. ro.
","I !he <)-..<'11 _In.,. ' h< '""'>eO """""""" load m....,

>G' 20S
 .n ....cd.. "''''1 f"",,, Of jmO'>C'oli.1< po .. ..,.. f"",inS the r<IOIUlion>ry proces. Quaglino. Luigi Fabbri.nd [ moo .",ph... ized Ihr need for a
mlo the fOnru oftl>< P>rt)-- The mul' ....,.,Id be 10 d"c" Ml<'<e<>fulll 0 ""mbet f"'" a,,,,,,,i .. "" of sclf'g<l'-cming Ix>dics 10 lhe 01.1. T1K:y IS"",d
of men. 10 -ma5t<r' hoItor)-, buI the lUI rtloIu,OCIfW} rox«' ",,,,,)d dip [rom Ihat.ln 0,,10. f", .... ,,,Iutlonary Inn,fOrmall"" 10 OCtu, remlu"')n,m<$
lIIe ronI",", ond "'fiucnco o(lIIt pari). "'luch ",..,."d _ , o u d ) bcrornc." "'O\Jld ""'<!O Jure lIIoIl"001.lC1Ion Ind dl>lnbut)()/\ remaIned und,,-
orp<I of <OIIiOt".wm '" ,ulNd Funl><"""",,_ ,hey .1.., ,"", fonn of organiz.d
cocn:ion ""1> ""Iuired_ FDf ,heir pon. T"Ihalli and Gram",i ""'''1-
"'=
ju" a. 'I\ iccolini' .0Id argUIng aboul ,be n,z, ,h. dang." of an aulloon,.".n d<S'JIC,a"o. of lhr ,",olu1I,,"_
",I.u,. men4 of part). SOI-i", ond (""'Of)' <:<)Undl, ""'" pol,lically"UIan<>- Toglialli c'-cn sounded 'cry mu<h I, l c \laI3l.>I' Thu,. co""llIding lhe
moJ«; 10 Russ •• '" or< no IQlllI"r r"lICliooing Rdormlm In do""IC ""ilh Piel'" \1""" '''''' ,Itoe <01< "f,he ,he
II", CG L '" ere ""I 'low III I"'mllng 10 Ill< """,.hl)" of G",,,,,,,j', claIm, ,n ,h. Togli.tll wrot. ,hal ,I ·n",,,. no! be • prn.<>rutl d,ctll'".y"P .
• boul IIIe !'Ower of in<!umi,1 m RU<Sla In ,he ,um"",' h"' one of. <I,ss. and ,hal we .. ,,"h h'm. ",,\c.d Ih" ,\ one of 'he
of 1920 Biandi "'ported 1"010 !hl! Ih. f1l<"lol)' c"," ""I, had da "sc" ,n31 run, IhrooSh Ihe )!IOW "'. "" ,l' \1 hlle (ira"'""
""",0 ,O"btl<"<l _. rho d,"''''''''.'·. I>< eonu rtLtod. ·, h... SfOUr of yOllng '" rill" du ring" polem,c '" ;Ih G.nno r .rrero '" Augu,1 1920 t ha,
intellecl"" I, cany out aboul Ihe (,. 101)' c"" 'tC,l. an<! Ihe i' '''''''relical and
h iltoncal funcllon, larel by no'" by Russ,a n . ' ['<'i· T" Fac'O<)' Cooneil. In Tun" I ·"ben.", n- '",'H"" b) ,he "",. ,n,
enet" ", One of G",ms<,·. fi.", ... loX31 opponen". Guam .. n. In,•• · " . ". Ii"><y <>l><-y ,lit" .." n '"'1<1' or de,olopmrn' .0Id, in so fOf • • IIIty
,"' .... d • ,uppon..- of Koll""",,'1 WQt1>;..,,· Qrposi,ion II ,he In'ernallonal "''''''..,.., 'i">< h,,,,,,",,,, """'...... off"",o) IOIId do<, ... In ,I>< [acl<lfy
\ It,,,l ... od ... Fffi ... lion . . ,n C"""" ""gon ,n July 19.w ",hen: "crllnl d"", tIx)- Or< , ltal and oJ.,.. M.D.I" •.""",un",. <lo ... 1><1 ..,. In
ht II", • • ndidl) admined lhal Ih. fX10f)' COI<lIClls had mm: h,,,v,,,,II.,...,,,,,, """"'" """,...".",. '" Ie"",""i .. mUllS The "crlOH"
op['<ndag •• of ,he uni",",'" I urthrm"lOl"•. the dOl'n(,!! of ,h. Slale i. tile C..,,,,nin«: ofl'lbl>< .. fthe prolrtari.. """Iuti",,_ F... ....
""""ins d .... d L<fXd"'''' the........- ,hal ,Ite) .,,)) be _ '" \Om .... anI,
lIuno;anan So"", Rq>ubhe ... I"nbuted in la'll. pin by Gmn..c, 10 II><
,lie of'/I<''' <d) "
10' .mment". i!1lbl1il) 10 controllhe ,ndcp<ndcn' and >1""hcaIiSl illCli",,·
lIOn. of ,he Hungarian ,""'" un)()/\, lnoked. ,h,. exampl. ""os u!-Cd b)'
., " .... in Ihi' lolcnnt 'pun lhal d,>cu,,,,d L",,," Ind his
(ita"'",, l<> d",,,, a d"","'llOn hrlw •• n lhe 'Il",,,m of old-!.,h,or>ed

wl,h \"u,izio G .. ioo, Ga.i"o hi, "" n p<>S,lion &1
>In,h<",h,m and ,h. allnu>m of ,,,,",,,,,Ibm. bt" 11 "'IS al'" C'-em""Uy
'he congress of 1"" Chamber of taboo. in \lay 1920 all<! 01 Ihc UAI
omploy<"<l 10 juslify Ihr ereallon ofpolmcaUy '",p",;:d ,""mmuni" grOIlp'.
,n July_ He .. 11 ..1 for" ,,,,,,,,y of f.C"tory cOI,neil, in which '''''
,·.Ia bll ,h<d Iu OT);.ni,,, ,II 'he ,hop 1100' and ,hoo-<"I"' " " lhe
die'",o .. h,p of t ho patty,,, Ihal o f poltllt'II )- ",n,,-o lled """ ;"5 w(",ld
a"""".",; <>f ",Ju'll)' ,.If-o'll",," anon. thO! f,,",bmem,1 prineip le of Ihe
f.oto/)" cop", iI m<" e",enl il",lf. 'l'
tin<! no pl""._ ," Gm,"", i o( endorsed 1,,< . ,13",1"" 1"''''''''',
and Ga,;"" recalled ,hal G ...mci's hellcmony of prod"" ... al'" ,,,,,.m
& dl",a,o"h,p of. P"rty-' l1 He plrt,oul.,l y remembe ••d one cfU<i .1
C "nel",i"n: Anarchist, and Ordinrn"<li: T ho SU tf and Ih,· conH ...,ion with Gramsci . bou, ,he falC of'be on.n;h"," ul'kk, lhe rul<
I n d ilidua l "f'he d,,'OIl<)f$h;p of ,IK: prtlku'; .. In hIS ,iny G",msci nplained
to hlln JI",icnlly lha, 1M dICI.,,,,,h,p of 1M prol<1:l.';" "'"1> no! lil:< any
A' fi", dw: R"",an btouatn ....."h, .. s and mnin .. IiSl ......1"" "'hrf dICtll'OI'lIhip. ,he personal dIC",'onhlp of but 11K:
,ogethr. A .","""hOl or "'" ,01,., of the 801."., real I","'''''' of C()TtSCiou!<lC>1 oil<! ,he Stirore of p"""- 10 preHnl lhe
.," oIU1>on K<med to be • ronlinnauQII oJr ,be d<x""""li,..d ond d.""" boup'" from oand<nnlnltl@lhr""oIUllOnaI) I""'C"<"'. lbtrefon: "hen
""on mo-t.hod< of ,Ix: anan:h, ... and srnd",.I,<1, II""el<f. boundanc<
be"",,,,, libelWian ..,.iah"n ond Man"1 !'oclliism "'-.re qu,dly =,\aI>- 'IK: "odlrtg cla.\S """'I""'m:! PO""'" 'OJIC "'... s 00 long .. Jealing ",ilI.
,ruc and prop<1" d",u,onlt,p' but ,he sci,ure of lhe I.","" o f pov.c' 10
I.. bed. Mu<h of ,he deba'e the <NIImu"-'" and lhc lib<nanan. realiz. "",i.li,"" T1K:n G.,ino c.rl>lned h,s po,,"on
0'.' ,h. n«,S.,,}' of 'ho "ale ""iI
,he dieta,onhlp of 'hr p",lel .. i.,
j"I1"""d p."diet:lble Jl"11",m_ Org.n,,-"110ll.,Ii'1 """.. him 'l.ICh., Corrado

"" '"
 )<'"",,,liy I. from ,he ,,,,,r:oo;nl. <leII...:I ,II of'h" 1.. id 'Aoo,,' ,11 fo", lru to • iIOC,.1 or<k, ,n .. hKh 1nd" ,dual. """Id "'" be sacri ficed to
,he 10.. -am: ",tt.)"" _ Grm.oc" buroo ,hi. pDln' ""_ E,,,,,, ","Lee"", ab,u"C!lon,. to a OQc,oty baseJ 00 "ho...... hla""" """Id n'"
d",.'""h,J'I 11,,1. by I",'. <On , ..... torm tIl<rn ..,,-.., Lnt<, dLOU'","",,1'" of <Nih ,Ad" ,d .... ls "'ho i<,bK.ibed to it. btlt ,lI<i' "",jally groornkd
l!fWI'>ofmcn and thcf<f..... mInC, f _ ' i\Pd .. my ,ndi'iJualny,'"
i»<""""",. I oddo<l 'If,,,,,,,,,,,_ Ln lUI)' • dl<1.l,,,,<h,p " .... bhsh<d. call "
=
... h,oj )<'0 .. . ....... r. .... 10 be """ ... ,11 be '" toea"", .. 1&>'"" .... p<>:i'i<3l
S"!O, .
(irarr»cl dLdn', ." In< fin,,",, " • ..,. '0 h .. rod
in • """ and put "" Iw>ck
...... "" h,> ha".nd ..,d, ."', .... "",,', ") tho< Gan"", i' ... 'ill tI'C'Oer be H<
'ho1." " "'" _III<. you.n: """,plncly ofT .... ,,,,,k" d<pan<d. ..
...... ,. JOOd fi>«Id .. I>u, n<II or ... kfII ow """ "1'''''00.'''
for hIS I"'n. P''''rll "'II susp,.ious of lhe 1l'8.lian 1_ C \Ia ..,.· Brr .... n l 'l }ionsm and T«hnocracy', Jou",,,! ,,( C",,-
r""' ...... QI\ of{' .. '001)(";01 _In" ",-t.m the d:SCUIi- ""'JlO'"!'n. JlIII<"", 3<J.--L
oi"" 10 rhe 1IaI. \1 ...... Gr..mso,'und Togl ... ,,, ·s SUSp!<'IOnS 1 0 l)'I"n,. S, ..!"!!i.. '" ,he Italian Clr loo""ry 1906-
of '1alo SOC'llt"" In In "nod. ,n L "",nit" .\0'-" he denounced Ill. CGl', . . and "Ifa Romro'. in S T0I1,day and J (eds). 1M
.uf'I'OI1 f(ll ,hi' '..... ""aliu',,:., of,,,. ,I«,ncal indu .. ,y lih Gram",i Au"","""l, 1""",,1')' and II, fkn",..", Foni..", and F/"x;N/,n,
.nd TOIIIi.lli he: u$nllimLI., "'iumC""'I"ml' n>lion,Ii""'i",,, Slr=ing Cambndge. 1986. I'P 87-8. S. \ 1.",.". La IP!511onnkIl0 for;:a I",,,,,,
lhe: d:lng... or.he 11,11,,, <1""'01,,, lIal. ':0 In a .-.,.,... of'he: Brlg"n S()1I0 ,/ (a" "",,,. \I,lan. 1987. 1'1'. 82-1. I' R. \1 ,11>00. 1M CirKhroric
.-.rO"", .. [""Ie \ .ndc-r>.ldo·. U Jor;"/i.,,,. ronl'" I 'tlfJ1 \ 100.0 Fa'N'" lI"",an "mJ It"" ,n Fa<dJllwh. O'ford. 1993. P1'. 35-19,
...""r.do,J 'he .-..clcn of L .(ft,f",,, .\"110'" 001'0 coof"se ,he •• ndenc;'" fl.. 1)c" "",". 'I"" 1.011 P... d'am: ,\n It.h,,, \1 ... lwoo.-i"g Empi.-.
'o,.. ,J$ <. n.Io""""" .nd n.. ion.Ii""",on 'PUrred "" by the: ",ar wnh Oc''''c<cn Model, of 190G 191(1'. on C F
<Oc,ahsm lIo"c,",. Mo>110 J"'ru".<l ,en. ,. ,Ma, Ihtn 'ultt.! ,n s..lx-I and J. Ze"lin IN;). ",,,/oJ, ,,( P""im{;"ts, Flt_<ib,liry and Md"
L '(.mim,' I"m'" ":lelf Co",,,, Sea"",,,,', blucp""t> for the 1.. li." Ik J I'rod"<IIV'I /I "Sle,,, 1",h."""li:"I,,,,,. Camb, idg" 1997.1'1',273---
Army publilhrJ ,n I. 'Onl",,· lI«",ed Hf}' " utl>oWaria" in 'p" it. leN. An",n R.b",lMch ,""" of II>< of ,he 3<'oal , pphcation
",·hile Togllal,,'1 pra,se of Oen"le "gn,lIed a d"lurb, ng st ... worsh,p of lu}'loo.", '" Eun'P" '." us ;1> cIT,,,,, un ,nte lk"t",,1 d,scou,,,, ' ',he
.. ,..,ng" Ihe Q"lm(J"'Srr , Mo.s<> d,J not """,pt Ih.1 ' 11>< \ t ate ' had a ' moral de!>:"e O/>(J"I ttl( f a,'lor 'ys,em "M in n... ny w'Y' n""" ,mport.nt Ih an
pe,..,,,a hty" ",lom.1,,, Ihe ,,,d ,,idu.1 ut gMlp' of indi, idu" ls <JT that the tM rHr'tr of 'tl apphc.,ion·, su me Human Ifolor E""'gy Faligue
,lie ""ccssary loOUrce oftru lh onJ low, IlL a)l,i ln,' 01'1:1", MOO'·"'''',I. N,'w Yo'k. 1m. p. 240
MolSo lhertfur"e oppos«I tlle ""Im",',,-/i', 1.1\" iog II'seliani,,". ) O. M';o'le. 1/ b,e'''''<J ""'<J, A"'<J""," w • "perala nt"!
"'role, had ,,, meJ HOlel on he: .. ,•. bUl hi, """i. li st fri ends ""o ",cd 1919 1920. llologna. 197\ pp. 7 19; S. di IJri,w
'0 ".,nllO PI,' on hi' f"'lll(Om , dcp<mk"". Llpo" ' h,rm""y 1!iOlJ-I'J2G. M,lan. l<ilill. pp. 191 1
btl" "', .. ' he ,l.\loIe Ind lhe c<>uncii> WIS con.i<kre<l a Jang"rou. addi" ,i ",,_ M [ alumn. 'Un ioaUSoa JdI"Onl"", /1""'0'. L 1 .'Ia,
ror thi. "">", IhoIIah,"ul of an.m:h'm f, .. dom ..-os re.lized d .. 1919. p. I, \ tay 1919. p. 11.24 M'j' 1919. p, 22. 7 )00<' 1919, P
'.-.a,i,. ten.k>Il. foond 1x1,,,,,,,, It"'" ,d",,1 and need,_ '" ..""'. Jl.
loll hal "o"en ,hat anan:hist. foulld ,h<mscl'e. "ugllollx1"ttn 11><" C. le' )' .. Amonio O,,,,,,"ei. St1t<'1i0flJ {ro", C1I""d
''''0 "ronl lradilions oh'llu"ury communi,,,, and indi"wlIlI] autonomy by D"id r OipCS and Gtoff"'J-' 'o".II · SmJlh. tran,latC1l .... illia,,,
MO>><I. I"'d .. plo. mOn: lilan """'I. folt th" «:mu-adie, i"" k«nly'" For n""H.,,"Cf, London 19!1\ Hwor. <1 £""'fJ"Un lba •. '01. 9, no I.
\101'10'''' POS"""\'olotlOtllOry soc .. "'oold ""iiM, be an "'Pr.,"" nor 1988. pp 7:1-6 I or ,n loaly."" A. Tambomo.. E."I, "''''' In
In all embrac,nll 51a", but !'lIthe:r • dynami<: collectlOO of "u,onomou, ilailQ d4119fJJ al 1911. Ibn. ]977, pp 114, lS3: C Road. Rrligion
,noj" ,duals The d,m.ul. wl for lhe aran:hi." ",•• 10 .-."",,, anti -social ,,"" 'M R".""ln InIOlill.'",,,,io 1900 1912. london. 1979.
and unrealtll1c ,ornknc," ''''''''is' thetr ""n folJo,o.'=_ \1<>1$0 1001"" R (" Wtlham,. 'Colifc!L\e Thr S)"n,b... h", of

N.
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 l'rokunan Cultur". 19(J5--1910·. Slum' H'·.:;.... ,. "01 19. 1980. 1'1'. 396. ,n J Shorten (ed.l. TnNlg a"d ,,,,jrw
J9')..400. '1''''' debate abo,,, corned on ,n ,he pn;w..- lie Grom,r;. Turin, 1988.1'1' 198--208.
"'as k",,"'n b) Orams.;, Of J>lI"'I<ul31 ""PO"''''''''' was Ihr 9 c'1kmcn, L 'op<"r(1'oldtna. Art'S!. 1934. p. 9.
role of pro- T.ylorit" .... "'h'5.. 'lOCh aJ Rot, Ott:-' Papal"m .. 10. Stt ,he hll ofanid"" on r. 14) tn ,110 1310 n."",on\!h
Cl:1l'uty
IIpIt""'e .lferrltj"", -",.. ,. II{ R",,..,.,j,,,, Rnoluf;(}tI,}"" ,n Tunn. rhe educ.r,on.1 An8elo \{05;.o iO'l:1ll0d 'he
lrl-192_1, Dotd=hL P 68; G C""",f (hoe" CfiOVlOph 1(, fillill< dunn,laboor Unlil. Ta}lor'" "Y""'"
/t>r TM '" lIori m ornl 1840--J94f1. t1 " .. , "",..". arpIicd m 1110 shop Ooor As I ""","'. Angelo \t"""
Rcrld.y, 1989. pp 110- 11. I' Tudo, J<. R""o!ufl(}tlQn \\3, nQt ",,,,cd 10 Pietro \1<><5(> On Angolo Mo<>o', tnnUCDtt nn
S\ und 'he FuM, Cambridge. 19%, I'P. 16l\-82 ,110 'Luropcan S<,ero:< ofW""''' Rabint-oh. ilu",(J1I Mo,or.
6 A . .\·Ofe .,,1 l ,-t'1IO.1970. p. 4), U. Carp,. 'So" c" 1'1' t n--42 .
• ;, ismo antibo'!;l>c<e • ""'lIIIc'i "''' le,..tI 0: orrumi s"ll"iJeologia de l I I Sci: AC!A Ca,.",l 'G il ,mp'eglH d, 9 August 1919,
p,i,,.., fuw rismo ', u"um Cm" <I, OX", 2\ 1982. 1'1' l-- 18, G. Bergh"" •. G !) ' Im p'''S''i • ore", i ".lIe Nm ," ,,;<Qn, ''''omo'. 25 Oc'ober
I'",u,;,,,, am/ PO/llic• . <en ,j,,,,,,·niJl/k"'·II,,,,, ,,,,,i Fa.','"., Re",· 19 19, p. 181. V. lllrb,.r •. 'Po>" dol l'om,,,,, Noo\'o', 6--13 De<cmbe,
"iii' NrN----/944. Pro"d.,IC •. 19%,I'P, 180-%. 1919. p. 232, P. Borgh ... 'T""n " , • di "1""'0"
3 ).""al)'
7. M B, u>ni.'t-.:olesuGramsc,nd 1915 1920, r 2s.1, M Srr.tgmm, 'Gil u ff"" l""ni<i ,,., c"",igll di fabl»-ic.·.
"''''poranea, vol. 10. no. I, 1978.1'1" J6l---6; M Toll>, 'SIra1ogia 7 .·obrua'Y Ino. p. 280, II LI Croy. 'l'cr "n magg""" IJcc<>«l<> ""
«"",glom c 'I' ,luppO "'1',13los1100 ,n Om'll'''''. Proble"" dd Sociol· .m""n;"",,,' '. l""noe, • ""cr.,,',
14 Febr,,:,,), 1920, P 291. P. Boq,h,.
"""'. '01. \ 11. 1976.1'1'.221-14. f Oroms<:i e lafoNmca 'o,;";"s>iort ,u, Con"gll d, f.bbnc. rome "ruIMnto l""nito della
proJll:j"..,. It·,,,i,·,, iNX,,"i::,,:t<J"" /o,oro fH!>U'''''' prod"';"",,'.28 Fobrulty _. 6 'Imh 1920. p. .1(17, V Ra:b<:rn. ·T",,";';;
• . 19$6. 0 Sci",,,,,,,. GflI"'Jt:/ am/1M nr..,., c Opfflt' ne' ron .. gli gest,OllC' (t'e"O" I) \tarch 1970. p. ] 16, P.
of lH",ocrQC1'. Aldol'$hoI. 1991. 1'1' 9'-8. For.n Ilorgh, .. p.,. """ cooperal'" d, ,Ddus'n.·. 20 \llrch 1920. p 329, P
.m;-"'fJI '0 hn\; "'" produt", ...... orr """",an social,,", andcommunism tJ,orgIti, 'Ope,ai c rapi·. 3-10 Apnl 19211. p. 342. G Casal<. 'holu·
to ...., \1. Se,dnwt. Al:am" II;;"-!: Lnbor In Par" 7ion< • n,·oluz;""" delll clabo imI""S""U'-". IS \lay 1910. p. I I .
""d &1 ....../""" [)urillg 1M Popular front>. 1991 ,b,d .. 'I.. To<u I nt"",,,,,ionaic. 81i 29 Ma} 19M. p. JO:
8, For Someri, ...., F- Madrid C"miilo BUn<!rJ, un \1 'I'OS13 deWOrdone ]\-"'0"0'. 28 Aug"'1 1920_ P I 12, P.
I/a/iano (/&91 19)1). H,,-o/u:.(>tI<' GOld . . in E ..",pa Ilo'llh" 'Gil i""'gnamenlt del!., 1011" <lei m<1allurgici', 9 Oc,obet
f/91 7_193 I), P,,!01I, 1985 l!-ernen 'H"" quo or' producti\'is", """"i· I no, p. 1n , M . S'ms,olli. 'G li ,n5<I!"."""'I' <kll. IO'la dei IMlalh,,·
,he scholarly"',,,. of id,aol Se,d",a". r.;;c /l urkers, pp. 46 7. g'"'' " b' L pra<tici', 1t>-23 Oclober 1920. p. 14 2, P. 1101):1" . '(; 1,
110 I. 169 71, 3 II , F", o,heuOtnn ..",s On G,.m",,·, prociucl" ""', del ",Umt brc·. 24 Ikoombe. 1920, p 179 . The
,..,,, p C \Iasini. A""",.o G... m.<rl .. 1'0""",, ,,,I,, d" u'l "onuibulion. of oro A I.unochl",ky. ·1.·i'lruzione profe.·
/,/"'na"". 1\1,1,", 1956. pp 1.1. 14. r. Spn . oo. J (mJo"" nl<O'" j ,ion"1o ""lIa R",.i. d.i So, i.t", P. Il:omp. 'T""n iCl c riyolu. i""o·.
....m"J:1I di ;ubbrica. Turin. 1971. 1'1' 64 ,5, \1 .. ,001C. II ro"o. 20 '"",mber 1920. 1'1'.
pp. 10_11. 14 IS. 6 107 11. m 9. E. RU"lIliano. 'The 12. s...:. I': Spnal>O (<<I,), t.. ""'lUi'll ,/'Qi.D/1()
of labor and Capll"l", Rllliomohl) ,n Gram",,'. Telos. no. 31. 1971, ,-o/ume u"o. L .\110'" 119J9--19211}. Tunn. I%J. 221.
Pr· 91 9; F. Adl ... 'FactOt")-· Councils. O",n"", and Ih<- Indu>U1aI"" ... 11 Ibid.. p. 453. For ,l\c ....1. of "oden. on 1hc pK".r
Tdru. no. 31. 19'7. pp. 71.;89.851. R \bn,,,,,lIi. II ParliW rSI 5«, \{ 'I"""""nlt, 'II fl"" popolo d<'glo impiopu·. ,n \1.
C""""",.. 19: It""",. 1977,1'1" 6--1. &6--. L l'a>=mi . D<:gli·l"....,,,,,'i. ,'111";:1011; ad '<K1<flismo ""Uo"" 189:-
. \\ "' k Idcol"lO and CQnscn.U! undrr h.I,," Flsci,m·. lliSlon' lIori· 1914. :>:aplc<. 1983.!'P. '-' for im"lar _"""'' on m Milan 10
slwpJuur'",I, 00. 8, 1979, rp. 9.1 r Ik F.lico. ' Ro,'oIu,ioo and ,110, of Tutin in 1919--19M,"'" \1 "I:"""....
Pmduc'ion·. m A. {«I ). to Om ... !CI. (;Ii Imf'l'7lall ",,"'Ii" 0/<&0 19JW. I'I'U pp ISS--
London. 1982. pp . 197---f1: L Olla' """. 'LI di ... ,pl i... ron", ul""ia',
'"
'" '"
1.f 'C,rlo f'cui' (1',.,,,, M""so!. t produzione in "'g"TlC conc"1t 0.101 tl)'Ior;!rno', I. 'Onime '''110'''.
8 \Q\'cmber 1919. p. 197.
cornun,SII·. \'".,m, 7 June 1919, P 16 JO. Ih,d .. 'II ,i..."", T'} lot • ""'''Mh
doi produnon. l'aq;lIr'ttll' ......
15. E di 101/" Xnlll 101. I. ("manil" \.,," dei ("oo"gl,', L 'OnJiM S"""", 15 "-o...",ber 1919. p 21b
19.'f!11,C.mn.1975.pp 31,S! 1 L Ihld.
16. \' M". W 'lrat<' dd f);"nu. Mil,n. 19'9, pp, n IbiJ
lOS· 6. III 17. F", tho c",,,,tt.i..,,..! be.w""" ( iramSCI ', """ocP' of 33 Ibill, 'II ,,<toma T. ylor e , con.igho doi rrudullofl La .cuolo',
h.gernony ."J coocept ion of " ".n:hlSm, ... r " " "";-, L .\'",,,,,, 22 19 19, PI', 209-10, On Prole!cul! ><e
B",y.. M.I.te.t . onJ t"': an"chiS! ","01"11""', A"""h", Smdi"" ",>I, .1>",. fn 5, Als.o J. 5<:"':m:f. J\.og<i.Plo,". Len;n il bol<.Ce"i<mo
J. n.o I. 199t rr 14 ' ,4 1 ) al b"·lo'. E. lioo<J)awm (.d .). dfl "10"""'0, Turin. 1979.
I 7 E MoJinan, I fUI10Ti prl ."',....", d.-llo ""-wI,,, '01 2. pp For 'he <fftt!S of on
Milan.1920, GIlI"""i. _ C. Ke",1!ors. A"I""IO Ora",sd. II mOHISI,f() Ifulio,
18 &t"m, "oto.uOnmsci',pp J6J-.4 "_1'10" 1915, P 61. II Em",i"I., Am"",,, C""""""""
19 C Lt';-, . Wcb<:t aDd AnIQ,uo Orun5l'i' In \\ \tommsrn IIId J. S,:Joo<>iuw lor RQt/I«J1 pQ/lfj<J. Lorxlon. 1979. f1I' 140-1, C Bcrmas11.
(od,)• .\1.... ltd,." u"" III< london. 'LoUont"" 0 \11. """,,,,,,,1 •. Lt lUI fokloro'. In
pr 391J.-2 S. \I •• h. R. Gua,,,"i. A 'bog' no. R. E Aguzi. to,,,,,,,.
P. ROS$ ••• AII!""io oramsci ,ull. Kien>" ",ooem,,·. Crilic" Ifar.."ld. C 1'0\00 •. A, T"",ioli C. Bermanl. S. Stu.kr 30d R. Lupeno, •
\.,, 1. 14.11(). 2. 1970. pp 41 60 arum.,., 1111 collfm5tafa. ,\ I, I,n. 1979. pp. 94 I OJ , Gr.lm<c t.
21 Mario ,\ IIUlfOh, ' 11 10<,.1,,"'0 conlrol t. 5I';<n,". p.t. [1', 11 11110 L 'Ord,,"' V"ow" 1', 556-K In ",any wlY! Piet", Mo,,.,·, pmS'" "'''''
Togli.lli], 'PQ,I ,tt •. L 'Or-J",,, \,.0,,,,9 July 19 19. pp n. In. "'a, ,t"" t.. to ttl< Luwpe.n Scienco of wort "'t h.... tllan T.;-lor Tile
Spri,,,,,.I... culfura rP· 193 9 Eurupeao Scl<OCt of wort ",hoxIl ohart<l \IOSOO's quesl (<II i"'l"'" ing
12 J 0",,,,,, f • PQ/mcal n"'''ghl. O. (",d. 1981. pili Job .. tI.fae!>OrI ""ltcr than To}'I,," ';O$I.,,,,iOO<d " ... to 1111>.(
2J. II S ltugllt'l, CQlUClo<unur Qnd .\d(,trl, Bn&t.too. 1981 p«><Iuctl'i,),. $<-c, Rabmba<h. rAe 1I"",.,n p. 222.
pp 92, 17.1; I I'o.JO:J;:I. 'G",,.,,.'i'. """",I th<or)' of Marxl<m·. In (; 34 Ib,d, P
Moon•• (cd.l. and lMon', J ondoo., 1979. p. 148. Ib,J.
U. 'L"ilersalna &: ""hu.,·. ,n Fern. I'P. 127---t.O; Jl. Dt 36 Ih,d
G,m ann' .. L,l>ena ioo;"i<l"o l< < 001"" cOllcm", in AtI1()f1to Grnm.ct·, 31 IhlJ.f1I' 209 10,
" ' ibiJ, p. 224, 38 ,\ 1 BotTII. I, 'Nira d.., Im'Oro "diu ('ull"m lIalrano ,IJII',mlw" (,!O/i"i.
24 G 11", t I" , i l'Q /""o".,. a"'IIIICi e if dlama', [' isa, 1<)7<),
PP 21 2.9,\ 100. and e'ptti.lly 101 I t ha,," dr.wn alltn!!"" t" ,9 \. Ca,tfooo ..·o. Gi,,,,,,,,,, 1.<1 FUJI dul 1899 111 1945, Turin.
,hi: 'IItulan"ts 000 p.",lkl. Ix,,..,,,,, anum.. , ."d \\d.. r, Off Ltl·;-. 191; tJ ,pp 114 S. '1,,«0 .. Political T",,,,,,,,s.nd l.abour l,;nion
'\1 .. Weber' AI"".<t Roben "ho d12"" to Sirugglc Won.tng Cia .. Conflie!. ,n TUfi" dunn, and afk-r!be r ,,,!
'be ",l,,,,,,,.!up bet" eon Gr."n",,." arid \kbn-', 0",,,.1 \\O<!d \\ .... ,n L 1I.imson and G. Sapelh Icd,). S",leJ. SoriQI
.,,,onee. Cbltt<!...-. 1986, pp Sl-J02 ConflICt Fin' World 'Ia•. Annuli fJibliOl«a a G
C,rlo Petro (p,ct'" \ 1"""'1. L'Orrf'M ,'"",u. J5 <kwlxc 1919. P Fdtnnrlli. 19'11. p 237. R. BoII.my Ind D 5<:1>«, ....

26 Ibi,/""
!7, /1",1
'bn<he>1er. 1991,1'1'..19 43
-'it . .ti"i. 'won. "Ic<>k>gy'. 19: 9. p. 93
J I 1f",1, p. 95, For self . ..< 0, fI'M""i, . 'I.nagc mon' S,mt",
28 C.rlo Pc!" 11'1""'0 MON'I. ' II , ,, ,< ,,,a Tay lor. i <"",igli de i pro· gil,". 1986. p, SO. P A"den itlO. '1.. cultu", soclah"., Un. nUll,"
duttori It >!Stom. Ta)·lor. 1''''1;."i".,;,,,,
"'imti iica <101 I.,oro·. , i't.."" d; , alori'. in V C",tron<>m (cd.). /.<1 ,''''-'crtif <kgJi sirummri
L 'Ordm" -"WI". I "o,"<mhe. 1919. r, I ",,-,iuli lIa/I;'lno, 1%6.
29 Ihid .. 'JI S;!'""'" TI),I.,,- 0 i "''''''Sh dc, p«><IuttOfi E .. me <Ii akun, pp11568

-213-
41 E .... '\'i", oper:lla, .... coloaJI <ill propn.tan·. L 'Ordine \'"",,,. a 'cap'''n o f ,ndUSlry·. to tho organi.. t''''' o f hal. 5«.
11 \Ioy 1919. In SI"I.no. U. ,,,II.,,, p. 137. Adler. Iwllan Indll>triali,tJ. pp 2H 6. OurinK lhe of lhe
./.1 II La emy (llughe. La ('mi.\. '\'11.1 01"'''".1. II <olllnu". . . no'. occupatoons r ia' had _hLI\etJ it, >I..... (roo" T unn 10 II.."'.. company
L DnJuw ,\WI". 18 OI:tollo, 1919. In SI"I'no. U. ""IIun> 'n the LSA because Ag""lh IMIIIte C",¥"'lj"e mlgllllcad 10
I'P 317 lhe "."ngllt ronfi>C2t>QII ofhl$ ,"uitlt Sec. G. fIcrta. 'La COOJl<'r.UIOnc
R Am><", and P Pn •..1"; WI.,...,.,Q JrlI".Y)iT). R<>m<:. 19S0. p. 31-
.j.j IlIIpo<Slbde: La Fiat. Toono e il "b,.n",,, """'.... In G. Ben. (ed.l,
4$ I"'d.. p. 3& 19JO. 1991.1'1' 232 16

46 Il Ikzza. 'Soci.1 Chlracl •• i,IICi. AIIUU<k .. and 1'011=' of 60 Clarl<. Anl",,;o Gro"'S". p. IS4 Fo.- L \'"'' , '--'S]IOII'" S« 9
Ikllo, io' of 11>: \1.,.1"""'01'5 '" Italy tho FifSl II'orld II .. ' in NOHmbt:r 1920, p. 2
l.H. Haim"", and C. T Ill) (.ds). S"'.fJ. It,IT' and Rc,'O/"lion, m 61, Adlor. H.h.n Indumialist<. 201 2,
Pe"{It'Ni .." II",,", <n Ihc 62, ll'" l heme was by M"o,..."d Rutlgll . no from Se'gio
E",I,' T,,,,,,tlirlh C"m"m'I, (a",bfldll<. 1989. p. 409, Bo logn" ",e 'Class Compo>" Lon tile ' heory o{ ' hc pany at lhe
"lid Pin. Noi pr, 33. 46 origin o f lh. \I orke .. <ou110115 rnovorllo nt' , 70'10\'. \'01 13. 1972. I'!'
57--S3
47 Mu\W. GI, operai, 19SO. p 212; S. Musso, 'Ope,"I,,"I,u," dc ll "om
nell' Onlme .\'''0''''. In F. Sb",kn, 1;''';a. p. ISO 6.1. Itol'elli, 'In!." i.,. • G.. ioo" P 14S,
48 1>1..""",. IIl>i..,mw "'''0, PI' 10-11. 14 M Ikme';. L 'Op<:r-uloJoma; A GarolO:', poJlliCtJ jloriogrou"
49 Blgazzi.' \1aD3gcmcm Strateglo·. p, 8] For of'ho Ii..... 'u ... P'<a. 195-4. p. WI Gram",; 'llis ideal .... lIy • COUntry

"h,ch PO'"' to ,ho hc!erogcne'ty of tho 5110p I100r and the ""xllll8' ",Ibou! • ·,uP"'r",ru.;:lUre"
.10.5 ne!ghbourllood> ofTur,". >C'C S \lusso. 'Torino e il "",,',men'o M, ,\ Grarnsci. L 1919- 1921/(edlled b)' hienlLno Gem·
. .... II dJboni'ollOl>08T"fl«l'. in" Anlo",oli. ". Ikrgo. lana and Anl""io A Sont""'1. Turm. 19I!7. p 387.
n..",h, and L Gan..,i"i (ed$I, IMan/) op;;r-u/a doll' IJOO" oggr. 101 M
6 i.
''''d. p. 434-
U, ""/",ro. PI'.
2. l"l.n. 19'». I'P. 2'14 7.
.'\0 Fnnc. 'Le 10". mrl.llu'll"·' L'm"nll" \'0"0.26 July 1921 68 INd. p. 459 .
I ,,'IMI ",Ih an aD3n:h'5! "";"5'1, 69 Palmim Togli .. li .nd Andre. V'lIlonIlO .. Rlf"PO'Io .ui di Sesn;·.
I G lkna. ' llte Interregnum Turin. r,.t .nd InJu>lnol Coolll<l bc1,,«n L 'Qrdrne .\''''''". 13 1920. P 317
Wor and F:tsc»m ' In (' 1\ ng lc) 1<.'\1.). u{ lAbour "0 'OIe",'" . 16 INc . 19 19. p I
Nil· J9]O, Londo n. 1993. p. 121. Rc" elh. 71. I/"d, p. J; D. B'ga"i. /I Purldlo, Op<:rm , "irnp","diwn
• • GJ!i"o·.p 112. ,,/I 1900 19n. \1II;,n. 1989, pr ,
Sr,i,"o, La c"llUra. p, 118, n P. Rug. lion. Uom"', nlllcchrllrt apifa"'- L A",,,ido Jlmlnk it fi"ci"'l0
1 Armcni and P'l'a. SOl I'n'",,,,,,, p JS 1922'/945. \·h lan. 1981. 1'1'. S9-9Q. l'oS"i ,eSpolldcd 10 Togti"" ,
I""!. . 1'1' . 35----6 cla,m ing ho "'os m" ... p.."'ntro . ..,., /"01111 ()peru/a. 16 M.), 1920.
See II G riboud" 11,md" , mIlO "P"ra/", 'r unn. 198? Hena. P2
'n.. In'errcgnum' , p. \lu...o. 'TolO""·. P 242 ·.l (;"'",,",1. L 'OrdiM ,'-""IV. PI' 4J8 9. 441 . Sche< •..-. GralJUCl, p. 9-\
5/1 1l1pu>, ',\Iana,ge",om p. 80: F. Adler.llajjan ImJusmo/· ·1, G",,,,,,,,. y/f'r,ilJlU fro ... PoJtttNl/II'"ltmg. 1910-1920 (",lectal

lSI, (rum [ .•"",,IIs'" to F""'If"'. Clmbncltl<. 1995. 1'1'. 144. 196 .nd edlla! b), QDlnlln II) JoIu! Ib"lle"A·j). London.
57. Am><m and P" • .. \", ";,,..._. p. 36 1977. P 187. Jtal ia/\ 0n,li""l, G",m5<i, I. . Ord",.. .\',/0",. p. 41't9.
5g II I'aulesu Quen:io!; led.I, Gr-u.md ..." I"-"j",,,,,jano,,;ki s""j 11><,/.. p. 114.
CQIIlcmp<>r-unrl. \hlan. 1977. p. 96. '6 I/"d, P 645
59, Cla,k. AnlOniO Gmm,.-i. 1'1' PO-I. 79-&4, rar G aflno, "" !l.e'elli. IUlonw. 16 \by 19W. PI' 1 f ",])O lI.nolo"",,,. = 100onld. 16
'Inlen- i.Ll a Ganoo', p 10 I rar his p;ln. ""h ,ho worl<:e,,' ,ejec!ion O' ..",b..,- 191 9. p."
"flhe pr"I",,,,1 of a <<><>pcn",'., Ag,,,,II, <Quid hI, mI. as 78 Spriano,l. .\'U'IIl'. PI' 16 7

·2 15-
79 h",., Na,ma c an.,,",., del {ascismo [lo"""c" 1950. p . xx\'ii i, 88, For aram",i'. po,i'i"n on th. Il.ussia n and Lenin >co
'F'nta,io' (Angelo T.><a), 'Luigi BI.nc e I'org.nizzazione del la",,,,', M l_ S.h-adori, G,."m.,·ci .. il problema <lOrico ,Jdla
pt, !. L N,w\V, I ,\l.y 19 19, p_ S: TNI'" b Comnne'. 24 ,\ Iay Turin. 1970. pp. &-9.93 S. On the dlw>lul ion of tho Con,,' !Llen !
1919, p, 17: 'luigi Blanc I' o!)!,"m.a>:inne del I",'oro', pI. II. 3 I ",e 1\ ammsei, La ciua 1917 1918 (ed i'ed by
May 1919. p, 27 1: pt. Ill, 2 August 1919. p. 41 AI", >co, E. Foum,cre. Se!)!io C'p""Slio), Tunn . 1982. pp. 602 3 For hi. Ii", , tatemen!
'Un. «hem ' ,Ii Slalo socialiS!,'. 14 1920. p. 45 . 26 July 1919, "n ' he RUSSl.n Il..,olution", an '"t i-hcobinic. 1 revo lut ion. Stt
p. 85 (iramsc ,. La ciua. pp. 13 8- 4 1
SO A T (I\ nselo Ta",a), 'Socialismo e . "ardn".· L "Onlmc Nuo''O. p_ 221 89_ :" p 146
Jh,J 90 Gra",,,,;, Sclce11Qn.<. p. 349 ; ,,' I[alian origi!!,i, Gram"'i. L 'Online
81 Gr:nn«i. L 'Or<i,ne NuO\'o, p 489 \'uo,-", p . 688
83, l fabbrl. Anarchia e com"",s",o ',c'c""Jico', Mila". 1922 q I Graln>(:l, La "'ria. pp, 240--- 1. 529-31 On 'he ' KantlOn ' Grnr:\SC!.
84 'Comun ismo .narchico· . L 'amine ,.Vuovt), 16 July I q 19, P 86 Stt A. G"orra. 'S'oricismo ed ctic. li lx,,"ria nd glo,'.ne Grnm",i',
85 'Comun i,mo .norch ico e eom"n ismo '''''00'. L J--- in P Roo,i (cd ), GramSCJ C{" cullura con'''mpoM"ea. '01, 2, Rome,
10 Ap,,1 1920, p. 346. For Gram", i', conception of.upcr>'illon, 1969, pp . 126-46
A. Cires< . 'Grn<n$< i \ Obu,va{lon, on Folklore' . 111 Showstack n GramSOl , L ,.\'uo.o. pp. 49-50
S",>oon, App.-ooche,.. pr- 2 12----47 _ 93 II Grid" ,M Popolo. 16 Febru.ry 1918-
SO Gram",i. L 'Or<ime "'uow>. pr 6-13---4, 94 Da\idson, AnlOnio Grams." pp. 83---4 : A GTII"""i. Sailli 1915-
87_ For Eng l,.h translation,""e A Da>'idson. A,,"'nio Gmmsc, 192 I by SergIO M,I.n. 1976, pp, 365-5; 1/ Grulo
TO'l'Mds an IntelleClual Biography. London. 1977, Pr. 98----9 : del PopolQ, 16 ,\larch 19 18. p. I: 22 Ju"" 1918, pi, 29 June 19 18.
original i, in A. Gram",. II naSllY> Marx: 1918-1919, (ed ilod p 2.6 Jul) 19 18. p, I
Serg io Capriogl io), Tu rin. 1984. p. 149. FOl Gro",sol', changing 95 S. Cap!ioglio. 'Scr im sui r"",ismo ,iI An!OnlO GrnInse , ·. II Corpo,
ITH"rrrdl" On of tho Froneh RC"ol nt ion , I. Togn,,;nl. 'G i. oob,n '01 I. 1965, pp, 219, 221
is",o 0 bolseo' I>JM : Alber! ,\ t. thioz e " I. 'Ordi"" N\lOvo"'. Q6, 13 July. 15 July "nd 7 19 18,
SlOriche, "01, 6. 1976. pp 523---49. P. Glnsborg. 'Gram", i 3r.d the 97 'Cio <he Marx lIOn h. pot"to pre\'\'Cdc rc', 6 - 13 Dec 1919_ p. 23 I
Era uf Bou'lleOiS Rc,'ohtt iono in Italy'. in J. A. D.". (cd _). 'Come conoblx lenin', 10 lanuary 1920 p. 263
and Iialy \- 1'0","<, R,"'ol',IiOJI London. 1979. Pl'. 54-5. who " me, 99 D",'idSOlT, ""lOnio Gram,ci, p_ 164; Pam! i. Anwnio Gra"osd, p" 303
huw Gnu o" I cMgger.[c<\ tho importance of the bom,;",i, ie '" t!>e 100 1\ . Grtllllsci. L ,\'"0'0. p, 36J
frooch R<,'olution. For dt" re, ,"'" ofGr.mS<oi·s .nti-Jacob,"i'''' and 101 12 Ju,,< InO.p, 35,
Jacob i"is "" ""d the rciatiOlt>hip of t!>esc themes to thc inn uence of 102, 'I I BoI",cvi,mo', 9 October 1920. rr 134-5_
<,
$orol upon Gram"", see II. Porte lli. • J.cob LnlSmo antij acobin ism. 103 For LNne. <ttA.-anti'. 28 July 1920, p, I ForWo iss, see Amnti'.
do GralTtscl- D,. I«ti4UOS, no, 4-5, 19 74. pp. 2&----43. L P'ggi. 28 Jul; 1920. p. 4
A ""0,,10 Grw .... ci il mooullo prlllcipe, Rome, 1970. pp. 10-12. F 104 L 'Onli'le ,\""0>'0, 10 Jul)' 1920. p_ 65
11m,co, 'I I 8,o\'ono arnmsoi 0 Sorer . in V Comparato (ed.). 105 " Venturi . lIivoluzwnari 'lmi in {wi", 1917_ 1911. Mi lan. 1979.
Sord S,"dr e n"",ch,,. Florencc. 1974, Pr, 177---<)5. G. B. FuriOlli, pp. 1J---77. 176,
SOld e L Iw/i". r1orene .. ,\ lo,-" n' , 1976, pp. H7--K S Onufrio. Sorel 1(16, Gram",i. l.a ""J JUI"'a. pp_ 265-7
e " m(lr<i<mo, Urb ino, 1979. pp . 324-5,),,1 \alatest •. 'arnm",i il 107, Gronl,ei, L Ordille 'vI/ow . p. 696
sindac.h,mo m'oluzionario_ Ren.ssw"i sui ra pport" tTII ,nahoi storio- 108, Gra"'''' i. II no"'" Ilu"" p. 353_
grai'e. e guidizio di ,'a lort' . R,cnrhe vol . 10. no . 1. 1()9 amm«i, So,,,, . p. ]91
pp . 336--43, D, Scheet... 'Two V,OWS of 'he RC\'olu"on: Gramsc i I 10_ \e","". RiwAuziolWrl, 1'1'. 196--2.18; S ]'>;oi"", MIl.,-"",ali_,m" e ai,'i
and &,rtl. 1916 1920'. His/on-o/£unJ{",,,n Ideas, \'01 11. no . 5. dello jlalo Ilbcrak ,,",cola Bombacc. (1879--1914)_ Milan, 1991.
Im,pp.6J7-53 pp. 374-7

-2 16-
111 Gram..". II noS/TO Mal';{. 1'1' Pr. 127-9. <,ce r Sb.ubcn. Gm",.,·i ,,,,"wi,,,,,,, """,,,,ie,,. \hlan. 1986. I)
R"m"'i"'t<IrI. I'f' W 100. 111. Gratn..:i. IIIIMITO Man. Sool><ct ... ·GJ1ImKi. (Xn!ilc and the I IhlCal SIaIC in IUly". Hi"",,·
p. no II.no.l.I990.1'P
II' " .. <1..1'.116. 1H J JoII.· """",h;,m bet" .." CommunISm "lid lnd,nduah,m·. on
11-1 24-3 I Janll3J") 1920. p 273. ';'n,UIl. R""'/W!I()fIQn. 1'.118- f<>n<Ial",,,,, LU'8' [,,,,,"dl. A"",..lrjJ"", ne/ """'do .......
11 '''Mum. R"",/w:i""",.,. 1'1'. 200 I. T unn. 1971. p. 21-1
116 Clan:.. Imon;" Gnlm$e,. p 125 1 U 'La h""rta .""",hin:. li>f,m,,,. I Apn11920. pp . .l-4
117. Gram..:i. L pp. 493 "
118 Spnano.l.a cuilura i,a/,aM. r
119 ror R,edel. S<.'C 0 R,. ·1.110I!3 ,ml><sn3"'·. L NI/O'"O. 8 May
1920. p. 4: Ril'l)/u:iO"lJri. PI' nl 1
120 G,.",,,,,. &1<:CliDflS. r 1401. in h. li on on,mal. L 'O nline
,.\'''0' o. p, 37t\ Venw,i. II,,,,,/,,:,,,,um. PI>, 20s.-<!,
121, I",mli '. 8 June 1920. r, I: A V.n'u". 'T13 propag • .,... """,.,ie ••
inlln.'g.""n" """311'!1. Le .... Ii."" <1<:1 "iaggio In Ru""
deW ...!.!. 1910". .\f,,,,m,.,,,·, Op.-ro'lJ $ocw/m". ""I. 8. no. 3.
pp I: G, Petracch,. '11 m,m doll. fI".luzioo< "'" iet,ea
in 1,,1i. 191' 1920'. $Jon;, CtJII/<''''".,.."roM'' . ...1, 21. 00 6. 1990.
W 110"L3O.
112 2<) Jul)' 1920. p I. Ven!ufI. Rno/U:","Qn. p 11)9; Adb.
1/"1,,,,, /mI",m"IJ,fIs. pp. 105 6
I 2.1 GJ1ImKi. L 'On/'''r -"""'t>. 1'1'. 16f;....9,
I p ' .. 'La delle ,<Itt Pcr .h",J.","no polem;e •. L 'OnIiM
\''''''V. 2 Augu'l 1919. p. 9-1 r l>l" 8cI\<13l "," cy. of .,mud!;, of'hI:
Ilah." a"a"h.m tow.nb !hI: Bobbc, 'k ""'olulI"" """. P. C. M' >1n1.
'Gl i anarchici i,.lian, 1.1 ",olu"OI\< ru .... ·. /li"isia SW"UJ dd
Soc,"hsmn, no> 16. 1962. l'fl' S. fedcl•. Una b",,.,·
(jli """whili e /" /I"ui" 191' ·1939.
\11 1.n. 1996. J'l'. 39-12; 80 2
G ra,n",i. Selcc'iM$. r, IN. In "'"'i,ul h.h.n. Gn""",. L Onlme
\'UOIV,!'P. 6 44-$
126 I'I>I"G.rioo·, SI ........"I.' BoIognJ. Ott C"'''nJ''' '·om. I July 1920.
1'1'2 };6July 1920.1'.2.
127. I'auk;n QuM.;,,,h. C;""Ift$,',. '''v. p. 68,
12H Ibid."" 6S----9
129 ·["oKl;e·. em""",, .'·",·a. I '\priI1920. p.)
no 21 June
1.11 'Cornun;,mo I""",hico', L'Ord,,,t .\'1H11"1>. 26 Jul}' 1919. p. Sf>.
" "'rina""'. Iko. p. 109
In 'COInu"lSrn<> anarrh;'o e CQ.l\un'SnlO «il;<o·. L 'Onime .\''''»'0. 3 10
\pril 1920. p J.t<i FOf(,r.. ",,,,,·, G.:1ttilun. ·ha"""";".,,,· "",,;ali"" .

. 218 - 21'1-
 - 6-

Co ncl usion

I ,,,II !IOI ,"" ,nlere5U"l.I al'kl d......... ';' ;mc..-''''' y<ars In det.il
HOVoc,cr.• lummI'} IS nett<..!)' In order 10 1M f.,. of 'he
h';I<)"""II<I<'" of ,he /tIetJnlQ tWR>
(IOC,,!»""" of,he (..,ton.,. ,n Sepcemb<r 1920
,he !oI''''''_ The I,bemnans ,,= unable lO lead <hI> der",,,,,,.
"h,,11 ,..s ;Ittred by ",foem,.,. .rode union kark,.s)up. A, """,t. II><
ar'l<l",hisIS roukl h,o,. <,"ted./all «<VIItpI. In II)" ",,,illi lO' mi·
ment ollien Of i>"nohlnl S()ff)O 1001 of ,,,,Urre<;'IOn which mIght h:I\.
i<>reed lhe hand of,he m.. "nah", In lhe Maunzio G. """
,,,,II ,,,,,od ,""m 10 ." .. , .he dec,s"'" of ,"" .",," . . I of . • ,
"hieh ,be LSI .,Id U", Iud no "VI> "h:.t""",.,
On 17 !M:p\cmber 1920 an .",raordioa'Y nallOO3I of FIOM
opened. A, 'hisoona"''' h"""ro ruled oullhe ,,,,,,,fOflTl'lIon of on ioo" ...
,n.1 d'q>UI. imo. ""'01,,"00 ",,00..1 .... 'ional pohtiulleaJc"",p. In onk,
for ,h. oc. ,.p. ,;uns 10 b< ph,f",o,i,)' condudeJ he demanded ,1\"
"orkel\ be paId for J.y, on . 16ke. ,hal s,n k",\( cleri,,1 .nd ,<:<hnic.1
il :t''' bc rrQI<:<l;"" fn"" 'Cf"l",b by 11I<'r employers.nd lhal 1'10\1
"PI'''>C Pr"n. (i ,o'"M i 0,,,10 11 ," propos<:d \\orkers ' conlrol
1 !Cenled p.>nocu1.oIy b l1lo, .bout the J o<: i"ol\ by , he
d irtttorot. of the PSI on I I s..rlembc r to . lI ow the CGL to pu"ue .n
cco""""c ""ul.",.nt of ,be J"J>Ule, Al the r 10\1 coogrt" be . , pl.lnecl
1" 'llbc "Ia,'tmcnl ihO<lld hl't be.n t'''<n ful1he, by ,he polillCl.n. to.
',nolm ion.ry ""t' He tontinut:<l by ob.er.'mg ,ha' the CG L alld (he 1"S1
had J>UJ>Clu",d all MP"!. and lhe "o.h" h.d nO< un(\(r>l00d the full
of lbe dcc .. ,on ."" tom,nU(d to Inn tilem .. !>-.', If the
"as ",'I'ICt.d w tbe f"".Oti<s. be fol. I' """Id ,.. ult In wry linle'
In O.:lober 19M, .Ilcrlbe f":lon .. ""CIT .,acualed. GiolL", lrT(C"ed
lho< till'''' lea<kr.hip "flhe USI.nd t.;AL I'be ooc13lo.u did"'" .-..pond.
di"""'"lro by 1M fiB! su.o« .. ful •• uod•• bl'lhe fasci'IS ,n Bologna and
r.rrafa, d,strl<ud 1»' do<:1nnal di<pu,", thai for..lIa<Io>'ed.he
of.he ('ommwtlSI rally In hnu.vy 1921. lbe 'IOCialiSl$ """".
or-Ie_... llnoomJ .M pen«Utl"" of the untll.ho Spnng of 1921
 Gro.",·1 and .fnarrhillf

"hoe"!hoe Iged 'blalo,,,, InJ ocbe, impnsoned .""",blO!' """,nlcd I 'ho ,,'ilb," 1 decade; lither the)' fcam.! • r¢l'''''"UOOt of a f"""
from ,lie" colis in 'hl.n. Ho .. 0' Of. iUr """"'hi" bombon¥ "f d,.131on.l c'pnali.m •
of a ''''wded ,h •• " •. "hieh hod been ,n!onckd fo' Ihc offic.. "f ,h. fl,t, .. <on 1921 "n<! 1921> 'ht . n. ",b,s' rank and file .. "'. dri"cn OU' of
'I'"'''''''' nn' doo,. ",,,.rely ,o. to f<t. M, I"."., 'hc '""'on", .nJ forced ''''0
pn"cny and c, ile, 'lhe: anarchi,,, prol!3bly
A<>'lIh i. Qualglino "nd cmnI'llJe •. juS! .. it "",ei"ed sign ifkan' ,ul'f'!''' .uIT.rctl g"'"'c' viQIe,>:" in P"'I""1''''' to t"i, rtumbel1 ,h.n othe, poit' ic. 1
from.n unl, l. cly coolt .. "" 110m G""".." to In ,lie .,cm. opponen', "ff.."",",,' Si,null.n""''''y.lhe USI rolla!*'l.' r.""i" >q0>a<l>.
\"Ia"" .. f.>cISt> ,ool O(I'"nLoII< of ' he ,n"...lI00t Ind ,he offices '''3lroes .. nb a commun,,1 f"",iOOt. di<pUles w ,'h cIe<:IOIlIIi" .. and 'Ilt
or j '"",ml" .\",oa. Ilthough " ,.,u",red on un,il 1M \\a",h on Romt from pttUIlaI'tbC:S of Armand<> Seq"'. all lOOk thei, toll IJorgIu kft the st<ttWy.
offi.cJ ,n rl\a1 c,t}' <lTip of lhe In 1922 The LSI "'gem! on """I 1925... uh I bn.f
l'ht an.",h,SI' pla}'.d ttnpo,.. nt rol,., 'n th. AId,,; del Popolo ,n "'," II dunng the Maneon, emi, of bu, w.... lhen outla .. o:d by ,ho
1911, n" gmss ,001\ Il"rnmili'.!) .n,i·f'SCL\! coaliuon organ,..d by
,.""',,. and po li lic. 1 mili lanll 11<t,ch,ng from ·fi",.h"",· fase,'" and \1>0: \ta" c"" i eril" of 19N. an<! in 1925. \t. I.",1a and o, IIC'
D' A""u"",an legioona"cs 10 ",publican., """aliI" a,ld <ommoni", ... a. ,.,,,,hi'15 m>t"lO lT .. d itopon""t <o",a<(; .. ,,10 It.'"
commun,st a"" ·fasei,, orpmla"on or,er.ra!\S, " Itt the la>l fe ... """"h$
Libera. " Iton'
P-1",,·ul .. ly "",c.,..ful on <cnu'Illlaly when: tht lrlkhl100S of libe"an,,,
'""b'c"i, ,<m' " ."'" the >tl'Ol'lgcs'. bul ,he >C:<:L1nOnism "frhe commU"'>Ii. ber""" MItSSOlini OJIPOS,t;oo. til<: aNl,chi,,, G,,,,, L"".",
,he of'he """.1"1) and the ,n",.b.",} of "slnde.,hip and .\nIO<l bmbon' u<h 'ned lo:t<Sa"inate h'm. 7.1mboni ... as 1)'''''1tcd
,he df,,"i of lhe Mditi del 1'<>p01o.' Finally. in a I&>t <k'l""f3.t. by In enraged m<>b ,n llo1ogna OfT II October 1926 In 'O\<1t1bcr. u"ng
Ih •• ,,",ch.-, · Ied mil"'a)mcn hel".d lh. mo", bureau<ralic h, •• n<"lI'" aI a !"",ext, \lLl$IOlmi de>lroyed ,he final "e.. oflhe Iibcr.1
Allt.fIC. in 1922 Th" locked coon!,nallon and came too la'. AnaTCh"" "'.'" d,,'.n into o' LI. , pl""ed on lit. pen.1 i<I,oJ. or.
The ref<}(m'I" In lhe CGL ".re <kopl}' IU'ptti"<ls of COntmu",.' pan,el",,' ,f '00 r.m,,", like pl.o"<l undc , a ."..:-ios Qf ito u'" a,.,..,,,
"00: III< SFI ;!>elfwa, rom lpa" by rom".ling soc .. lt,t. oom","",,1 and 110" C'Of. .1 .. a1'S ... t.. ned .n .mbiguwl .,titude 10"'3rd. ItIS
,)nJ","h", faclion •. hs anarch,>! 'gene,:II,' ".'" I.fl .. ,thou, an Irmy, (""ncr ·.ub'·..... ',..' "ootrades According 10 l. ... " rabbri, l.uigi f.bb, i·1
daullh'«. ,n ,he early 192!H p"""",ed r.bbn from ......"'1 b)

00t 'M other'

.......,tS
I he a...."'hi ... and \)'11(10<01",. .... re •• ughl ,n the crOSlifire bet"C'Cft
lo<X .. and <:OI1lDluni>uOOt the one hand. and by f..... ,>I> 10.:.1 llr>loptest and ."en >cnt In to ,heu house 10
hbbri '0 bttomt I }OUmah>l for PopoJo J Fobbn reJ<ctM
F", ".I.te", and 0''''' I.""h'g .,,,,rch,m rM ",.1 """frontal;oo with ,he pl'O!)OS"l "<I' of It:Ind and 13101. in 1926. hct:omc """ of only ''''"0
'he """tIt"n i,,, come rmm nltd·lnl ooward •. ",,,""'311)" afler 'ht Kron_ p"ma!)' .. ltoo l ,e .. h"" m all of Italy 1o ",fusc 10 plc-dgc loy. It}' ttt
,t.><l, ""'01, and • I,,,'/,,,Ild aero,,., "f,he "'1'11:'>100 ofMakhoo 's ".a;.:,nt· ,h. and ,hu. wa, ,"ro "x il e' ) An.rc hlS" "·.ro """' e in
and ",ho, urban·based anarch,.1 mo,,,,,,,,ru, iI,cn b) 'hc IllIh.n atI.!",h,". l'uft>. 'ew and elscwhere ,n II", 1920. and 1930.. T1tc:y "arried
tgu rodeh At lhe LAI Congrc>' of'o"ember I the h""'" .""",hill' uut S('crol un,,,,,c.,dul aucmpts "" \Iu»ultni's Itf. m lhe e.rly
furmally <knounced w So\ ,., "'Xi"", Gram;c, Borghi. Fobbn 19'1(h,. " The .no",h!,,. "'",. ..... 'i'" In Spoin du"nK rhe Ci"il \\ or and
.nd in "''I'''''SC to tho <oogressiooral ",sol"n".,. Upon LW'n', n.. ,nt .. ncd pan, .. n lV""JlS,n ,he \ltlane<t. L,gunllnd T"",an} dunn;
d•• ,h c<>uW ""'y tk:cl.re IhO! hi. pa>.>'"M .huukl be <elobrotM ,he Res" ... ntt
as. holtJ.ay ""hor 'han o.,m,,,,,morn,ed,. mouming. F.lX,,' a 1c.. The tt>o\Omcn' "en enjoyed a br,ef ""ulllent. on tht immtd, ..
h",., h I",,, th.n M.I"."o "hen .,,,,,,i"g Len'n', li fe He sIL11 belt",.d pOStw., peri<>d. ,,, d""de nl c.. ntt,.",,,,,. d i,",on"''''N by whal til.."}' len".d
lha, Lo"," had be,,". "",ia li « .IId .... him ... m.n oftl", Togli.tt" o,"erly moderato arod bu",auc,att< poli ,i, .. Jottlcd lhe liber·
lefl. cwn iflte had dcsor'l))'ed tltc Ruu"," Re,oI .... """ 'hrough hi, die ..",.;.1 tlnans. Troc.ky"" and Bordillh,m ,n a ,hort ]i,ed agam" , ,,,,
method> fabbri. like UI<' Fedel, and Camillo Ikmtn, de,,,,t<;d the erne'S- CommW11" Party..• But these de,,,Lopmcn1> .. ere lrol't$itory. \\ hon a 11\1"
<"r'IC'e of •. ,.,,' Cbs>' of'''LP' men. comm"saroctat! and fOl'tJ'lCf "'''''''''' mo'Clt",n' of mainly unsk,lIed .... tbctn "'on...... lfIP"ared 00t ,ho "'''''''
10,,10"11 t1 ""a ,be bedraulcd Sot iel popul"",n L'ke many on ,he 1.11 ,n 'he 1.,< 1960<. ,he to-O'\tO L.1l lhe", ,n oc Man'SI
,hty dill ""r porediet lhe umold moss murde, 1It:I, ,,<>uld intl,e' 00 lallSllal'"

m -223
Tnr lnc"" Anarchi..s 1921-15 r unn .... "",cd. lns,.ad lhej had lhe ",fertndum bo;c<l no! 011
""liS bul ,I>< ne,ghboumood circl .. oflhc unions "I...... the communl"S
. . and 'y"d;'oli'l' ",,,, .. ned ",I."" cI) ,mpnna nl ,n T"n" """I l1J.d ,nn ... ncc, The orr/inm,;"j I>ad ",,,,,,,,,,,0<1 lhe" own 1"'1011<.1
The mo,\oo,", of 1911, In Ihe spring of 1921 lhe " "arehi,IS a nd lcK"cy '" Ihat ' hcIY n.w tl-\rly cou ld m' ",I .. n II. prt<.c""o ,n ,he mc!al·
'j,nd,oalo'll' J.comed 10 ><>melhi ng ofa rcvi,'al , Thi, "'os ca " ......t " ",I .... n ng industrie., Altho" gh Ih.n 3.000
by the of Ihc """iali'4.' and coo'"'Uni,ls "ho wor< busily ,,>ClIO",," "",od ,n lhe refo",ndum. II><} rnJ..:l<'Sod Fe.... "" and hi , ..
tnll"S.d in onlemeeinc "arf."" 'Tho Itbon>rians mob,lizO<l "hile ,n CkIOOer 1911 ,lit p.>1l)" ...."" COIlI",1 of hl"S uocmpIO}',nenl f"nd
suppon for pol"ic.1 ,,">one.. anoJ comrades\. ",Ii<bnly "'''h on.! on ro.;o,,,,,,bcr tb<y moi""',r.od conIrol oflhe AGO. bot from "'" m,Jdk
,n
lhe ..."......100 of"'" 1<:11 T Ind In.! ,he ineroasinl i",lus- 1921 II>< ,hom< ofthe f..lory counci l d's.tP\"Caml from lhe columM
",al um ... ,n Tunn clu",d b¥ unemploymenl ond AJIl'OIIt·s in,rodl>ClIOn I)f I. .'·w.." •
of coll":l i, . piece .work. bul ,he" !UC<OS' "at shon )" 0<1. Grorns<:' a,'<! IfGr. n""i did...,. ""rott hi. ,,'on\:; afl'" ,he LAI dt"""",,0<1 lhe So>- itl
rarOOi. (or the commu r"SIS. ')"'p3I h,ud ""h iOmc oflh. dem,nd. Un,on. loe.lly at ka".1Ie was more .ym p,uheUt to tho """ .pan y Arum
'"h,",,,,0<1 hy lhe h bon. nan •. 001 cautioned 19ainsl dirtc' aclion In '''ppot1 dt l l'OpI>lo un"lllOfdig' onk",d him 10 .h,1I h,s poliloO", f Urlhcmt<>ro.
of 110. Tu",ans Ind Apuloans, In Michelin and. in April. Fill. I>< "a. by from Fabbri and Borp,l1i oooccmons tile
• ,.... ttsofully lodO<l out ...mrrs and Ihcn _kO<l I 10 1.000C1'ttplo»ccs. Labour Alliance • Ilo",c, or .• Acr ", Ia" ICB,I «lI\i".s in March 1922•
n\all) of "ioom had bt<-n hbc1wun or ;;ocoa],,,, mll,lS"" diJrin;1be l>inr"io "hen lhe LSI ",fu<cd '''join ""h the """,mum"'. GrtrnS<1 ooc. ap,n
"',.." " dt""""...,d '1$ ant'-communl.' ladeflh ,p. Catlo Beruu', communi"
l'he Iobort",ia", "e", to Jign, foc.nl JUppon m a f"lI· f..'ioo ""Ih,n lhe SF I helpo<llo deS,.bJh>e1he SF!.nd Ihu. ,1.>1
>.Calc sho"down wilh employe,., 3n<l lhe ,lale, Meanwhile. ne" dl>pu'.' "ty Laboul \ Ili,l1C< $ttIned prepaml '"
en' piN wilhin thm OW" r.nh be"" a yroor ,!o,nonaled by III. I", J .. Si""I., contr'.dicloons are C\- Id.cn' in lJoe column! of the dai l}' I. OIdmo
" ftl ...· local Ln,,,,,,, the i"dlvidu.IoSI all<l lhe rm- ,\ ''''''0 in 192 I and 1912 , So""'111"'" adjacent "'(lUld
110\1 After ,he 'II.1reh,,, bombing In M,I.n and lhe lod.",11 ,n I.. lian "",,!Ch i<l SUppOr1 fo< the p<1'SCCulcd .narch,m 0< Soc ,alo,1
Tun". ,he .... monc S,,,,,,,,,,,"lo "", quicU) ..d .... <'illn i... ignillclnce ,. u""",,"" in R....... and """""""e '''I'P'''' fo< 11>< plighl of Sacco
11,w.o'". P .... '" F<"m't') rtrmoined .s ,he 5«UUOf)' of the 10011 ",11.1 \":ut7<11, In America." One COIl IJ. (or i",,13ne •. "me •• bon ","'yon
branch of HO' I h.. bnII.1 murder in Dtcombn 1911. '" <:1\ ,f f lOM G""""",', and L 'OnJJlJt' ,\""",•• 0('1Ie """,Sbdt ",,011 t: .. nB
dJd 1\01 cou ", for much on 1911 a nd 1922 a> 'I> I>"" ,n. ,al ,nembcr$h,p hrn.;h .00 Ru»,an >oureO'$ Gr, ,,,,,,, _"",01 II) admJl !h"I,he rebel. wero
,hr.n' from a I'ffi'"a' h'gh M 20.000 10 Ie" Ihan 1.000, Fe rre", be •• m. "",w ' cn bul "",,, ,e "" onl) 10 Il>on reeluec Ih i. a
'kc'ply """I",d on Ihe ' I'"Sile helwee n eomnlUn'sts and "",ialim 10 '" in \ aSI con'p,rac}', l' Tnt d<311o of K in \92 I
,unlrul oflhe local bronch hw:",asing ly he joined "'n" G.. rnsc, ' $ liocuon prod"".J I series o f '}'Up',he"c • . 1'0\.,,,,0<1 by Viti'" Serge',
and eVen wRXe f"" an,elo$ in the doil) I. 'Oo-dmr '\''''''''. bul ho bocame o.kll..,llIion of U""g ,he recen,ly . .. i,"" (0
.u<c>tt' In local anan:h,., (lre!C>. \largon'" Md o.ItooullCC'd bclIh Ganno T.ur 10 uno.knnine hi ....d,bihly." Finlll)'.... hen tI came to Ih< Ln><.K\f
I ...... ,., •• communL\l "008" as early ., bnUlry In! How",.,.. by 'i",dIo."k G""""" • .ughl on I ""I d,k",,,,,, Wh,1e to< ne .. r hod
"" of 1921 mos1 a ..",hi... ooemed 10 '-'Ion.,hot F"""" mu<h Um< fOT Borghi. "nl,llhe l'Sr l....d<;nh,p brok< .,.,...,11' "ilh II><
hId becQIn< too m"ma'e "ItI. the ,,,,,,,,, un ,,,,. "h'k had becQrne Cooll n,.""n 1922. .QUld only 'oice hI> .uppon lOr 1'01,.013
I,·,,; 1I<Ii," po litic. lly, " V.cd,,·s pro·comlllun isl f.e"<>11 ''''TO ,,"'". , Aflerward, . ahhough he
r errero's proximity 10 !he cQm muni,u IoJ 10 "",no n"her ironic SI" ", e nd orse,1 ,he COminIOm', (ina""i.\ . ,.i,la n". 10 ,11. pto-comm""",
".'1" AfiOT Ihc mas, of Apnl 1921. tho ,,"en131 eon""i",,,m f";;liun. he wa. <k<:iJO'dlj' U"''''yaboul "«ch i" oppoi.llion 10 'M
'"'''' donunalO<l by W _i.lim \\00 cllkd for ...ferondum to C(;L"
,he c{mlpc!enc. of!he e.oculi .. of the local bnneh of flO \! Ta<C1 Fmbl<nW.ie of G""""",', a"",>de. m"" bo lhe
ond l"orn::", both C>pJIOSCd the "'f..... ndum by 'rguI"g Iha! 1110 pu,¥<,d "'I".bbk 0' Of tl>< poI"",allcpty I<A by P,e"u r ...... o ,ftor h,s ''''kn'
,oonm issi"", "'''' ...,. "'p<C\Cnl' li .. of lho ""'Qh'1I003,)" ';lln foo '" h,ch ... . ,1. in Decombor 1912,
I
[)unng 1M days 17 20 Dctcmbc'r Jill!. all ..., .I.\.n .<IIi-fase;S!. Gio,.,.nnt I'mxli slgO<'d the it had bern llhos"""rincn by Grllrn\.C1
"...., brutall} munkml by the <quam of IX n".hi and Rrand"""ne. In " tbe IS p"""'n,ed "i1ll I repon abou, ,be dcdicanon of 'M
llH: """'rmn """'C'f <'lid.... !be OUmbcr or I.lOOur and the o/To«< of f"'I"')" .o.mo.1<' ferrel'O, &.ml momlls la .... In M,btes",'.
la<1 ro"je ... LUIgI fobt>ri n:-jc<:l.d .11<- communi"
L ,\ow"" ... trt ""S1myo:tl " long·'mn tuSH ""'''acre ....
be >Ought ,n .he '''''' ,ha,l'un" had ",,,,ted a<,",,,h, in April 1921 appropri.noo of 1''''''.1'0', ""me. :»ling" hc1I>o, the "'00"-'; It F."."..,
FI>CtQI)' "f M"Io(Ow hod .tty c,vil ,h.n r •• rol'O·s comrado> '"
t'"
and Jllly 1922. H"",.,.r. the ,mmod,a,o co"", lh. 'ph i ",lh,1I ,1>0
local"",.,o bel" .. n 's«ond wa',,' fa>c;'ll <In Ih. one MIld . • lId ' ho mon: ,a",i,t
model1l1< ' len·" .os' (."''''' led by the •• -aMrchisl Mario Gi oo.. on lhe Ho ..... o'. ,he cotltro ... rsy 0"<' F,moro dId !IOI Cea'" hc-rt . Writin!: from
",her.'" The •• ntr" or ' he .!tctl""", of the wen: mili",n,......"hm M"""", in 1924 Alfonso leon<:t" $OtJgh' 10 drmon.lr.t. 00" ,he R,,,;,i.,,
,he ,ram dn\C1'>' un,OII "hi.h had the highoSl p<"",enlaK" of "n""'" of anarch,.t> had happIly .on.bonte<l "'ilh ,he Bol.he, 'k regIme, II.
any un"", dUII"i lhe July 1lIc fir>! ",,10m of the rnassa.::n: IO-a. ,-jew«llhr Ru,*Ame"ean Bin Sltotorr ... ho had kllOwn Carlo T"","o
F",,,,,e,,,,,, Pralo lOtio /1m guarded tho "lfk.. of l. 'Ort/mc and hal ian '" IIh I 'leapoli.an ICCrnl H••110 inlen ..... «1
,\110'" apllUl (....,at Prall> k,lIed 110" r'sc,m dunng. I"e nIgh' Sandom,rsly. the R...... n anarcho-')'IKI"lll->I, .. 00 <Io,,"'od that \blalesta
'"OOH''''' Ahhough the bacligroond up 10 'hl$ .OII(r(IIl13'''''' '. had "" e of hi • ..",..,." hen he publj,htd h', oi:Inlnm8 01"' ....1)' of
pon1oularl)' obscure.11<I ""'Y haw !:>Nn ,he result of. pe.sonal Lrnin . LtOIlWI .""'...... d lit",.... ond SCt;O,,, .narchl>t. to
the fa"'''tl took tl>< Of>J><>nunity to ""u lo " ith Ihei •• nlt · f.", i" friy%us <oonl.r.n,.-olu""",n.s. .00 PlClro r.rrcro iC.wd IS• .-ok loodrl
ad,,"rsano, Ilowe\'rr. illS probably lhe ,a\<: Iltll Mu..solt ni .nd tho f'''''$ t for the lIah'''1 '" Ilo"""e •. Sandom".k\, "role. bli!,enng letter to lhe
hi<cmrchy in Rome ""lherOfJ<red nor lhe rna,sac", tit... to U()\O,'<:'d. ,norch ist """',parcr ."d the cmnm1ltee of lhe It, li.n
On 18 Dc>::cmbo. Foncl'O.nd Carlo IkNIt Wtro ''''''''1
tll< dead, {k"," Commun"t I'any drnyi,," the lubstance of Leon.Itt', int."'i.,, ,,'un """
", •• $hot thrcc limes tn 1110 boock. whIle dc<ptle "aming' by Gioda Ind .nd S..... toff. In hi. leUet. p"bliwd ,n I. l.:nuJ in Scp4cmbor 1924, he
And",. \iglonlO to ka,.. Tunn. Ferrero ",a ••• Ulhl by. faliC;<l squ.d eomp.orod Le()nCIU unfa'oorably to Torn MaM "'00 drf<!t<I<d mIller Ihon
dcn .. d 1M prr><.'Cu""" of the ln3ICh,,,, and R.. olutionanes by
lie ...... l",hN _..-do II>< Cltamlt.:r "r I..obwr II. r.u •..:1 I<" "" or.! " .. the fhlL.t>e- 'l rti,me. al"" claimed tltot Iloist>e-'ih ... ,el
',,",,'od I",,, lite b'ltldin. /t>o.I "',,__ • mat...ttln f"l_ edl,n ... .l<n'cd Ihi, PCfiCCUIlon and ronch>drd by 1I<l11nl thai ,n fact hc hltd had
F""" ..... onoJ ",!>or ..-.rl= W<R i _ - . l by ttt. I.",,,,,, On< oftltrnt many eon"eNo' .. '.1> '"
1t.Ii.n communISt, ,n \105<'OW and abroad .00
..... fnrntl b", ho I",t<t>d<.l "'" to f.nm>, 'rn"l«1 "" I... fiwr, tt. ' I ... t"cd I .trOng tmp",!.",n thaI the ""me and I"'"""n of Mal.to<1a
dId IlOl s<1 up ."''" Oub',," <q,ild""". ( '-' they p.lrool.-.l w3; I"Shly rtprd<d .,en b;- til<m' 1...,,,.11,', rcrl)" tn '''"''
'".
t"n".1 IT>Icob.-< ccfom<>ny, Circle OU[".I< tho was <>'aii,·. ,md embarrass ing, Ckafl y Sa"dotl'i rsk y w"' " lortured
c< 11 "",nt,'J In un,,,,,,,. 'I ... " r ... ", fm,ro. I ,,'a,
r;OIro F<m:ro
ind" 'iduo! '" ,,,,,,,,ber of the So,""t Jdegotion '0 1"" lI.apalio Confer
'Ill<)' dr., h,m "1" ' .. " ttt. ..... , " i, n"dn'JlU, -\',," .... I basurd, on o'PIt"t""
enee in 1922.lrading 1... lion an"",h .... Ined In meet hltt' in onIer to di .. u»
"f 11>0 """"..,", ond "ill mor<: blooo.. and It.......,II not.l<od
the ca.. of ,m,,",oned lI.ulSlJn .narch".. and prncnt an} funhcr
".""" • lorry ..",cd."
•• <cut"""'. tlo "'.n,ed to cry.fkT ",.d,ng I .." •• from Luigi Fabbn
H. "as ,hen d",g«I do,.n Cono \',"ono l·man ... and hi. bal1erod bl:<aIlI.I; the ·Inalth,... rnon: lhan an}'<lM 01"" had I"'" their hfc in unJc,-
corps<: <<)Uld 001)' be tdtnttfi«l ,he"." <by thrutJsh hIS (;t""" C"",. card 10 """ the .. ",ILl!"'" and" i. 'hey "loG hit", !lOW bern Intpn«>ncd

Ga,;"" ..... nH«I Ih. funera.i. a ll ofTunn ",as .,,11

t.nori,.d and only lhe b)- ,he '"monopo!uu" of ,h. "" Glutton In Rus.s'" And I Ito.. become. ;n
I or""n iCtI .. , ,ho" dlpl0tn.3t1" reproscnl .. i, e ., the Coon of Mr Ltmn
men .nd I I "Omon alte,>ded 'Jot one: ollk,.1 froln HOM oppea.w.
ahhough t he un ion dId ""00, ""uth . Ag".1Ii olher To ,i n.", itld",. and f,iend.,· I..... 'I' 19 H , he "'role a letter from tht So"",
" iali " , "or.> h"".,tlod by the " nle3lhed by nc V""chi .nd ",nl a Union to f.l>bn. now in <,ii, '" M""te' ideo: 'Nt,lthina fo r me a n,l
protO;1 to Munohn i In Rome." my f"cads. The ,imes h,,·. 1>«0"'" fU';OUI', SOOnly ofl.r, Sa" domlr;ky
di .. ppe.re.l inl<l the 0"13&0,"
Hj ""'"
f", I
Gnm"", had botn In M""""", bu, In obituaf) "I'I"'ore.1
In the th.rd "'cekly ",.i.,
of L Although .. . Fe .... ", "IS IlO1 ,he onl)' 10 dl. 'tOlero,I}' '" l ',,"n In ,II<- early

126 -221
 Aflcr Ills Ad,mS. n.. I ui'l turned to robbery a ...d " .. Gro"'",i's J\OOKtP ofsub\'c"i, "m. 'f'O'llanclty and the pecoli ..
,hOt d"mlg In anned II<)ld.up in I>lc 1922 aoo lo«r Imp<iOOflN." Other .... talnulol'S of ,he pre·f.'!<isl lei) in It. ly ""ohcd a ..... "d ,bo off«<" of
P'''Ot' " ""otI<O' for lboi, i... 'ol,."",,,t in lbe the .nareh,,,, and I)'ndloall>" OIl Itahan polmcal CUI1U"" In lhe 19,0.
"""dor "f f"""i,l, "lid ''''1I00:I1,,,, III< """uP''''''''" of III< facT"",,, 1) Togli.ll i. a. lI«""ary of lhe la"" Sti:IIOft of lhe Corninlem. prod"",d
Many kft I unn, \1arg.:.rH.l wnqu" ..... "'C in <;pa,,, dunng the early 1930. """" fallly ..... I1.w.I."".d aceoonlS of I.. lian ..... "'hi,m. Wo"h)' of no,e
bul bo "" <kponcd by ,II<: .uthon".. oftl>< Sc<:ond Repubhc. Ho aoo al'C oh.ruary for FITi"" \101"<"$1. in 19]2 and h.. 1«<lure on lIah.n
Rat/aide ... '"'''' ..... fl'<'ed IftO' tift« ... month, <klotttl"" on ..... "'h"m bor"", Il1.lian .ommon,>ts II thoi, PO") ,,11001 al M"",,,,, ,n
'"'Pl"hln "forpnlztng lbo Ardtlt dell'opolol )i",d in " , ile In Pans in .' lIo ..ncr. hIS OIhe, pUI,'1ClI1 acti' ilies dunng 1)", pcnod are """
the ml<Wlo 192Qs .. nd then Ii, cd 'ICro1-kl"lIy In ,he LSA fo< most of tItc da.. A. 'rcdcnc<!' he bocamo the """""",," gn... of tho SpanIsh COO'U'J'tUrUSI
19:1&. and 1941k In I"" early 19)0,; Sci"., ... a. in'ol,cd In \I,.hele P""y from 19)7 ,o.he flU" f III< R<publlC. Wha, roI. be pl.)'ed in 1100
s.:h.rru·•• ,.a»III.<"on IlIempI on \I"!>OI'ni. "h'oh its orig,n, to P"liO uf,Ioo In.reh"llll00 Iho Puom,'ilS. 01 foo thai mall., of ,he PolL'"
lhe . ... In lbo Aron, Ll\Ikr ,he """'" \la, Sanm {and kno ... ·n to rommum'" bid," \1"",,,,,_ IUIOII opC1IlO doNtI. tic Im",d
h,; In ·Brun,n. Schill""" bocame a IcadJng fIgure In L"AJww,,, ,n Sp.IR 100 lit.. 10 be dl'«<II) ,,,,'01, cd ,n Caml1lo (kmcn', tkath dunng
.A. R'·/'''".1n, Ind he ,,,n .. ,nN. ref,ac,O<} "nlll hi' death '" 1987, B.rco!..... \1J) and "",on' ",·i""""'. may p<lIn, 10 .\ I"""lini·,
'el"med 10 Tunn oOcr lbe ".r. and .... , a colourfu l figure In >ecrc< sen "'••11t} ,n8 OIl' ,he rnlltlkr dun"1l "'" obaos of lOOse da) ..
I.. ha ... ", ... ",h1>ltl umil h.. dealh In " "h,le ... lUll>' lonj;o. and """,,,""I)' \'inorio
In Turin ..... ,nta'''''d • r.. ,,,,,, ,mpo<13n, dandeSli"" presence ".re rn>t>obly potSOnally irnplicll<:'d In lhe sul'J"O''''''' of tho '''''r-
Ind helprd (i",."".,, l,beN 0 m",or fOOIoold lmong'l foclO<)' eh»" In Arali'"' and 01 ••,....11<:"'. 1.:1.b1t o'cnllIally ended up in \lO'1CO
"M,,,. ,. frnn .. f C1re, u. Peolro \I...... and ha lo Gln""i Ila,. '" and IlI<n ,n ..... " CII)'. The", he " .. Implicaled In lhe murdo< of ,he
.... ure 10 lhe "'Il'''''': e,'en I"" an" f."", G."no ""; foreed onli·SI.lInt" .""",100-» "d",ait,1. Carlo T""" • . Bu' Doroohy Gallaghe,
b)' the 10 ,urn h" nll><kln ... c""""ra,i .. tn' O a joinH' ock da", .. II< ";1$ murtkml by a l(I<al Mali. boss 00 Mussolini', ordo"."
<0",,,,11)'. '0 Oilier i'Of,nese .""",hi". fWghl in lhe Spom;h Ci, II \\.r Aldo AWOIli cI. ,ms ,h. , T"IIh . IIO was fore.d 10 rubber·".mp the
M",,,, d,ed in Allied bomblnM ra ,d (>It l"unn ,n 19-15. ''''mcally he <0 "'0""" ,i,iled upon Iho Pu h,h Communim in ortlc r 10 sa', hi;; o wn
n.cl helprd <k"'" 1M,,,,b ,lI<l1cl'< the "Of " D<J,ing ,he Re,is"'llCe hfe I " ilh n is ",,' n brolhcr-in·law. Powlo RoOOlli . bo lJ
the '''arc h''l> III P"'cl"''',,1 foughl . 'ongm\c tne ,o mmuni" •. AI least "n< and "m " red by ill. N'" VO. iI loolcd as if he .nd tloe Ilahan Comm""",
",,, ,nber oflho lJ,tr",,,, dl groor. Anlomo Mall'''' • . d,ed "' a NOI.I Pony ""uld SUITo .. Ih. sam. f",c 1$ the Po le•. AI'hough Togli,ni In'Y
c.mr 1·",,,lIy. "" ",.1 an'td",t mililani. pl.)ed key role, h, ... hi, I"'''Y 1rum • e purge and nughl be col le<! a "modeml"
III 'he n"' " .ncl til< final inl ulf«:l ion in Turin duri ng I9-IJ 5.'" <;I;, I' n"l. he """ """ y enlerod in Ih. campaign .ga in" Tro" , )' wllh gr"",
and gu,!". rog l""i . 1'0 <knO!lnceJ It.lio n an.rehlll< hk. Bemo"
Gr om sd and Ih e An. r chh l,: ·1 It" Hnal and II.., 1'<IOm "'Y h.r<hly. l 'alli er 1M: oppo<cd ,10<0 o"lnpaign 10 flU the
.Mrehi" F... "".,"" (;1>0/11 f""n Sla lin', gnp Ghezzi's case w.. ,!lamp.
Rcfore Iho e(ln"''"tl l>l POri)' " .. mad. 11 1.g. ' on 1926. lhe I"'ny pro" ' oncd f""n Pani by Iho IJ.elgi.n ..... rehist Jacque< \10,,,,,. Vie,ur Scl);<
tlcyOted '''_PIS of space .o lhe .""",hi5l' and lhe .yndic.h.l>. (r«<e"lly ttlused from. Rusli.n pmon) """ Angolo Tasca. In 1936 or
Articl« by' the ., ·.ynd,,,.h,, (;,u'CI'I'" lJ, \,\uono oAplal""J lho w.al· 11117 Ohe", " ......1I0"e;l up In \he G",a, Purg<"$," Dunng the 1930.
"f >}lIdocah<m. en«<o un.. rthcd Croce ", old a.ccu",""" T....:l wM I leading follutt ip l/Ie French and Itali ... "",iali" n'IOY<_
of ,he rel'l ion<hlp 1><:lwocn \Ialalc," and ,he: IIourt>on Quttn of lho men1l IIc conSlantl y tt,urno;-d 10 the non· L"" ,n,,' ,..,heal tradi';o", of
""".;0.10111 of .... ,ns..,.
"lttl. G .. TO!II .. n, and Ta",. retUrned 10 =»CS5 IMrehi,1 '" pre. \ tl .. isn oocla""n, 110" ...... if Toglialli compromised
,he kgacy Idl by h.l.. n ana",hlSrn. 1o AI Ta"". K"'''' di",,,,,/lanl<:d ... i' h h"nself ,,"h Tuel's lif. "ai ca51 under .no""," due 10 St,II _
tho ll"""1Oj ,nn ......... ofSlahR ... tho ("""'''tlem. 1>< rtad I'I<aeane In Pari<'< on"ttly relationl ,,"h the ugi"", d unnH the WaT."
RlbhOltqt>t ..... "oNllt·" GllImS\;i a".I)""d lhe syndicalim in r.f.rence Pan' "1>11 ..... cenl", for 1..1.... anarchISts. and.1 "as heR 'ho tirst
'0 lhe """Ih In It .. e .... y OIl lhe 'Soutltcm Quol''''''' and In tho Pn.ro#I g,oup 01 haltan lnarchlSl ,·olunl..,,, aoo JTOI<mbc" of Carlo R... sclli·,
 Conciunon

e LibtrrlJninod .. 10 IUPJIOf' 'Il< "",,(3roee '0 Franco', coup 1920. Hulogna. I'll, 2S6 8; M R.. 'elh. ·Im .. " i'll a M. Ganno·.
IkJllco "n, one of 'Il< mOSI ,ndcpcnJcn' m,nd, among" 'hc anarchi", MS. Tu"n. 1975.1'1'. 157 9
Ind h" II." ,enion ofGuura di Uane. "hOoh oppcarN In Borulon&. 2, M ","'oniolr and B Ikzza. Lt1 FfO.\1 dall. ",'g'"' aliarclsltl(l, 1901
OfIIK'>'Cd the FAI in'ol"e"",,,' III the Spa""h go, cmm"",- (krnt,i pleaded Ran, 1975. I'll. 625. 627. 630: M. ClaD;. Antonio (Jrom.<ei ofld
""to his Sp.oni<li e""trades 10 .... pIoy til< ukllbtoan tnKI'hon of gunnlla .hl! /I ... Fadrd. "ow 1977, p, I 72.
".rf,,,,. "' In
,,·ell II '0 mount .n,i.,mpcnali.1 eam",ign in \ ' '''''''''0 10 ) A,un,,! j Pied",,,,,,",,, ediu,,,,). Sep<'-""">c.- 1920. p. 1. One ye", l.i.ler
"""l"" I It'ar lie WI. "'" "iI.ned 10. bo.M in til< ""''''' "ttl< F mmI FtrTCrO blan"'" 1bo orrJ,.rn·ulI fut IIQI ii, ing ,be ica.d Gari""
up 10 the Day,. to calm po"ions on o!'Po"ng anarchist de"",nded. ("fwnlto \·01<1. 1:S Sop! 1921. P 2. The role ohhe an:"
and communl\t <odeli .... ch,ou. dunr'lPIIC • •",n Turin i. described in Re'"elh. 'In,,,,, I ....
Llle Carlo ROSIooOI". VI too ... ould d", It lhe hamh of.1Ie french Cagou.
lanl> a.the bthesl of "".uoIinl In early Ju ..... bulb ""'" ...-ere di><nth3ntC"d
• G'II""·. pp. 157-9. :--; .. urally. the t;<l"or> of n.",,,,,,, Srnwni,,,
.... ", on, ... ' oflhe RC"d Guards. 0.... "'port described 1>0>0' 0
by lhe of ,be commU"i>" In Spain. )'ct bulh sa ... the need for I had been for pllferinS Sec. 'Ces=· •. A ZOIIZO. P...-lo ufl"",'ne
conllnuod .. ,,10 ,betn Berneri '''u .lurn-d ""11b Rossellt 10 .. quesl OC,·upall·. (""""ltClt S;I1Wr",<I. 2 O<tob..- 1920. p. ),
for I ,h,rd ,,·oy bet"..,,, _ .. I democracy and Stalt,,"m Carlo Rosselli·, C Lc' . . 'Cbansma and soclll """"ettIeTII>: &ric<r M,bl..tund 1..,ian
brol""r. '.110 ... too d,w ... ,,10 hun. ""'sa n""g )·ounS hi,mria" "too had Inarchir.m·. fwil. '01. J. 00. 1. 1998. PI'. 13-1 S.
"nl1m Irnpo<un' _ount, oflhkumn In Ital)".,1Ie Fi .. , hUnn"uonal and P Sj>nlno, SMri" del Ira/jaM. ,01. I. Tunn. 1967.
,lot ofP'_ ...... Ca,lo had .. rill." 10" d'lr.cnohon undoeJ Sal'"em,", 1'1' I St. I' Spruno. ·Gram""i. it f..... ismo. Sli del PopoIo....
on ') "";"ah.m" I"'n. In ,he I ,he Panl'o d' Moone ,",ould carry on (',il;'-" .11"".;,.,,,. Qo..a<Icrno.l. 1967. pp. 175--99; \I. R05S' . .
.be legacy of.h" Ihmj "ay.• nd yotlng Inleliect ... l, .",,10 as Aldo G'''06<"I "<HI IAtIl'rmlill>mo di f{Wrra "gli ardlll dd """"Ia 19/
and Vcn'uo. wlto e'\roUn,orN Torinese onarchi ... i" ,he 1930<. 1922. Pisa. 1997
r«<l8""C"d .h. Impon.roe. of • f.de",IISl and "berlari.n fonn I> l1u'1lh,. ,\1,",,:1) s«olo. rP 272-SO; P Sprial1O. pp. 197-214
uf $«1. li!m. Ahhouih lu'g' hbbri hod .... 10 ... wnllon. sefle. of ' M'cI .. On ,be SF! .nd the l.abour AII,on<e 1«. F. Dom.:ti. '11 SindK"o
.I;>ou, federal"'" r,... Pcn."."." t li>Jon,,, a,1d Gobe11i', /I,,'I)/u· r erro, i<,i ,,_hani <lal <:ong"'''''' d, Bologn. olio ocioglirncnto della
,,,,n," '-rberal•. G<>b<lIi d'Mln I'an, of ,,"ound. n,h.r inni,,<d on nim COdl.·. ,n M I\nronioh. R Berll.rdi .• ,Id G . <:lleoc">7" (.ds). /I
by Tn,,,,,,.. faKi,,!." rind", .1/0 "'Xliii a/fuscism" /907-1915. Milan.
1)0",,& hi, ,Iay In Tun Pn..,n. Gram",i .""01"" orcd "''''ral ,alller odd 16
indi,.i,I " "h" al1archim. one of whom lalcr became a commUni" ""d 7 V M.nIO,anl. M",,,rj'" hi" I.a ,1,1 Dimw. MoI .n. 1979. pp
,Ii",,, I}"d I", r.pon. " "".,,,,",Iu,, , ,.,coll,lI o f Gram",i '$ li fe In his <011. 628 9. l' C. Mus i" ; , '(jli .".",t"e, "ahani . I., Ri'·olulione Rm,a ·.
h,,- I. d", /lrfi"mJUr/," Beme" w., !nO'" .pprtti.,,, e of G •• ",,,,,',
/1m,,,, SloriCO old '01, 8. 110 . I. 1%2.1'1'. 165 6. Fo r the
Icg.oy, II<. la<l I'u " ',e 'K' tx:fo<. hi! murJ<r wa. '0 br<>lldca>1. heartfelt UA I ",."Iuti"" • ..,., \I.s;nl. 'Gl i '""rch iei·. I'll Gra",,,,i', r,.,.;e
<>bitt"''}' f", the rc.:tlll ly dec ..ased Gra,,,,, , from lhe .tud,OS of Ra.dio C ....'T· .niele ·libtn. pcr 'U'".'" eo,i al"'<110 "i pore. L 'Ordi'le V"", ...
un l May 19.17, Two day. later his body wOS dl",o,""",d oubld. IT.
:!4 ]1;0' ombe, 1921. in !iocfu/t"'w e raja'mo. L 'Ordrne 1'.''''''"0 1921
om"" al ,h. ''''''''''lill' ,0 ,he of Ba", .. luna. '" /9.'2 (Tutln. 19(6) [U.",.f'cf. SF]. 1'1'. 407-12. For 'he a",,,,h,,,
""f'Onse to GramK'. l. 1 abbn. 'Saggi <Ii <li.l.tlic. com un iSla '.
.\"'". 2 1921. p. 2; al'" sec 13 Ikc<:mber 1921.
p 2. I January 1922. p. 2 On Oo:cember In I the Ton"""" a ... ,..,h'$!t
i .. ucd • nun,feSI" donoo"",ng lhe ,I.nd<rou •• of Gram""
S«. '01, K",rch,o, "'01"1.00 '''''mni>!i·. L__ nl/.; \'0'''. 7
1. \1a"'''''''! obilWf)' fo< lm,n IS 'lunou
" Bocih,. Mr.:o IrcoIl> dl an" ... hra. r-.ple-<. 19S4. 1'1' 248--52; G.
\'.,0..... II All'''''''''';'' t """,to""""D _rara 1W11919---
1,'/""'<1, I february 1914. In E. ".1 ......,
IWS<) senm 192431. ",,- 1. C"amtZlI. p. 33 . For tho

-211 -
 d,ff",..,.., .. bcI,,= fabbn and M"bl<>l& O\",..hI:: moan'ng ofl.e",n', llanf.",soo,a .. U, ,..",st"'=Q 'uIU G/i Q_rchit:i e la I"'ta
pol"icillifo, _ I' "lIJOc).Bny, "I.l •• ts'" and m" anarchiSl ""o/u· contn> tl r""i."",. I g;ontali anorr:/t,,,, damk<lm, ,94J----4j.
1;00', . "01 >, 110. L 1'1'. J 1-4 1995. G. Sa«hcni, 'Re",,,cn,,,, o,uom soci,l. II Mo';menl"
8 Ill" Fedeli I, I'll ,,,,"'rll,,i,, di allil"ila "",,rrhl<'a I h.lli. 1951l. 1'1' .n"",hieo. I. lou3 d, hbel1l21on( 194) Rn"ista S",,,,'U
Alk. ,I", collar,.; orlhe 'Irg,,1 §Ink.' In Augu", 1922 " !CpOn a,'II'Ana.du",,,, ,o1, 2,"",,1, 1995.1'1' 27
in [/"'"""" So",). I Scl'lembo. 192:!. P S. ,rod : 'o'pe<iall}' in ,Ilt I For 'llc 1tC"",i., uf ,Ile USI .00 'ho ",1>0 •• " .. d"", in T",;n d"""g
III Umo" •. ln Tuscany. in L' gu,ia and "' [m,li, I"" dc,·""a· I". 1911) .nd 1921. = I,.·mtmi'" No"u. 21 N",·embo. 1920, p,
l ion hos 1>«0 """hodic,1 aoo . lmoS! COmplclO' 1. S January 1921. p. ), 2 1 January 1921. p. 4: 22 \Iarch 1921. p 2.
9 C. &n ... OO, 'Re"olutio"",} S}'ndicah.m in hal),. 1912 1922', PhD 24 \I.rch 1921. p. 1: L'Ordi"e V...,,.,, 23 J.n.wy 1921. p 2;.!5
di ... , l of W"ooo,;n. 1%9. pp. 311)..71; M Antoni"h, J3nuary 1921. I' 1. 30 Jon""'} 1921. p I. I February 1911. p. 2, 6
:i<»Ir d,,...lIa t "'J:<1",:::a=_ Of'""1Q Si..J.. ..alm"" rl .I:)/,.;"",,,rio r cbrual} 1921. p <, i Februar) 192 I, II 2. II) frbnJ3ry 1921. P S,
'''' kJ tiM ddl '0"", mKl. ,I \1.OOun.a. 1990, 11 Fmuary 1921. p. S; 2 M3rch 1921. p 1; 21 1911. II 1,24
pp. 1M II>< m,omaliooal d,mcnlion. 1ft II. \I""organ! A"1:"" 1921,1' J; 25 AuguS! 1911. P I 5q)rcnlbo:r 1921. p. 3.
Thorpe, II Tilorpo. 'n.•. 11;,,-*..... n..·OUtn'tJ Rnl:)/Il'i"""f) S>mf,· Rcpi)I1;; of,l>o p .. rccI "f ,I>< Tun" to II>< \1 m,s,,,,. oflhc Inrmor. 30
culi.,m una Inn'rnatio",,1 Lohor 190 19lJ. Am"ord.m. December 1921. 1 Jonu>!,- 1921. 2 FrbnJol}' 1921. ,n ACS, PS 1921
Ch3p1<I"S 3- 6: M. Antun,,,I; . .i mwnJu Bu'!:hr. 11i"i""" SmaUNi<· B,84; AII".,ioo, \1<1.lIurg'o,. T""",,, For- ,I>< c. "ici\m of Forre • • nd
IIUli""o, )..\ .. ,,10'; ', 1990. PI'. 109---37, by Iluo'-Zi.• ee Umanila /I·'o\'{,. 9 l'/"",mbcr 1921). p. 2 For
II) A. Landuy'. e I 'AI'enlinD. ),1 il 3n, 1972, 1'1'. 367, 477, m""·'
O.... a,l<i Parodi', ",tome n", oec ACS. PS 1921 . B. I JJ ,\l",·,·
II Fed<h.1I pp. 86---7. ,n("'O Anarch,c" e ('ornuni". , rcpons oftt", I'rcf,'" of Tu.i o 1o lhe
12 \I,nto)\,o,. \/":or!" blw. I'll. 635--'1 for rabbt, i""iden', $10< l oc. Min"lt. of,lI<: 1,,'enQt'. Sand 8 \Iarch 1921 f or ,1>0 10dOll', ....
Fabbn, b'lll StonaJ'w" _I,,,..,.,,, Pis>. 1996. p. 15J, Clan., AllfOlt'D Gn>ouri. pp. 189-9), I Adl",.. /Iolia" 'ndbJlTrallfh
13. G. ('omlo. 'l:em,S'U""'" libenaria '1II1"'N in Fra""" rlCl 'on'onn., lrom 1.",u"I",.. fD F(ue;,,,,. 1906-IPJI, ('Imbndgt', 1995, 1'1'.
f", 10 doc soc",,',.n B Bezu Icd.l. 6/, ""/tUllt I'",ri Itall<1. Gli a 24."\-4 In. pIC' ;"".1)" ci,od in'.,,·ocw "'i'h In anonymou, anarch,>!
.,..;
<>pITO'.
"",.·,,,,,,,,,i pu•.• ; a 'uaa:",,,.. 1811fi- mil",n" (;"",n"" I'",.". 26 luI) 1921, p. 3. I>< cia",,, 'h3t u'.f 2.m
I'NrI. \I,lan. 1983. pp. 831----912: G. h,,". L !X·hitro mil· woB.n had be<n o.ac:k.-d from r .., by ,I>< 'umme. of 1921 They
d, "',·,,1,·, ....
I ,1/" ..<>Iilli, \lilan. wtT< Il>U!oII)' 'the bo", """I"liooari", '1U\d now 'frttdom in ,I>< ,,"'"
I' H,""con" Gli "",,,d,i,i ndla IfI"" {'OnI .... ,/ fa5ci,mo. .hup$ is • nl}"h. the most n,ked "':lctlon trIUmph , und,, [urbcJ'
P"loio. (j Galzenmo, . Auo"lIli Inan:: l"c, MUS!4lin,' "'. G Mo",o,'c,. ,fie lrchnici.ns hu,l .ne"c<1 In Ihei' fom,o,ly imptrioul
M.nf.. (fit.), I. '",,'i('l$l-;sma r; ... 1992 man"".
I ('. 7ro rl>YJlu:iOltc e Liber'l''''' unil"", "ella S""gn" 16 h.r \1"Vn'.', .. -"'" .\'D''', 3 "':"" . 1921). p. 2. lie
deg/i UM; M,l.n. 1995. For loarch", oc,i,,,i,,, in ex,le aDd claimed ,!t.u GIn.... and Fenno ""'"ly ><tpporlCd ,he """;'1i,,, .lccloral
Rr;'>UlTI<c. $<'C Gar-osci, !i/ •..-ia aN Bari. camp,uJII'n 19191920, and II"" both mtn \\'or\cd hand ,n gWH
19SJ. pp. 13,2' 4. 45. 61,63 4. Ben, and Manocchi. ",lit 13uou, durinK!he 'trike of Apnl 192i), .·enno Ifl<l G.rno derunt
In I"i,,,,,, S,,,"C" dell. R",i"cnZ3I ,0 TOIeI,\I. Gbi1U"" I.,be,.." lit c"'"IlIe. Soc. L'",,,nlll' "o"u. 9 ""0\ embe. 1920. p. 2.
um,ruse"''' e fla"a d'II"/'u. fl<:><c""o. 1977; D 1/ For fcrrtro"posilionsm!he 2, I<'< Amo",.)!>
G.llagher . .,I/llh" Ril;hl E"€,,,it.•. Lil. ""a or ond Ikru. I.., FlOIi. W. 66 i. 671 2.1>81 2, I '" G.utno. set L '0..1",,.
"ow Ilrun,wi<\:. 1997. r o. Ih. Rc.\isl>nce.""e Fede ll, I..-n .\""',,"0. 26 Ju,," 1911. P JUn( 192 I . P 3. On ,I>< d i",nchantmcm
rp. 109- 18: P. reri . "narch"a in /ml'" "uh O"nno aoo r crrero of tho Toon<....., """",hlSl,. ""'" i:rnnla hm:ro',
(/944· 19.IO!. 1)"'1/" ",.i>le'lZa alia 'ICOSlu:iDne. Romc. 19/8; A "'J>OI1 'n /. ·An"ni.... .·I"orcnICIJ. 19 May r. 5 For r.,,,,,,,·,
D.da. I. in ',,,Iw·ln> '"'''' ... /Xi"iro, St<>na 8rI'<lcs . ...., P F.'n:I'O, d<m t''''''' 1'f'>[\Crn dc, pmic'.n I
t/rlI"Q"arrh,.,,,,, M,I.1n. 1984. I'll 9$-139. G f"ore dc, di«lC(:"P"u·. L DnJ",., .\"uom, 3 I obru.v) 1921. p. J.

,- ,

-2B_
 he S'HS a p<"'lnlSl" 1II1.'rm" ion or 'he efT... " of prolonge<l nlObihlt Iialian MI ;on,h.1 r""hng. a. flo .... and abroad.10 lhe
,,""mrlo)' "1CIl1. oflhe bu, for ,nIgh, fnghl.n a..-. y
"'COCIHIce.lcd Au",,,,",, bank k"""" "'" r V Can""(fllro. 'M u,,,,I,,,,,
AI fi'<I. ,II<", ."'" "","y iIope> ,r..o"he COII5Wl( ''''''''''' in ,he "uOlbet 100 th" ."",·h,,!>: lhe 'ran""I.n,ic coni."'. Joumdl
,II< • ...",f'Io).,.J ,,<>oW coouitlu" '0 ,he i"""",,, .".111 of rcbolhoo '" \/0;1",,, II",,,,,,, \01. 68. "" I. 1996. I'P, ) 1-62.
a _ .... .,..... nr .. on.... , """ "' .... coo"'_ <Iu( "'" For un'n",( 011 .... """,.0<1( . ..., Sf'. 1'1'. 98 100, 109---10. L Drdm,'
Cn_" .... prod ...... ,lie O!'P'>I'IIO <Ike' '·I1{)",.lso pubh>hed the folio" ""ide<. 1\ Il Braiis--
fool. '1lOmi ruS$l·. 10 Marc:b 1921. U \larch r 2. 12
Anotlle, ""wm.. ,,,, K"OOtll ,I fOl.lllO.l in, P. Fenno, . Ad un ann<> dalb PI' 1 2. ($1' " Radel.·La "'01 .. d, Kn>,.... d'·. 11
'«mI,a delll FIAT·.l 'On/,,... .,""",. 28 Api'l l 1921. I' 1 Altbooglt
M

1921.J>II I 1.19\1')'1921.1'. 4 The rnos(,.'eahnsIn.dc,

!wi coilabo..,e<l ",(h ,he rommunists. he "oj; an lnon) IYIOII> rrpon (rom M"", .... , 'Ln anni •• rsa";":
abouI lhe d"II,o..dllp or ,he prol<unal. Stt_ 1.1AI'''' 3. (ha1some
.\,)'..,. 23 rebnw) 1921. I' <, IS M.",h I. p. I c,«llenl mll".n .. died II l{ronSladi 1I"""'"r. n,,,'hc, the Soci.li"
1& As,..". 19M. JIll n. U 5. Abo $« .... lOOII)TTIOU!I "'I"'" in (/maRl'" R.'<llu,,,,,, ....... 11.. \lcnlhc:, 1!Or . ' "n lbe .,I1"".l<:< of a third
,"VI". 9 \ja",h 1921. "b<", lhe ",fcmxlum is dcs<nbnl a<'1 ",.1 '",1\ .. ",,' ""01""001 ,oold ha, ... -on. F", an ",."';.,, of reports ""
J<A.' f,o-ero ",,"ame ''''''"'''naly Kopei,.1 of nIa<S ac,ion in 192 I. lhe R.,oll in ,he ltah ... .".,.,h,s, prtS •• see Fedele. C""
AAer 1.200 .. on.m ,,,,,,,,,,, ke<lat 1'..... ,... Piemolll""" In Sept............
I. h. "1$ ",pont<! '0 "".e SI,d at • ",""nil: '1' IS not e-noogh '0
""".... JIll. 9
2) f", Sell'''' Ie<: P C 'I."n,. in Ilali •. Meno 5«010 d,
hedk lhe at """"mll'. 10 VOle in ""'OIUbO"",) rtsolu,oons rlt<r.he Cdi d,l>al"" (1876 19161'. A," del Coo"egoo Int"""",(>.
.,IIl,h"n 110 10 ,o" . ldly aco.pU"g,he .ond,,,,,,,, III< bosses ,,,,I. di S,udi .. ",. ann; dopo. Mil . n. 1'177.
IIi.'. . . mdll od..,lIy: IrSI (.lk nlOfe """00 . See. No"'. 28 r\>. 36 7, \" Sc'¥•. ' La n\'(>lu,i""" ""sa c .ku"" ",ltche pSeudo
Scpl,n'btr 1921. p 4 libcn. ",,' . I. ,\!!Oll'. 13 Augu .. 1'121. JIll. 1-2. • """iaily . La
1'\)1" Crams-i', p">l"OI1 un Ih. A,Ji,i del 1'<>pO lo and ,he L.bo", <oor($si"" i d l 12 lan".,)' 1922. p 4. 'I.. "",nlog"" d,
Alli'"«.5« p, Spri.,IO. ·Cram",i. ,I f."" 1>11\0. Sli 'A,di" dd r<>pO"'·. I\nn. ndo II..>'lIh,·. I Aug"" 19n. p. J Fo< Klt>pQlkin . ..., V U .
Cm"" Ou,d<mo 3. 1967. JIll 175-99 ' I',wo Kml"Mk,n·. 1. 'o,r/,ne .\1«)"'. 30 Jauu.!)' 1921, p. 2. 27 Man:;h
20, Fu, (;ru",;.:'·s poi " i"n al\" lit" USI C"nSrtss. See SF, PI' . 471}-J p 2.8 \ loy 1921. p .1.
I t.e USI "." .u,pkious .,·.n before ,bcir s.e. 'I com"n i"i 1\ [,r.",,,,,. I." COSleu:i"",' /''''1ila ('",,,,,,,ma. /9)3 !6. Tll rin.
\ "111"'n,, "",,,,alnre l'Unionc S",dacal.·, Gurer" d, I 8 (1I<-re"Oo. ("1'('1. p. 107
hl>rul') 1922. p, 2, !'o< Herut l. >CC L OrJi"e .V,,,,,,,. 4 Oc,obe' 192 1, k De I·ehe,·. '1 f .. " ti( '1'01''''0 ti, I),cembro 1922'. S,,,,,; SlOrici. ",I

r 2.6 r><o".",I"" 1921. r, I . 19 Jon""y 1922, p. 3, 11 Api'll 1922 , 4. no I. 1%1. PI' I -122. G C.",."". TortI!(). M,lan, 1971,
p, 8 Jul)' 1922. P 1. )0 Jul}' 1922. p. 4, 7 &"," ",bt , 1922, p. J. L. Mn,"'a .. del fa,.",,,,, • T",i"" \ 1919-1926 U. 1.0"''' r. I!'
On Ikn>'i's from III< 51 1J "" 10 hi' """""'. S« II ferro. ".""r. .",1 N (cdsl. T"mwfru """mlmn". ia'cj,,>w, .\l ,iall.
htle-naM. 29 July 1922. p. 2. Ho" eW, (he ed,IOfS o f 1 1'1' 2.17 .l i), C. Oosio.. Le o"g ltl1 del f• ..,,,,,,!)
in provincia
'- mann; -',,"a ftl' ,!Ie SFI'! Klion, had been 100 Jfll>l"" d, T0"'10'. !il.d; Sloe,,,, " •. 3.1. "". I, 1994. JIll 18.l---206
21, I. /1'010":>. I S \larth 1912, p. I, For lhe caml"ign.o \.II". Sateo 26 1)C Fehce. '1 ('",'. lIP 59-62. 7Ml, C.",ln<>. Strage, JIll. 78 9;
_nd Vonull;. $« 170.:,00.. 1921. p. 5. 6 1>;o>embc, 1921. p. ·Ong(n(·."",

I... or 01\ (h., communis.s "oounucd .... " c.,nl",gn. "'" r "{,,,;,';. 17 Cn",."".. .. PI' 85-6 On ,he diltt'l<',ponsibility o r \1"""',,,,.
1926. I' I. 12 1926. I' 1. 2? July 1926. p. L They .'.n Uemn. Itt.lled lhe (oll""'inll in 1930..... ·L•• ,mg' d, Ton""',
helped ,"" iNl",h'iI> hold ,11cgoI cIcmonslnu"" •• 1k-t the;,.,eoution:s Gwr-ro di Dn:cmbc-t 1930. p. I 'In fOCI. ,he Ton ..... fasc,,,.
001 "'" Sc:a.;h'L 'L·llion,', r!'. 6-t 5. \IUS$Oh'" tool; "",11,. ha.., 10 many find,ng h"".clf rre>ef\1
.., amb'i""".1t".. 001 the \ ion=li .na" II. fell ,hal the" pliW>' ""nnR Ic:lc:p/ooo< <_II '0 ,be poiili<:al aUlhonll<"< In T unn.

2.14 -
 \1 """I ,ni ,!.lid the r.)lIow.nll: "As the L.a<kr of f>s<;i,m I regret Ill' 1.""tII I om:ro. >eo ('",,,"i,,, -"U,,,. 20 0<100.-,1921. p, 2. ·So.
In>! )'00 e,,'1 ono ... orth.",: as 11.. head ortho go,ern" .. nl prc.i«I)'. h... 1to is. eoo,'ineed ha, be<ome
J .nuSI ofd", )'00 rlleas< the 'ITC"N On .h. lhe nf.he PC<'I'le .. On tho "'hcr hand. on 1t.lo·A"",ri•• "
ils<lf. sec ('.rut>O. PII· <&-9. 78. 8.J--l 1!I3",h,,, "",.tled Uorgh, SI}',nM .bool d .. '\e" ',he
2K ,1>",.rr S < 6. On ,ho rn>lCJtI oflhc iodu!ln.hSlS. sc<: Adler. 1101,0" ",,·called a"u-org.>n,zau"'lailiilS w.... the be>1 organiz.-.:l group' !itt.
l"d""rlull.<tJ. 1'1', 30$-9, A'·nch. hili I"" rs. p 1·(7. A{ hI< trial Schla",na claimed lha{
!9_ G. (A ·LIt Flbbrica Ferrero a \-1"""" L -OrrIme he ooly OOSC'Twd • foomaliorl of Ardi'; del Populo., a 1oc.1 c ...... ery
\"""" \I.",h in ,pt, PII. q3-!t_ . . IQJ""Ja. I \lay Sft. {.'"",nota ""'''' II ApnI1922. p_ 2_ For hi' 1.>1..- see Ikmt.an..
1924. 1'1'. 2()"'1 •...M Torch'. I' A,·""h. SaITO Thr Anarr:hisJ 80d,·
30 LI dellit alll",hici nello "" L L"im. 5 gt"<1IImI. I'nnceton. 1991. 1'1' 212 I 3 In Iny._ Schi.a,·ina "-as .....
July 1924, P J prortc '0 ,"otenec TM h.1o-,\menean a.,..",hi,{. Joon Vall00ne.
.11 I "'""".' L'IIf... IQJI}f!IO, '01. 28, t>O_J. .-«olled ,ha, Ih .. American "-as a dedic"N
1975. 1'1' 10. redole. t'"" t-..... 1'1' 131-7, F", Sandomtl.ky·, l!I3fth, ... buI he h"n..,lf .oo!d"·, make 1 bomb, coold "'" c,cn k,lI.
IcI1Cf1o 10 F.tlb... 1«. l""c Fabbri. hiRI Fo""";. P 137 11): !itt. Allleh . . I"'-«'s. p 152 FOf MO'Prita, see ACS.
'Pour I. def.n.., de r • .,..",hi.me horoique .1 ('PC (OO- IM 1920..nd 19,0._
"propnatt'U,·. /.Q Rnw ,41Uln;h..,... voI_ 2. 1923. 1'1'- 12--16. Pre,·j· f edet.. {;" Jrtn<,·""w. 1'1'. 98. 126- I 11_ Zocam. '1 -I«,alo;" e
ousl)'. ,n J,,"ua!) De lum and hi' 83"B " ..... ,n"o"ed ,n 1 I'''''B'''' d, Gu, .. " ... L,beroi '" ltaha. II {()" ... sed, Voc, di
"'tit 1M polte. ,n .. "ICh one anarchiil - Raffael• .\-hla ... " orr" 'III'. Ri<'illa d, SII)<-;<I COl1lel'tp""'''N. '01. 4. 1972. 1'1' 5 n
"as l,lIed. De Lui" wllS wounded. bout .",aped and recuper· 1000. f Giuh.ui.· 1 JOOMI' .... "'hiei ·Bani.r.o di Nizu' c 'Rame ....
.,ed .11 fnend'J hot.... He hodjuil b«-n ... k:t><;d from pri$(ln Mle, d, Mil an,,' ""lie 11<'10 Jell. ""llLla f""ila - rOflt>O 1930'. /{i.·JSlu
><:" "'8 an I8·monlh "'111 ..... c fOf a nn. off.,,,,., . He had been p",sued .'>10';'-" ddl ' Ind,.. hi51'tO. ,OIl 4. '''', 2. 1997. 1'1' for all<'lhotr
by lhot pul i,e f(l, ,hot robtoer)- vf. large numbe, of railway (ieke!; >lOOy of nc'il hOO"'hoooJ ...",hism ""ring f.""sm. see H Zone:
l)u""8 ,he ,nl.J,iaa"on \ Ia" . ,i{a ... s brl.fly de13incd Emmo Anarchiei di qu.n' ..... Antofasc",no. vo{a quol,d,an. nd qua" ,"'"
FefKro wondol'td Itow I)" I.ui', ... he h.d been 'befo", hi' arres{ in . . l!l"k ( ampo hera J, [J"' .... ,. " /{i"ijla Sw,i,·u dell 'Amln'his",,,.
Ino. fino .nJ hono,1 "Ofk"-, had be<om. an ·,Ikg.list" SOC ",I 2, "0>, 1. 1995. 29-56
21 la,,""!)' p. 2 J6 ,\IOSIO was Gucfied by {he polico Jue to h i' e. ,li .. frie nd 'h ip ,,"h
H FOf 'he nl" rd.f of . brigad ief of{hot c.ntbin ie,. during {l>e occup.{ion Cam illo Rcmerl , For I", of fidehl}' (v ,he Reg"'te. see ACS,
of (h. facto!)'. {l>e .".",his' , Rosali and C. n , ,«'e i\'OJ "m. InR7. 24 l'eI,,,,"!) IY.!O, h " [nun. feRero, see ACS. CPC
)....... [)eli. ""\C" ye.rs and Giul-<ppc Rubino 10 y.ars 20.12. Icrrcro. L"ltna. ennie, for 1919 and 1938 For Garino. see
"np"><>"'''''Ii. s....,. U",,,,,iIJ ,vMa, 9 July 1922_ p. 3.11 Ld"'riorio. It.vetti, ' [,"'''''SlO a G.nno· p 100
27 July 1922. 1"Il. 2 1 ror t!le murde, of. g",rd o{ Sal igh.no IM{i,{a .17 , P,elro R.i""rI nf ,,,mata d,ed in h.nk. , .. ,\1.
Vign"I •. () C .poni. Ca m,tlo Cado Guili.no and S_ Polli ,\lIno, /I"u,J, Ji un "IH'<Jw (.olm la guidu di G'''''''''i).
.-«ci",d Clgltl y<a n, MOil'" Viti •• Ca rto MoUOjl.""" II lea"" G Rome. p GiuS(pp< P"'H'ilO "'..," an office, in the FAI
C.I 'Hio. G 'Ul<'ppe \Coono and ArmaO<io Giorcclli 2J y..... , FOf the bool"= JUt .. 19,161nd February 19li. s.", ACS, CPC 42n, Pre"",n.
",u.-..Jn\ o f Sc,n,ula and Sol",",. Lu,g, \Ionlo<on, and \1. AI al.= Giuseppe Da"'e Ant .. ,,,,m ""tII,,,oJ ,n S"",n fro.n 193610 1939
.-«."ed3O aOld Aaosut>O IloI!JIO Ind r .n:titl3ndo Beda 17 }eatS 110 foogh .... ,he Ascaso column and ,,-"" ar=lod afier Barcelona',
... petli'''' } 5«. 20 JanOW)" 1914_p_ l_ May In), I I. ,.",.,neJ ''''pn>ooed and WIl> deponed '" fiance j"'"
_14 for rbe {nals of Schllnruo Ind G.llean,. see Fedeli, LUigi heforc rranco'l 'ictory ,n 1939, 5« AD, CPC 19 L An.,....",.
{hlurtmll 'ann'- di /("''' (I !l91 19311. Cescroa. 1956. lIP. 175--8 I The Dame For \1"""" $tt Grom..-i e 1
.. Ihal lhe Inu-ofian,l.IllOOlIo<t Sch,anna IlId helped ....
,0 J" un /d""nJlarw. 1956. pp. 3
1 de!..,I'I1I'"'' of Anini del Populo ...... ironic in {Ite opinion F..- \bimne.!« ' ';,1 . P ;>0 for !he 19-U-5 wil ... and the R..."""",.

'"
 i« T Imp<:m,,,, a 'I'u,,,,,,, D.n" Cagoa • l lio Ilaroni ... 11. 47 I' II'Snoh. Cudu ...a JXn'iero politico a:i"ne. Florence.
fOsi,'"n-.', /I,..,,,,, "01 2. no. 2. 1995. pp 1985
48 I' C \1o\;ni, ',am,l(o s.,mrn collabont<>n> dl lI'nJlu:io;,e LibffaV,
19, '"Fo,
1), \,,'Orlo. i« L ·UnIIJ. 11 JuJ>C p. I. 100clClkr 1914. p
2, 14 ]\;OHml><. 1924, p. 2; S Augu., 1925, p. 6. For Grieco, "'"
1"lon,';. '01 l. no. I, 1947. pp. 30-4, G. Manfledama. UJ
h"''''"e, /'ulgl Fubbri, "",u'r",e"1 iwlien ia luue
'An.an:Jt"" e 1>0000"'''''. Slalu 1926. I'P 1927. I'P P',is, 199-4 P 81 . P Bagnoll .. Picro Gobel" aDd
21 38 rho: liberal n\'ol"""" ,n Ilall', Journal oj McJem ""Iian Slwlie.,
40 \las,n,. M,I.n. 19"4. 1'1'. 380--1. , .. I 2, no. I. 199,. I'P 34-44., \1. Sea' ""'. 'Ilcmcri, Goben;,. 1.
41 A Gram",i. S..I«".'>#I' from 1''''1110.1 1911-1916 (sclc:cted ,;,,>I<IL1OO<' 'taha ... ', SiM''''' drll \'(>1. 4. no. I.
.nd edlled by Qt."n"n 1100.,... 'raoula,od by JOOn \13"""'-' $). London 1997.1'1' 7S-84
1978.1'1' 441 62 For ,he Qwdcnrl. sec A. Gr1In\SCI. Quad""i tin 49 f7io Tadde •.. [), n,amo"/. tie, l1r{rall"ri. 4 Ott. 19J7, p
o. .....rt ledi,ed by ''alenl''''' C; ....... WIIl). TUn". 11115, ,,)1< 1---4. 1'1' r Spriano. G,.,._, In parli/a. Rome, 1977. p. 100.
.n. 6S- II. 3 III 20, llJ-32. 777-8. 843. 927. 930. 1581 91. 1808. SO. o..S, ... lIy bro_"",-$! (WI 1 Maj' 1917 on Radio C''TfAI Barcdona
193940. 2021. 2<125. 2481. 2829. 2988 and ,"Inscribed '" drllk!rallari. l21une 11IJ7. p. 2. For
42 F. R,S'oo,e.-,. 1913. TQlf/iU'1I. o,xr-r. '-01. 3. pl . 2. Rome. Be.... ,,·, dcalh. _ Garm.c" SI"";a. 1'1'. 151-8. Spn<lno. SI""'-<l, ,01
Illn. 1'1' 94 512-27, il 1. P. 209, An 1pJU<"..,,,.obtll:lf)· oflkm<ri ond "" modem ."""hlSrn
Spn.no. SI<)nu. ,01. J. 1'1'. 86-7. ISO. 214-16. 263, 272. G. BocCI. "'flttCfl bt Angelo Tasca opp!:ared in d. OasJr. 2J Ju"" 1937.

p"/",,ro TOII"""i. Bari. 1973. 1'1' 2H2 305, B BoII<>len. SpanISh P I. Stt M Gt,,,.sonl, 'II fllo TOI'" ddla "mapp.utenza" Be .... ri.
C"i/II", u"J L.ondooG, 1991. p\>. 87$- TIS,,"'. Rmlla '01. 4. no, I. 1991. 1'1'. 8$-
7. On ,he ""Ie of \"lIon<! Vidah In Nonh A",...-iea ""', Gall.ghe,. All 8, Tho ,-,rnpa'gn '" ,cleo"" Gn",,,,i had bttn going 00 fIX .'" ornl
1M ChlplCr r ool1""" llo",., Cr, .' • moo,ing of I,.han .nd anu ·f."'I>1> hold
44 . Fo. TOj!h.,to on Gheu,. i« R'Siooi.n·s imrodu<,ion 10 ,-olum< 3 of in r.ns on 13 July IIIJ.4. BoocOOI. on beho1f of tho anarch ..!>, dedined
hi. "orll. ()p<',.." 1'1' XL-XUI ••1.., pp. 300--5 . 448---'0. 10 join th'l "ould Ix: on dUl.'" cOnlr.oJicl;on ,,;th the . n"chi$!
489 On T"I!h.uo onJ St.h n,,",. "'" BocCI, T"lIliw", 26$-78, tn f"", .lIlhe dclained in RIIlSi,' Dut lu<)' PO"""!, wlII"w
r Sp fl.no, SI<II", 'h,' f.'''ropi:u', C"",,,,,,ni,,•. London. 1985. pr, AllIe,;can Alben Pa""" .. "ngod , fkr the H.)"n,-",lccl

51. A. Ag,"t i. 7"'II/IIlIIi. Turin. 1m. 1'1' , 223 56. For R,Ol, "'ro" an und... d I.u .. to .dd""",-d 'from a nm i,.
th" victims of St.1; nism. Itt 1\ 1."0'''''". rl"',"e Am"';e,,.' to pi<·"d ror G •• ,,,,.,;', ",Ie..e, Se., ACS, cre 2499.
Jd/u in (lIISS, PI'. JI)-5, M.Tl{uuni.• (ira!11>l;i. Am"" i"
hi". pp. 26, 1'• .1010, Ln" 165----9
4.1 (j Iknl (C<l.). 'Preble"" del n""';"",n'o ope .. io. Sen" i ","<he 0
S'Qrid iTlC<liti d, Angelo I'a",a·. ,jnnul, l/d/O ilibiio,ua G. G,
,,)1, (I). 1968. pp 1.1-1, 18--26. 43 il. 121 7. 231 -44, 246-
63. 296--306. SS8 60 For T!I5C"s plllilioS m II>< 19JOs "'" A. lk
Grand. In S,alm 'I Shad",,", AnN"/() Tusa, and ,M C<"i.i$ ,,!,he Lefi
In 11Oi> O"J F,on'·... 19M 1904j. Dc: Kalb. p\>. 69 I H. rOT 'll< vi<h)

episod<, Stt f)c G .. nd, In S,oh" i SII,,,"'". 1'1' 155----68: L. Rapllne

'Tr1I VI.h)' and la Resis'en".·. SI""" "01 IS. no. 4. 1997. 1'1'
119S 203
46 eM lIama.·C.,mlkllkmoncl.rI\o(,wonespagno!a·,in8.ogrape.
1'1'.61-88
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"I fn/r" ...

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ACS CPC. Arch" io C..."",I. dello S.. <o. C"",IlOIlo I'ohu<:o C...,,, ... ,

AS' I A"h" 10 di 5••10 d, \lil.oo, fond<> Prcfeliurl. Gabi""lio. ' l,lan_

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IH) /';npuNijlrffi .l1"""$trlplJ, PhD Iht>u l'rl ,,"J '''''€

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L 'A,luMIU dd Rrl""""" (!';.wYorl)- 1937,
/. 'A,."nllwa"'la 1916 20
A, ""Ii -' ed,,,,,,,) 191
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1_ '.f'wn' .... AnarchiC(} (!'iu)1912 U
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/I G"d" Jd Pup<>lI1 n unn) - 191 .... 111

2,,\1
(iu,''''''' "I and M,lan) 191 22 """.ta,,.A, ·1In..., II"",,, • II !nO' imento 'indo,ak It.hano', An"a/r
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192}.. 6 Itahan, 1'1('1 pcnud,. d<1 Sc-cOlIdo Im ..""""".k·.
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(Thud Ri,..... ·/,..S/'Jrrrhr.'ol 5.no
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e IUI""lu (ROtJ\I:\- 1924-6. In'.'' tn",11 ( 191..\ . 15)" Ruma Swnrol ddl "A"",...Ir"IIOO, ,01. 2, no
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C""'''''iJ .\'",,., (M ,Lln) 1920, Berman. P.. 'The T"",h anol lhc '\'C The Unk_ n afienn:l1h o(the Socco-
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I 'L nil" (ROtJ\I:) 1924-6, Ilona. (; .. 'l n <0>0 di indulfn.II,lno .",d... I. Fl O' i del pm"o no' e..
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1.1
l3ergam', G .. 'Un" d,,,,u,,,or.c Sill gioma le d<, gionni .......·")i'I' G,s",,,'i
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•• , "('10" com"",,""" .nd the theOf)' of 'he ran,- ., ,h.
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I!/ .-I'li,/(.· S7 $.1
Adle,. F, . Factory Cooncd •. Gmrnscl and lhe Indu,triali,,,·. 101 Conn"ITVIl. P. \'.. ·\IuSS()l",i. Soc<o-Vanz<ll' and ,he A ..... rchi"'. The
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242
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c III soc><"t;i ,tall.",,'. hDIID
,., .. ' 1 rad,cali rr.SJ H
1'\'. III olO
ronea. noo 1#>---1 4 7, 1!<Ila. G • 'La nhal,. "",,"hroa ,n hah. 11'1 Ono < 1\u,«.nlO·. 'ewlni"",
na"dson. A .• 'n.. Val'} 'iii of (jram!.C ... n S'udles·. PoiiriNJI 5«010, 'oJ 1. """ 2 .J. 1991."" JS7-411
D .. 'Le quanier cOm"," 1,,",IOIre ( comm. rep<oS(tl'''''on Ie.
S1udin. ,01 20, 1972. "" 408 81
Dc Felic<:. R., '1 fani dl Torioo d, Dtcemblt 1922'. S1uJi Slorie" ,,,I. 4, """'rncre'\" OIl' de Tunn aU ""bul du XX' ,,;,cit·. u .\/"",,,",..,,,
no I. 1963.1'1'.51 In, Soc,,,'. no. 118 1982. [>p 79 97 .
ne ("""no. S .. 'MagiSlllllura. '"l lthlCi 0 110' emo. La "iccnda della ba.-.da . '''Pcrrhe mlo P"P" era un feml\ler< "I,;"" famigha <>ptrai.
Jol MalO"". I1ms'" dl St"'i" ,·,,1. 13,110,3,11184. '''1'11,.... doi prim , drl ""'«0010'. R"",,, dl
pp, 121 72 '01 9.00 . r. 1980. pp ,l7-M
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607-36 J'P 121-S6
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'01 35.110 I. 19').1. PI' 183 !06. 1986,1'1' 31---48.
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1995. PI' J81--400. h<> .. «(London. lIuw,..· '" l.hw. '01. 9. no. I.
F"",. J \ 1. 'Soc,aIlSl -Calhoh< I\lh ....·cs and GMl<i<-r. \\ orl. War.Dd ,he J'P 75-S
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no 1.1996,1'1'3753 1/1>10'" Rn'iffl, "01. 58, ..... I. 1993. 1'['1. I
Funo"i, G. B.. ' $on:1 0 iii a""",hle' ,!.liani·. R'ccrrhe S"'ricM, \'01 . 5, _ _ •. In Londo,, : 1 he E.... ofl»)'II3ml1c" In \'uci<) >"J
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11,,,h lli. ,,. " Riurrhe SI"ri(M. \ 01 II, no , I. 198 I , pp . 12 15---12
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degli cmigmli " ... llaRi', \/o"ml<'m" Op..·'UIO Soc,,,/iSla. "0\ . 8. no .1. An.r,hi,m·. Ihlc'" \<>1, :l, no. 2. 1998. JIP 20S Ii
1914.1'1' \I.,cr. C .. 8<1 ... """ T. yl,,",,,, .IId T«hn'lCnt<y'. JOllrnal o( C
Gem"'.n .... \'. 'Gnu"''', ·"G,omaIi5l..... CTili,o .\/a",i.,o. ,<.>I. 4. 110 1. ran 11"'1",,,,'. ,'01 . no. 2. 1970. f'Il 27 <>1
1965.1'1' I - I 8. Malale'la. \\.. 'Grnn",i e il .,nJK.1t<mo n,·oh.. i",,"rio Rcnes,ioni .ul
Ge""'501'll. M .. 'II iilo "",..,della "u...wancnn": e Tasc.·. R,,,,,,o "'J'P'l"'> "" .""h,; "'''"''11''''''''" e auidl;ro d I ,,,lore', R,,"Nrie Ston(!t.·.
d..II' . ."",. wI 4.110, I. 1997. PI' 85 -8 ,altO.no 1.1981.pp 327 n.
(;,"IIO'!1\. F. '1 gruppt "Ibm.". dl !'>iln" "Ibrr,..,. di Mil.lIO" \lan,n. J. and lhe en"s of Lrl»!IInacy in Gnuruci·. H.w""
""II. ttl. po!i7ia fa",,!)'. R",-"" ."...., '" drll·,,"archl5mIJ. ,01 ,,(the !kimu5. ,01 10. no. I. 1997, pfI I H-S6.
4. no 2. 1997. [>p. \laf1I1.... lh. R , 'Lna I"'lemica dol 1921 • d, Gram",i sull'AnJnIl-'
Itce.. y. {I, and Cera ...... F .• 'Domol. ",eu.. ennuis 0 il on .., !orincsc:·. "01. 10. no, S, 1972, JIP. 14<,l-.(,8
oh,eo ",1 .. 00 18'10 1910'. R",,'a Jdl'Anarrh,sml>, '01. I, \1,si"i, P C .. ikn'ICn <oll.OOralore di
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<eicnce in r,I<,.I :nifieat;on haly·. Hi,,,,n' 1I",t,<hop no. 21, comunis,a in dur'/lt. il r."".mo 1926 1932' _ Annali ddla
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1" 271
 Index

T''''' ''. L"", l()O , Wl_ ll'>

Tm,, ;, -", ,," 10)
r"",'. ' ;I,1'f" 1. 1. _,... , J<J V.le<>. r oolo ,1
l u'" 10. 78. "l. 'N. 119 Voo-:I<,,,"<I<, lOO
0.-., " 'I-'l(l, V«< " " Ill , .:!'
To ,-<> oy1, I I " . V,ct"". r .. "''' lW
T" "", .. "", 199, , 00 "",", I, . \ """",l.9
\" g"mll". An,!," 9<, 9', 14, "'
l 'AI , , .... Uo;_ 1.. 1;, ,,, m . 1M < 1'14
LC . .,." U.""", Come,,'" " .. \' '''''', Gi;,,"O ' "
""moo""
(,M""i'" \',,," I n , Il6, 1'16_ 160
V"" /,"",,, ) I
I I Il \ . 1< 1. 1<7
l 08
Urn""" 7 "'I' run'), 11
Un """, A.."h;<> 11>1,,",, 119,
Il6. ll1_ lll. ll9.nl " ""'" -" " I' J. ,.,
Wo'". F"" Wl
C"""", ;". "',."' "". P;<rn""",,, W""e<, A.,.,. IJ5_lOJ
124
"0"'<" 79. 82. 96--,
Com " ;,,,
Tot,...,.
(UCAn I,"
""" ,n,," J. '9
" ",'m Dn-a"",,,,g>r
U"'""" S,od>c,l< ,.. "... (usn 6,'. IQ.
«1",",,,,,, '19----102
!.O. 1'1. 8" 'l, n. 119. !Co. Ilo. Ill',
I)g. " 1_ 14! . Il). '19. '9J. 1'14_

11• . 18!
.. "
I" 15 1 1. I j,_
!13_ l,",
Un .."" S;nJ",. l< To","" (USn l:;<l
Un"", for 0.""","'"
(." " ",11)
"",,,<1 I,,,,,,, I
U n;,,,"'-' J'orob'" I,,""" ',on) 37. 99 U",OOO', A"", III
100. '" 01.0 L 'c'n",,,"" r"f"'l"" l..o,'",,",- L":.",,, ;,·., II lO, ' it
Z,m""",," "
U'''UI''y ofT , nO 6J ZoO""" '. Gn, "'; lOl
U SI . 'n' S,od:>,·.1< '''' .... Z"",. , !1. 8-1

272