1

THE EXODUS NARRATIVE PLAYS A SIGNIFICANT ROLE IN LIBERATION

AND POSTCOLONIAL APPROACHES. CRITICALLY DISCUSS AND EVALUATE.

Introduction

The exodus is a dramatic narrative that sweeps through spectacular events; a

burning bush speaking with the voice of YHWH, powerful displays within the

plagues sent upon the Egyptian people, and safe passage and deliverance

through the Re(e)d sea. This gives the narrative an 'other-worldly' quality,

which to our contemporary, Western, scientific minds suggests a mythological

story which stretches beyond the possible.1

But to many readers who find themselves in slavery and oppression similar to

that of the Israelites, the narrative provides a hopeful motif that they too

might have a liberating exodus experience. These communities have not been

blinded by the providential drama, but read a theo-political narrative of

liberation. They identify the god of the exodus as one who is on the side of

the poor, who hears their cries, who proclaims loudly “let my people go,” and

who acts decisively.

Contemporary scholarship has identified three sources running through the

book of Exodus; Yahwist (J), Elohist(E), and Priestly (P). Some scholars

1 Throughout this essay I have used 'exodus' when referring to the exodus narrative, and
'Exodus' to refer to the biblical book of Exodus.

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suggest the JE history could have been written in the seventh or sixth century

BCE and the Priestly history composed in the sixth or fifth century BCE.2 It is

therefore conceivable that the exodus story is a product of the Israelites own

captivity during the Exile, and represents a hope-filled retelling of their

history as they long for a safe return home.

In this essay I am going to outline liberation and postcolonial approaches to

the biblical text critically considering; how liberation readings of the exodus

narrative have provided fresh insights and hope to oppressed communities,

and challenged the readings of Western hermeneutical approaches; and how

postcolonial readings have questioned the exodus' status as a liberating motif

instead reading the text as a justification of conquest and colonisation.

Exodus and Israel's Identity

The events recorded in the exodus narrative are central to the life and faith

of the Israelite community, providing the foundation for their self-

understanding as the chosen, covenant people of YHWH. Festivals such as

Passover, a celebration of YHWH's act of deliverance in Egypt, and the Feast

of Booths, symbolizing the wilderness wanderings, place the exodus event at

2 T.B. Dozeman, 'Exodus Introduction', in The New Interpreters Study Bible, ed. By W.J.
Harrelson (Nahville: Abingdon Press, 2003), pp.85-87 (p.86).

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the centre of the Israelite confessions of faith and worship.3 The exodus gives

rise to the familiar biblical language of deliverance, redemption, and salvation

and presents a tangible vision of these concepts. Throughout the Hebrew

Canon the exodus is returned to in psalms (Ps. 78; 80; 81; 105; 106) and

prophetic writings (Jer. 2:6-7; 11:3-5; Ezek. 20; Am. 2:10; Mic. 6:4; Hag. 2:5)

as a reminder of the covenant relationship the Israelites have with YHWH

and YHWH's identity as their liberator.

Despite this cultural grounding in the exodus narrative Ellis suggests;

It is perhaps an oddity of history that the Exodus and the

prophetic stories the Jewish people formed and bequeathed to
the world are being taken seriously by contemporary Christians
in a way that is increasingly difficult for the Jewish community
to understand.4

This lack of understanding and even fearful reception of a politically

liberating reading of the exodus narrative may be connected to the

empowerment of the Jewish community after the Holocaust. There are

criticisms from the Jewish community towards liberation and postcolonial

approaches which are helpful, and I have endeavoured to include these in this

essay. After all, a point missed in much historical Christian interpretation of

the Hebrew scriptures is that; “it has a history of interpretation by the people

3 G.E. Wright, 'Exodus, Book of'', in The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, ed. By G.A.
Butterick et. al. (Nashville and New York: Abbingdon, 1962), pp.188-197 (pp.195-196).
4 M.H. Ellis, Toward a Jewish Theology of Liberation, (London: SCM Press, 1988), p.66.

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who lived the story and who live today.”5

Liberation and Postcolonial Criticism

Liberation and postcolonial approaches to biblical interpretation have much

in common. These commonalities could be summarised as; both are born out

of liberation movements of oppressed or colonised people; both take seriously

the aspiration of the oppressed Other; both are honest about their bias in

favour of the poor; both seek to highlight the failures of dominant Western

hermeneutics; and neither hesitate to make political connections.6 In spite of

these similarities, liberation and postcolonial criticism can render very

different interpretations. But first I need to outline both strategies in their

own terms.

Liberation Theology and its interpretation of scripture is now an established

field within theological and biblical studies. Its historical development owes

much to the Base Ecclesial communities of South America. The development

of Liberation Theology can be understood as a reaction against the perceived

over-spiritualising of Jesus by Western theologians, which was reflected in the

5 Ibid., p.74.
6 R.S. Sugirtharajah, 'Post Colonial Biblical Interpretation', in Voices From the Margin:
Interpreting the Bible in the Third World, ed by R.S. Sugirtharajah, 3rd Edition (Maryknoll,
New York: Orbis, 2006), pp.64-84 (p.77).

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priorities and praxis of the church. To be a follower of Jesus was perceived to

be a question of individual faith, but the Old Testament presented a more

communal perspective. This community was oppressed and seeking liberation,

which relates closely to the situation of contemporary communities in South

America.7

A key presupposition of liberation theology is engagement in liberating action

alongside the oppressed. Boff and Boff talk about the need for a solidarity

with the oppressed and their liberation, which they consider a 'pre-theological

stage' expressed through love understood as action. “Before we can do

theology we have to "do" liberation.”8

Liberation theology can be seen to have three mediations; socio-analytical,

hermeneutical, and practical. These three mediations are cyclic; the socio-

analytical analysis of the community's situation leads to biblical reflection to

help understand that situation, which leads to action, followed by further

reflection on the social situation to see if anything has changed. Because of

this cyclic nature; “The liberation theologian goes to the scripture bearing the

whole weight of the problems, sorrows, and hopes of the poor, seeking light

and inspiration from the divine word.”9 From this they identify four marks of

7 R.J. Coggins, Introducing the Old Testament, 2nd Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2001), p.95.
8 L. Boff and C. Boff, Introducing Liberation Theology, translated by P. Burns, (Maryknoll,
New York: Orbis, 1987), p.22.
9 Ibid., p.32.

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a theological-liberative hermeneutic: hermeneutics that favour application

rather than explanation; hermeneutics that read the Bible as a book of life;

hermeneutics that seek to discover and activate the transforming energy of

biblical texts; and hermeneutics that stresses the social context of the

message.10 Many liberation theologians would acknowledge that this isn't the

only way to interpret scripture, but suggest it is the “Hermeneutics for our

times.”11

Whereas liberation criticism emerged from the uneducated biblical readings

of poor and oppressed communities of faith, postcolonial criticism has its

foundations in "the discourse of resistance in nationalistic movements,

and...creative literary production in the form of novels, poems, and art."12

Edward Said's book Orientalism is seen by many as the catalyst for the

development of postcolonial theory from these critics of colonialism.

Postcolonial criticism is nuanced and postmodern, but can be broadly said to

focus on resistance within empire. The engagement of postcolonial criticism

can be distilled into four practices: one, dislodge Western constructions of

knowledge about the Other; two, reclaim the histories of the subaltern and

chronicle forms of overt and covert resistance; three, resist and transcend

binary models by which the West has categorized its Others; and four, expose

the link between power and knowledge in the production of the colonial

10 Ibid., pp.33-34
11 Ibid., p.32
12 Sugirtharajah, 'Post Colonial Biblical Interpretation', p.66.

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Other.13

Surgitharajah, one of the most prominent postcolonial biblical interpreters

suggests a threefold agenda within postcolonial biblical criticism. Firstly,

situate empire and imperial concerns at the centre of biblical interpretation

and highlight Scripture's colonial tones without attempting to redeem them.

The Bible is the literary product of various colonial contexts which seek to

silence the marginalised, while biasing the text in favour of colonial

assumptions and hegemonic intentions. Postcolonial criticism critiques the

biblical text in search of these prejudices.

Secondly, despite claims to neutrality all biblical interpretation has

presuppositions, and colonial ideology can subtly become intertwined with

hermeneutics. Postcolonial biblical criticism, by forcing to the centre issues of

empire and colonization seeks to unmask this colonial ideology.

Thirdly, by reading the Bible in the light of postcolonial concerns, it seeks to

discover if the narratives can provide an appropriate Word of God in

response to contemporary situations of oppression and colonization.14

Because of the limitations of this essay I will not critique each of these

13 Ibid., p.65
14 Ibid., p.67

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approaches in general terms; instead I will critique how they read the exodus

narrative..

Liberation and Postcolonial Approaches to the Exodus Narrative

The exodus is one of the foundational texts in liberation theology. As readers

of Base Ecclesial communities read of the Israelites plight, and subsequent

liberation, the narrative presented a hopeful motif for their own redemption.

Subsequently, academic liberation readings of exodus have relied on historical

and social criticism to construct the world of the text and the world of its

authors and redactors. The distinctive that a liberation perspective brings to

this approach is in considering how the development of the written account

of the exodus, and it's significance to the nation of Israel, has been re-

interpreted through history. Boff and Pixley note that the focus changes from

the liberating action of YHWH, to exalting YHWH as fulfilling the promises

made to the Patriarchs.15 Liberation critics therefore draw out its liberation

themes and critique the editorial constructs which have debilitated its

liberation function.

15 G.V. Pixley and C. Boff, 'A Latin American Perspective: The Option for the Poor in the Old
Testament', in Voices From the Margin: Interpreting the Bible in the Third World, ed. by
R.S. Sugirtharajah, 3rd Edition (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis, 2006), pp.207-216 (pp.210-
214).

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Pixley has written one of Liberation theologies few book-length systematic

commentaries on a biblical text which engages with contemporary critical

scholarship. Pixley considers the historic development of the book of Exodus

to have four stages; firstly the escape of a group of peasants from Egypt;

secondly this group join an alliance with a Canaanite insurrection and their

struggle against exploitation; thirdly when this group, known as Israel, had

established its own monarchy the exodus narrative is recast as a national

liberation struggle between two peoples (Israel and Egypt) rather than a

class struggle; and finally in the Second Temple period, when Israel was no

longer a political entity the narrative was recast as a foundational story for

the solely religious community of Israel.16 Levenson sums this up succinctly as

a transition from a politically engaged religion to one that is purely

liturgical.17 By identifying these four levels of composition within the

narrative, and understanding each levels socio-political context, Pixley sets

about reading the exodus narrative from a liberation perspective.

To consider what insights such a liberation focus illuminates, I will consider

The Song of the Sea (Ex. 15:1-21). This dramatic liturgy summarises the

exodus and articulates the journey from abandoned slaves to triumphant

liberation, and looks to the future of a successful conquest of the promised

16 G.V. Pixley, On Exodus: A Liberation Perspective, (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis, 1987),
pp.xviii-xx.
17 J.D. Levenson, The Hebrew Bible, the Old Testament, and Historical Criticism: Jews and
Christians in Biblical Studies, (Louiseville: John Knox Press, 1993), p.128.

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land. Pixley acknowledges the limitations of the historical criticism method in

terms of dating the text because of various textual factors.18 Much of Pixley's

reading overlaps with traditional historic criticism, but brings a different

perspective to the themes that are traditionally identified.

The exodus narrative in Judeo-Christian theology has been read as one of the

primary illustrations of YHWH's redeeming power. The Song of the Sea talks

of: “the people who you redeemed” (Ex. 15:13 NRSV) and “the people whom

you acquired” (Ex. 15.16 NRSV) which connects the 'people', Israel, with the

redeemer, YHWH. A liberation approach critiques a purely spiritual and

liturgical reading of this redemption. Pixley suggests that redemption is; “A

term borrowed from law, referring to the ransom of a slave for money (Exod.

21:1-11, Deut. 15:12-18).”19 A liberation approach therefore considers the

exodus as a historic socio-political event and becomes an image of

redemption. When read in the context of oppression, this provides a worldly

hope for the redemption of oppressed people.

Pixley also uses Gottwald's analysis of the words used in verses fourteen and

fifteen, identified as seats of power; the rulers of Philistia, the chieftains of

Edom, the princes of Moab and rulers of Canaan.20 Pixley suggests that the

18 Pixley, On Exodus, p.92.

19 Ibid., p.96.
20 N.K. Gottwald, The Tribes of Yahweh: A Sociology of the Religion of Liberated Israel
1250-1050 B.C.E, (London: SCM, 1980), pp.507-530.

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coming conquest is not a war with the population, but with the rulers of

these communities, and therefore categorizes the conquest as a class

struggle.21

Surgitharajah, along with many other postmodern and Jewish critics,22

critique this Liberation approach because of its deep-rooted reliance upon

modern techniques, such as historical and social-science criticism. Levenson,

writing from a Jewish perspective and echoing much of the orthodox

Christian church, critiques what he considers Pixley's Marxist inspired

revolutionary reading of the the text. “The early chapters of Exodus do not

speak of a social revolution or a class struggle; close inspection shows that

they do not even speak of the overthrow of pharaoh [sic].”23 Many have

critiqued Liberation theology for seemingly adopting a secular ideology and

furnishing it with biblical references.24 Another distinctly Jewish centric

reading of Exodus 2:23-25 highlights , “The point is not that is it Israel's

suffering that brings about Exodus, but that it is Israel that suffers.”25 To

therefore appropriate Israel's suffering and subsequent liberation as a motif to

all oppressed communities is a misuse of the text. As Goldingay questions;

surely there were other communities oppressed by the Egyptians who did not

21 Pixley, On Exodus, pp.96-97.

22 Levenson, pp.127-140.
23 Ibid., p.137.
24 J. Coffey, 'To Release the Oppressed: Reclaiming a Biblical Theology of Liberation', The
Cambridge Papers, 18.4 (2009), 1-4 (p.3).
25 Levenson, The Hebrew Bible, p.152 (italics authors own).

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experience liberation?26 Also Levenson, while acknowledging that the Book of

the Covenant (Ex. 20:22-23:33) contains a central ethic of protecting the

poor and vulnerable, no way makes claims to classlessness or primitive

communism. In fact its opening civil law concerns the appropriate treatment

of slaves (Ex. 21:2-6), which is hardly compatible with a Marxist ideal.

Another danger that Levenson identifies with Pixley's four stage narrative

history is the selective reconstruction of this history, with the relegation of;

“the text to the category of ideology and his preference for the underlying

history of sociopolitical revolution that some scholars reconstruct”;27 such as

identifying the conquest as a class struggle. This leads to a preferencing of

those features of the text which, in the case of Liberation criticism, speak up

for the oppressed.

Robert Allan Warrior's essay provides further critique of a liberation reading

of the exodus by considering the perspective of indigenous communities

which identify with the Canaanites already living in the promised land. They

are the victims being conquered and colonized by a liberated people. In this

context a liberation reading of exodus is inappropriate as it is the antecedent

to conquest, and the postcolonial lens applied to the exodus narrative

highlights the struggle indigenous communities have with a liberation motif

26 J. Goldingay, Model for Interpretation of Scripture, (Toronto: Clements Publishing, 2004),

pp.66-70.
27 Levenson, The Hebrew Bible, p.138, (italics authors own).

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for the exodus.28

Musa Dube presents a thorough postcolonial critique of the exodus

narrative.29 Dube begins by analysing the rhetoric of the narrative and the

expected uncritical nature of the reader:

Rhetorically speaking, Exodus opens with God's mighty acts of

liberation, God's response, God's strongest statement against
slavery as a manifestation of imperialism. The narrative invites
the implied reader to nod approvingly at God's act of
liberation...The resounding command to let God's people go is
unhesitatingly twinned with God's promise to give them the land
of the Canaanites, the Hittites, the Amorites, the Perizzites, the
Hivites, and the Jebusites-an inhabited land!30

Dube suggests that anti-conquest ideology, which, “describes the literary

strategies that allow colonizers to claim foreign lands while securing their

innocence"31 to be at work within the text. Postcolonial study highlights the

following literary-rhetorical functions as forms of anti-conquest ideology:

authorising travel from one land to another, constructing an image of the

targeted land and its people, constructing an identity of the colonizers, and

employing female gender to articulate relations of subjugation and

28 R.A. Warrior, 'A Native American Perspective: Canaanites, Cowboys and Indians', in Voices
From the Margin: Interpreting the Bible in the Third World, ed by R.S. Sugirtharajah, 3rd
Edition (Maryknoll, New York: Orbis, 2006), pp.235-241.
29 M.W. Dube, Postcolonial Feminist Interpretation of the Bible, (Chalice Prince, 2000),
pp.57-70.
30 Ibid., p.60.
31 Ibid.

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domination.32 Each of these anti-conquest literary-rhetorical functions can be

identified within the exodus narrative.

The theme of travel is captured in YHWH's unrelenting command; "Let my

people go" (Ex. 5:1; 7:16; 8:1; 8:20; 9:1; 9:13; 10:3). A second phrase

throughout the narrative is; "I will bring you up out of the misery of Egypt, to

the land of the Canaanites," (Ex. 3:8, 17). This travel to an inhabited land is

justified as YHWH's response to their oppressed state. In the broader

canonical position within the larger narrative, it is seen as a fulfilment of

YHWH's earlier promise to Abram (Gen. 15:18-21). "The literary methods

employed to authorize the travelling to and taking possession of distant and

inhabited land is grounded in the originator: God."33

YHWH is the key character in the exodus narrative and is the instigator,

commander, and all powerful actor behind the human drama. YHWH hardens

Pharaoh's heart, creating space to display mighty power and ultimately acts of

extreme violence; the killing of the Egyptian first born and the Egyptian army

in waters of the Re(e)d Sea.

The overall effect of the characterization of God as the hero of

Exodus is to sanctify and champion a perfect anti-conquest
ideology. As the highest and most unquestionable authority to
the implied reader, and to many unresisting real readers of the

32 Ibid., pp.60-61.
33 Ibid., p.61.

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past and present, God becomes a literary-rhetorical method of

justifying Israel's travel from Egyptian slavery to a distant land.34

Postcolonial criticism has highlighted the methods used by most imperial

narratives to characterize the lands and their people positively or negatively.

In Exodus the targeted land is characterized as YHWH-promised land (Ex.

12:25; 32:13) and is portrayed in a positive light; a land flowing with milk

and honey which speaks of material blessing (Ex. 3:8, 17; 13:5; 33:3). The

land is also characterized as being inhabited, which requires us to consider

the narratives characterization of these communities.

Postcolonial criticism has highlighted that within anti-conquest rhetoric

colonizer and colonized identities are intertwined as acute opposites: man,

woman; adult, child; father, son or daughter; human , animal.35 There is

evidence of this at work within the Exodus narrative (Ex. 23:23-33; 34:11-

17). The inhabitants of the land are cast negatively, which justifies the

actions of the colonizers, in totally destroying these peoples. Conversely the

Israelites are referred to as YHWH's treasured possession, a kingdom of

priests, a holy nation (Ex. 19:5-6).

Unmasking the exodus narrative to highlight its colonial and anti-conquest

34 Ibid., p.62.
35 P. Richard, 'Biblical Interpretation from the Perspective of Indigenous Cultures of Latin
America (Mayas, Kunas, and Quechuas)', in Ethnicity and the Bible, ed. M.G. Brill
(Leiden: Brill, 1996), pp.297-314 (p.300).

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rhetoric profoundly challenges the Judeo-Christian tradition. Critics suggest if

postcolonial analysis of the text is only concerned with critiquing the

colonial rhetoric and function, and theological and spiritual considerations

are relegated or not even considered then this approach can be said to be;

“short circuiting itself in Africa and elsewhere”36 where the Bible is

foundational to communities of faith. In Jewish and Christian communities

the Hebrew Scriptures remain the inspired Word of God, YHWH remains the

principle character, and the exodus narrative remains a central theme.

Scripture is read within a community of faith to discover and understand life

and faith; “if postcolonial theory fails to channel its focus towards meeting

those spiritual and physical needs, it can easily end up re-colonising the

subject that it wants to decolonise.”37

One possible resolution draws upon work considering YHWH as abuser and

perpetrator of violence, and considering whether YHWH has repented of

these violent and colonizing episodes,38 but it is beyond the scope of this

essay to consider this in detail.

36 J. Punt, 'Postcolonial biblical criticism in South Africa: Some mind and road mapping',
Scriptura, 37.1 (2003), 58-85 (p.73).
37 L.S. Rukundwa, 'Postcolonial theory as a hermeneutical tool for Biblical reading', HTS
Theological Studies/Teologiese Studies. 64.1 (2008), pp.339-351 (p.347).
38 D.R. Blumenthal, Facing the Abusing God: A Theology of Protest (Louisville: Westminster
John Knox, 1993), 237-301.

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Conclusion

A liberation approach to the exodus narrative has grounded the struggle

against contemporary oppression within a biblical framework. It has given

communities of faith fresh hope and energy in their struggle for liberation

and unmasked Western interpretations for neglecting the political element of

the narrative. Inevitably this liberation reading has been critiqued by the

Jewish community for its seeming lack of respect for the covenant

relationship between Israel and YHWH as central to the exodus experience.

Its reliance upon modern hermeneutical tools has been criticised by

postmodern critics.

But perhaps the most poignant criticism of the liberation approach comes

from postcolonial approaches, because of the shared aspirations in

approaching the text, yet yielding vastly different results. Postcolonial

approaches have seriously challenged all Judeo-Christian readings of the

exodus narrative and risk estranging communities of faith. While a

presuposition of the postcolonial approach is not to redeem the text,

inevitably communities of faith who value scripture have begun attempting to

resolve these challenges.

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Press, 1993).
Boff, Clodovis, and Boff, Leonardo, Introducing Liberation Theology.
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Coffey, John, “'To Release the Oppressed': Reclaiming a biblical theology of
liberation.” http://www.jubilee-centre.org/document.php?id=340
(accessed January 20, 2010,).
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Press, 2000).
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Martin Parkes