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Background
This document was prepared with the support of FAO and the valuable input of
the OIE ad hoc group on AI vaccination guidelines, which first met in March
2006. Members of the ad hoc group are: Dr Annemarie Bouma (The
Netherlands), Dr Hualan Chen (China), Dr Baltus Erasmus (South Africa),
Dr Peter Jones (International Federation on Animal Health), Dr Stefano
Marangon (Italy) and Dr Joseph Domenech (FAO).
The reports of the first and follow-up meetings of the ad hoc group were
submitted, in accordance with OIE procedures, for endorsement by the
Scientific Commission for Animal Diseases and the OIE International
Committee.
The document was first distributed to OIE delegates during the 74th General
Session in May 2006 and has now been updated with the recommendations
following the international scientific conference in Verona, Italy from 20 to 22
March 2007.
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OIE/FAO/IZSVe Scientific Conference, co-organised and supported by European Union
Vaccination: a tool for the control of avian influenza, Verona (Italy), 20-22 March 2007
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The first line of defence is early detection of manufacturers advise a withdrawal period
disease outbreaks followed by a rapid after vaccination related to the use of certain
response. This is strongly linked to a high adjuvants, during which period the poultry
level of awareness among veterinarians and meat should not be consumed. This is always
animal owners, and high quality veterinary stated in the accompanying information and
services. Veterinary services should comply should be taken into account.
with the OIE standards on the Quality of
Veterinary Services. Compensation remains a Scope of the document
strong point of discussion in infected and at
risk countries, and having a compensation
The present document is aimed at providing
mechanism in place will encourage reporting
information regarding to the use of
and notification of AI by bird owners. Control
vaccination against avian influenza viruses in
strategies based on a combination of
poultry.
stamping out, movement restrictions and
emergency vaccination could maximize
eradication efforts in certain situations. Analysis of the current situation
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programs and using the DIVA1 strategy. heterologous neuraminidase subtype;
Whether there is a compensation mechanism this depends on the neuraminidase
in place or not may have a large effect on the of the circulating virus and on the
willingness of farmers or bird owners to report neuraminidase present in the
disease. An effective and transparent disease vaccine.
reporting system assists efficient
Combination vaccines (other
implementation of the regular control
antigens): if it is foreseen that a
methods.
prolonged vaccination program may
Preventive vaccination in an area that is not be required, the use of combination
yet contaminated should be based on risk vaccines should be considered.
analysis, using information from existing
surveillance programs. When contemplating o Live recombinant vaccines (fowlpox H5):
vaccination in a contaminated area, additional these are efficacious only in chicken
information is required: the virus type, bird species, and then only in day-old chicks
species and the type of husbandry in the area as exposure in later life to wild-type fowl
(production sectors 1, 2, 3 and 4 as pox virus would preclude the use of the
described in the “FAO recommendations on vectored vaccine.
the prevention, control and eradication of
It is essential to use a vaccine against the
Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza in Asia”
virus hemagglutinin type that is currently
September 2004) should be taken into
circulating in the country or against the virus
account.
that is expected to be introduced into a
country that is still free. The currently
Implementation of vaccination
available vaccines and their usage are also
described in the “FAO recommendations on
In making a decision on which vaccine to use, the prevention, control and eradication of
the factors listed above should be taken into Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza in Asia”
account. The vaccine should be produced September 2004. A list of vaccine producers
according to the OIE Manual of Diagnostic which currently produce vaccines according to
Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals and the OIE Manual, can be found On the OIE
evidence should be provided that the vaccine website (www.oie.int).
significantly reduces virus excretion from
vaccinated birds if they are subsequently
Decision on vaccination strategy
infected. Vaccines should be selected on the
basis of evidence that the product is able to
prevent virus circulation in the target species. “Any policy leading to the vaccination use
It is desirable that the quality control tests must include an exit strategy”
associated with this degree of efficacy are
reflected in individual batch documentation.
In general terms, for the use of vaccination
The following vaccine types are currently against AI infections in target species,
available consideration should be given to the objective
of the campaign:
o Inactivated vaccines
o Emergency vaccination in the face of an
Monovalent including either H5 or epidemic,
H7strains
o Preventive vaccination (i.e. prophylactic)
Bivalent including H5 and H7 carried out if a high risk of virus incursion
strains is identified and early detection/ rapid
Both monovalent and bivalent response measures may not be sufficient
vaccines can contain homologous or o Routine vaccination performed in endemic
areas.
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A strategy in which vaccinated animals can be Emergency vaccination is an option when
differentiated from infected animals (see there is evidence of AI introduction, or
www.oie.int).
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whenever the epidemiological situation At least 2 categories of risk may be identified:
indicates that there could be massive and
o High risk of infection with either H5 or H7
rapid spread of infection. In general terms,
subtype (e.g. from exposure to potentially
emergency vaccination might be implemented
infected wild/migratory birds);
in a protective (vaccination-to-live) or a
suppressive (vaccination-to-kill) way. o High risk of infection with a known
subtype (e.g. live bird markets or from
Protective vaccination (vaccination-to-live) outbreaks in neighbouring countries or
means that vaccinated animals are allowed to trading partners).
live out their normal economic lives. If
protective vaccination is to be used during an In the first case, a bivalent (H5 and H7)
HPAI epidemic, it is essential to implement vaccine should be applied, whilst in the
measures to determine virus circulation in the second case, a monovalent (either H5 or H7)
flock (implement a DIVA vaccination strategy) vaccine could be a better choice.
for the early detection of any newly HPAI
affected flock. The discrimination between A surveillance program in accordance with the
infected and vaccinated birds and flocks is Terrestrial Code should be ongoing for the
fundamental for progressive disease control early detection of, and rapid response to,
and eventual eradication. HPAI virus incursions. This program could be
extended through the application of a DIVA
It is suggested that veterinary authorities strategy, provided that the virus subtype at
consider this strategy in cases of: risk of introduction has been identified, or
through the monitoring of unvaccinated
o the detection of AI infection in an area
sentinel birds, which must be present in each
with a high poultry density. In this event,
vaccinated flock.
protective vaccination could be envisaged
as a tool along with the implementation of Prophylactic vaccination should be carried out
complementary eradication measures as long as the risk of infection exists, and can
(including movement restrictions, culling, also be used in a targeted manner for limited
controlled marketing, zoning and periods of time. Based on the identified risk
compartmentalisation); factors for AI introduction, a clearly defined
o evidence that an outbreak cannot be exit strategy should be formulated before
contained by the culling of infected, preventative vaccination is undertaken.
suspected, or dangerous contact poultry
holdings alone. The implementation of an AI surveillance
program in accordance with the Terrestrial
With regard to trade implications, the new OIE Code is a pre-requisite for avoiding the
Terrestrial Code chapter on AI recommends application of unjustified trade restrictions on
the continuation of trade in the presence of poultry commodities originating from the
vaccination, provided that the exporting country/zone/compartment where preventive
country is able to produce surveillance and vaccination has been carried out.
other data that confirm that AI is not present
in the flock or establishment from which the Routine vaccination can be an appropriate
exports originate. method where the disease is endemic and due
to local conditions:
Preventive (prophylactic) vaccination for H5
and H7 subtypes of AI viruses is a long term o containment and eradication of infection
measure that may be applied when there is can not be enforced;
evidence that a country/region/compartment o movement control cannot be instituted;
faces significant risk of AI and when other
prevention tools are considered to be o widespread occurrence is documented;
insufficient. Vaccination should then be o a DIVA strategy cannot be effectively
applied within the framework of a DIVA implemented.
strategy.
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From a financial/livelihood standpoint, the immediately, a choice of categories can be
cost of maintenance of an effective made based on the risk analysis.
vaccination program is a significant factor.
Ring vaccination is vaccination in a defined
Used properly, routine vaccination can be area around an outbreak, and is therefore only
valuable in reducing mortality and production relevant to an emergency vaccination, and
losses. In the longer term, it could also may be used to bring the outbreak under
decrease the prevalence of infection to a level control as quickly as possible. The vaccination
where stamping out and surveillance could be should be used additional to the culling of the
applied. It is possible, then, to make the infected flocks and other measures and
continued use of routine vaccination should be used in the framework of a DIVA
unnecessary as long as there are effective strategy.
contingency plans in place to deal with the
possible re-emergence of the disease. Vaccine availability
Various vaccination strategies can be applied:
and vaccination procedure
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gear and equipment for personnel should be Several methods for the detection of field
provided. virus in vaccinated flocks should be
considered, depending on the kind of vaccine
Vaccination records should be kept by the used (homologous, heterologous or
Competent Authority, and the holdings. The recombinant), the vaccination strategy
records should include: implemented and the availability of proper
diagnostic facilities and tools.
• Holdings, locations and categories of
animals One method is to use unvaccinated
• Vaccine used: brand, batch numbers, seronegative sentinel birds housed with the
number of doses vaccinated population. This is the only
possible method when homologous vaccines
• Date of vaccination have been used. All birds, except the sentinel
• The total number of susceptible birds, of the targeted population should be
animals in the holding vaccinated and the non-vaccinated sentinels
should be properly identified in order to avoid
• Operators who applied vaccination confusion or substitution. Daily clinical
investigations should be undertaken and,
Monitoring ideally, periodic serological investigation.
Clinical disease or mortality amongst these
Monitoring of the efficacy of vaccination can sentinels should be properly investigated to
be done in 2 ways: (1) vaccination exclude avian influenza infection. Should the
compliance and (2) level of protection in the sentinel birds show clinical signs and AI virus
population. confirmed, or specific sero-conversion
documented, virus circulation within the flock
Monitoring of vaccination compliance can be (or virus re-introduction) is confirmed. This
done on all species (e.g. antibodies and rings could be an appropriate method for
applied at the same time as vaccination). commercial poultry.
Monitoring of the level of protection can only
be done in species where there is an A second method to monitor virus circulation
established or at least likely relation between in a vaccinated population is to determine the
antibodies and protection. To demonstrate serological response of vaccinated birds
this, a large part of the population should against the neuraminidase glycoprotein of the
show sero-conversion with a satisfactory mean field virus. This is only possible when
titre, and titres should be consistently above heterologous vaccines have been used and the
the threshold values for protection. Other details of other circulating AI viruses are
than chickens and turkeys, little is known of known. Exposure of the vaccinated population
protective titres post vaccination, though it to field virus leads to the development of
has been repeatedly documented that antibodies to the different neuraminidase
immunity in ducks and domestic geese wanes antigen of the field virus not present in the
quicker than in chickens and these species vaccine.
would therefore require more frequent When there is a suspicion of AI in a
vaccinations. Inaccurate vaccination may lead vaccinated flock, based on clinical signs, virus
to insufficient immunity and the development isolation, RT-PCR or validated antigen
of apparently healthy virus carriers. detection tests should be used for diagnosis.
A vaccination campaign which is not managed After vaccination, all flocks should be
appropriately is likely to result in the virus checked for freedom from infection before the
becoming endemic. Therefore, a monitoring birds are transported. The diagnostic tests
program should be implemented in vaccinated and procedures described in the OIE Manual
populations to determine whether virus is still can be used. The methodology of the classic
circulating in these populations; this can be diagnostic procedures is described in the
based on either the DIVA principle or the use Manual. Many novel rapid commercial tests
of sentinel birds. In addition, serological have appeared on the market in recent times
analysis can be used to monitor efficacy and
coverage of the vaccination.
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and it is essential that, for all diagnostic tests, o The IBAR/ PACE attest receipt of the
fitness for purpose has been demonstrated. vaccines.
The diagnostic test procedures in an outbreak o The OIE pays the providers.
situation must be under responsibility of the Furthermore, the OIE is recently
Competent Authority. implementing, with the support of Canada a
new vaccine bank mechanism eligible for all
Other issues to be considered developing countries of the five regions.
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OIE/FAO/IZSVe Scientific Conference, co-organised and supported by European Union
Vaccination: a tool for the control of avian influenza, Verona (Italy), 20-22 March 2007
RECOMMENDATIONS
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19. That sustainability of vaccination • The consideration of preventive
strategies requires private / public blanket vaccination to control the virus
commitment and cost sharing. in endemically infected countries.
20. The need for good veterinary governance, • The structure of the poultry production
strong political commitment and sectors 1-4, the market chain and
appropriate legislation. poultry density
21. The need for appropriate communication • The risk of introduction and
and general awareness on risks of avian subsequent secondary spread
influenza for both poultry and humans as • The expected costs and benefits of
part of a vaccination campaigns. vaccination to different stakeholders
taking into account impacts on
The meeting recommends:
consumption in rural and urban
1. To implement the OIE standards, environments, production and trade in
guidelines and recommendations, the different farming systems.
FAO guidelines and recommendations, • The feasibility, constraints and costs
and the FAO/OIE global strategy on HPAI. of applying vaccination compared to or
2. That importing countries respect the OIE in combination with other methods.
standards to avoid unjustified trade • The availability and quality of
barriers related to vaccination against veterinary diagnostic laboratories.
avian influenza
• The quality of the Veterinary Services
3. To adopt an iterative approach to disease and the institutional environment
prevention and control by continuously
assessing the HPAI disease situation and • The capability of the Animal Health
the success of the implemented Systems to implement the various
prevention and control strategies to be prevention and control measures
able to modify/ adjust these strategies including vaccination
when needed. • The availability of quality controlled
vaccine authorised according to local
4. That the objectives of any vaccination
regulatory standards
strategy should be defined before
implementation in a country or region. • The possible impact on consumers
behaviour (fears regarding food safety)
5. To consider vaccination when relevant as and subsequent market price
an additional tool to classical methods development
such as stamping out and increase of
biosecurity, but always in combination • Appropriation of policies by
with these classical methods stakeholders including poultry owners
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11. That any vaccination policy should 17. For countries to provide the appropriate
include an exit strategy which results in legislation and governance to implement
termination of vaccination depending on HPAI control measures including
a reconsideration of the conditions which vaccination and the means to enforce it
prevail at the regional and national level. and to streamline the regulatory process
of vaccine authorization.
12. For countries to consider vaccination to
protect valuable birds such as specific 18. To evaluate and strengthen the Veterinary
poultry breeds (conservation of germ Services, public private partnerships
plasm genetic biodiversity), zoo birds, pet including farmers organisations.
birds, ornamental birds, (grand)parent
flocks and fighting cocks when there is an 19. To promote the cost sharing of the
increased risk of infection. respective Public or Private Good
dimensions, to advocate for investments
13. For countries to address in the from Governments and International
vaccination plan specifically the issue of Community to assure the sustainability of
vaccination in small holder and backyard intervention strategies.
farming systems where high level
vaccination coverage is difficult to 20. That the commercial poultry industry
achieve. Participatory community based reinforces its engagement in the control
approaches under supervision of on HPAI with national authorities.
veterinary authorities may be integrated
in the vaccination plan 21. To increase investments into quality
vaccine production through private led
14. For countries to ensure the availability of initiatives with local partnerships and to
sufficient quality controlled vaccines in make these vaccines available particularly
the contingency plans, when necessary in developing countries.
through the establishment of vaccine
banks and/or strategic stockpiling of 22. To develop and fund research
vaccines and/or specific arrangements programmes in the following fields:
with vaccine producers.
• The epidemiology of AIVs including
15. For countries to design all accompanying the molecular epidemiology, the role of
measures, methods and protocols for the wild birds and other animal species.
necessary post vaccination monitoring:
• Development of decision support
• Post vaccination immunity evaluation models taking into account all relevant
factors.
• Monitoring of field virus circulation in
vaccinated flocks. • The onset, level and duration of
immunity after vaccination for
• Routine testing of dead birds on farms
different species under laboratory and
• Clinical inspections and monitoring of field conditions and
live bird markets immunosuppressive factors that may
• Monitoring of the genetic and interfere with the development of
antigenic characteristics of the immunity.
circulating field virus • The combination of the AI vaccination
16. For countries to develop appropriate with the control of other poultry
capacity building programmes including diseases particularly Newcastle
training in epidemiology, disease disease.
surveillance and reporting, field and • Development of new and improved
laboratory diagnosis, vaccination skills, vaccines including accompanying
campaign implementation, farming diagnostic tests and the definition of
system guidance, socio economic requirements for high quality vaccines
analysis, programme evaluation, decision
making and policy development. • Development of antigen banks
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• Optimise methods for surveillance to coordinate global research efforts on
strategies. avian influenza.
• Possible social and economic impacts
23. To provide urgently an evaluation and a
of vaccination including impacts on
peer-interpreted summary of published
production, consumption and trade
and presented information on avian
with vaccination vis a vis other control
influenza vaccination.
methods
• Design of cost-effective vaccine 24. To develop communication strategies to
administration methods (“one shot”) enhance the vaccination coverage, to
and delivery systems particularly mitigate the possible market impacts, to
regarding small holders and backyard clarify the consumer concerns of food
systems (Participatory approaches, safety issues and concerns of farming
private sector delivery) communities.
• Collection and analysis of data 25. To recognise that control of HPAI
generated during vaccination including vaccination has a substantial
campaigns for the purpose of Global Public Good component and that
epidemiological and economical the international community should
analysis. continue to support this control
• Consider stakeholder alliances with particularly in developing countries.
OFFLU and platforms like the ETPGAH
_______________
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Organisation Mondiale de la Santé Animale • World Organisation for Animal Health • Organización Mundial de Sanidad Animal
12, rue de Prony • 75017 Paris • France
Tel.: 33 (0)1 44 15 18 88 • Fax: 33 (0)1 42 67 09 87 • www.oie.int • oie@oie.int
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