Basic Antenna Theory

Ronald E Goans
Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA
(Dated: April 8, 2008)
The theory of antennas is as rich a field as it is complex. The theory was first investigated in the
late 19th century, and later expanded upon during World War II. In this paper, we will examine a few
of the basics of antenna theory. Additionally, we will look at some of the fundamental parameters
surrounding one of the most widely used antennas, the half-wavelength dipole antenna. Finally, we
will examine the physics behind loop antennas.

INTRODUCTION where Srad is the time-averaged Poynting vector. Hence,

An antenna is defined as an object, often a metallic
wire or rod, designed to radiate or receive electromag-
netic radiation. Additionally, antennas are required to
optimize the radiation in some directions, while suppress-
ing it in others. [1] Antennas may take several different
forms, depending on the particular need. Examples in-
clude wire, loop, and horn antennas. Their utility has
spurred decades of research into the theory and applica-
bility of antennas. Of particular interest historically is
the research and development of antennas during World
War II; particularly with respect to radar, and the intro-
duction of microwave antennas.
Arguably, the most important aspect of antennas is
the radiation pattern. The radiation pattern describes
the spatial variations in the electric and magnetic fields.
The problem of analyzing an antenna is essentially re-
duced to analyzing its radiation pattern. Now, radiation
is a byproduct of the current being driven by an AC volt-
age through input terminals connected to the antenna.
These accelerated electrons radiate energy in the form
of electromagnetic waves, creating the radiation pattern.
This pattern is usually measured (determined) in what
is known as the far-field regime. The far-field regime is
defined as 2πr  λ, where r is the distance from the
antenna and λ is the wavelength of the EM wave. Typi-
cally, most measurements are made at distances greater
than the wavelength, so that we can examine the radi-
ation patterns in the far-field regime. In this limit, the
fields drop off as r−1 ; this is typical behavior of radiation.
[2]
As per usual, the instantaneous total power P is de-
fined through the Poynting vector S as
I I
P = S · n̂da. (1)
the radiation pattern for an antenna depends on its av-
erage power density.
To analyze the radiation pattern, we need to know the
intensity and distribution of the radiation. The intensity,
U, of the radiation is simply U = r2 Save . Calculating the
average energy density is accomplished through the con-
venient form of the Poynting vector, Save = 12 Re(E×B∗ ).
The problem of knowing the radiation problem reduces
further to simply determining the electric and magnetic
fields produced by the antenna of interest.
To determine the electric and magnetic fields, we rely
on the scalar and vector potentials, φ and A respectively.
The magnetic field B can be defined through B=∇×A.
The electric field is determined through E= - ∇φ - ∂∂t A,
where A and φ are determined in the usual way (see, for
example, Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics).
For transmitting low-frequency waves over short dis-
tances, i.e. for minimal loss, transmission lines are more
suited for the task. However, for higher-frequency EM
waves over larger distances in a lossy medium, the use of
antennas is a better choice. The reason for this can be
illustrated through the concept of radiation resistance.
The antenna loses the real part of its power (since it
depends on the real part of the Poynting vector) as a con-
sequence of radiation resistance. Radiation resistance,
Rr , is the effective opposition to the current, causing it
to attenuate energy. This energy is radiated in the form
of electromagnetic waves, and appears to be caused by
a resistance - in this case, the resistance is due to the
radiation field. Analogous to power dissipated in DC cir-
cuits as a result of resistors, the radiated power from an
antenna is related to the radiation resistance. This rela-
tionship, through the average power Pave and the current
through the input terminals Iin , can be defined as,
Pave
Rr = ∗ I (3)
Iin in

where da = r2 sin(θ)dθdφ is the infinitesimal area of the

closed surface. Now, the average radiated power can be
DIPOLE ANTENNAS
found from (1) by

The simplest, and most widely used, of the antennas

I I
1
Prad = Srad · n̂da. (2) is the dipole antenna. A dipole antenna consists of two
2
 2

conductors separated by a small gap. The terminals of

the gap are connected to the appropriate electronics - a
µ0 (I0 )2 cos2 ( π2 cosθ)
r
signal generator for radiation, and to a load for receiv- Save =( )( )( ) (6)
ing. For the dipole antenna, the radiation pattern can 0 8π 2 r2 sin2 θ
be maximized by having the length of the dipole d be
According to equation (2), the radiated power can be
comparable to the wavelength λ.
found by integrating the time-averaged energy density
The most common of the dipole antennas is the linear,
Save over the infinitesimal area of the enclosed surface.
half-wavelength dipole antenna. This antenna is illus-
That implies
trated in Figure 1. For this antenna, the length of the
dipole d is half of a wavelength, d = λ2 .
µ0 (I0 )2 π
cos2 ( π2 cosθ)
r Z
Prad = ( )dθ (7)
0 4π 0 sin2 θ

This integral is of the form

π
1 − cos(y)
Z
2 dy ≈ 2.435 (8)
0 y

which evaluates to

µ0 (I0 )2
r
Pave ≈ × 2.435. (9)
0 8π

Additionally, the radiation intensity U is seen to be

FIG. 1: Dipole antenna shown with current distribution.

µ0 (I0 )2 cos2 ( π2 cosθ)
r
Taken from Jackson [2] U = r2 Save = ( )( )( ) (10)
0 8π 2 sin2 θ
The current through the antenna is taken to be along As we would expect, the radiation intensity (10) shows
the z-axis, and the distance r is measured from the gap. no radial dependence for this antenna. This is seen read-
In the far-field approximation kr  1 - or equivalently, ily by Figure 2, which shows the radiation pattern for
with k = 2π λ , 2πr  λ - the radiation is linearly polar- a half-wave dipole antenna. However, this is not always
ized. This can be seen from the fact that, in this ap- the case. Some antennas, notably horn antennas, have
proximation, the radial component of the electric field characteristic radiation patterns that depend on both r
Er is much less than Eθ . In other words, the electric and θ. [5]
field is always directed along θ̂. Additionally, E and B We can calculate the radiation resistance for a half-
are perpendicular. wavelength antenna, using equation (3).
Now, we are really interested in the radiation pattern. q Pave 2was found
µ0 (I0 )
Looking at equations (1) and (2), the radiated power Prad
in equation (9) to be approximately 0 8π × 2.435.
∗
is found for a half-wave dipole by integrating the average Now,Iin Iin eliminates the complex time dependence of
power radiated over the volume of a sphere of radius r. the current, leaving only (I0 )2 . Thus, the radiation re-
Thus, the electric and magnetic field components are, sistance for a dipole antenna (d = λ2 ) reduces to
with d = λ2 , [1]
d
Rr = 80(π)2 ( )2 (11)
λ
µ0 I0 e−ikr cos ( π2 cosθ)
r
Eθ ≈ i( ) ( ) (4)
0 2πr sinθ The radiation resistance for the half-wavelength dipole
antenna is calculated to be about 73 Ω. The resistance of
many transmission lines is 75Ω. So, the half-wave dipole
antenna radiation resistance is able to match up pretty
I0 e−ikr cos ( π2 cosθ)
Bφ ≈ i ( ) (5) well with these transmission lines - particularly at reso-
2πr sinθ
nance. If, on the other hand, the resistance of the trans-
mission line does not match the radiation resistance of
~ × B~∗ enables us to determine Save as
Now, Save = 12 E the antenna, then there will be additional energy loss.
 3

LOOP ANTENNA

Another simple, versatile antenna geometry is the loop

antenna. The loop antenna to be examined is a circular
loop, with radius a, oriented in the x-y plane (see figure
3). Then, the current is given as I0 = Iφ .

FIG. 3: Loop Antenna. Image taken from Balanis [1]

FIG. 2: Elevation plane amplitude patterns illustrating the The electric field and magnetic field components can be
dipole radiation pattern for dipole antennas of various lengths. determined, and the only nonzero components are shown
Image taken from Balanis [1] to be, [1]

µ0 (ka)2 I0 sinθ
r
1 −ikr
Hence, this is not an ideal situation. Now, antennas are Eφ = (1 + )e (15)
better suited for long-range transmissions and receptions. 0 4r ikr
This helps to illustrate the usefulness of the half-wave
dipole antenna.
ka2 I0 cosθ 1 −ikr
The above derivations, specifically for the radiation re- Br = i 2
(1 + )e (16)
sistance, were for d = λ2 . However, these equations can 2r ikr
be recast to account for a dipole of any length. The fol-
lowing equations hold for any value of d: [3]
µ0 (ka)2 I0 sinθ
r
1 1
Bθ = − (1 + − )e−ikr (17)
0 4r ikr (kr)2
r
µ0 π I0 l 2
Prad = ( )( ) (12) With the components of the electric and magnetic
0 3 λ
fields known, the radiated power and radiation resistance
can be calculated. Using the same procedure as before,
the radiated density Srad is used to calculate the radi-
1 ated power. Upon integrating equation (2), we find the
Prad = (I0 )2 Rr (13)
2 radiated power (see Figure 4) to be

r
µ0 π
d
Rr = 80(π)2 ( )2 (14) Prad = ( )(ka)4 (I0 )2 (18)
λ 0 12

Using the forms of Prad and Rr given in equations Additionally, once the radiated power Prad is known,
(11) and (12), we can calculate the radiated power and the radiation resistance can be calculated from equation
the radiation resistance for the whole-wavelength dipole (3). That implies,
antenna. In this example, l ≈ λ. That implies that the
radiation resistance and radiated power are, respectively, r
µ0 π 2πa 4
80(π)2 and 40(π)2 (I0 )2 . Rr = ( )(ka)4 = 20(π)2 ( ) (19)
0 12 λ
For further, more in depth discussions on dipole an-
tennas, the reader should consult references [1],[2]-[7]. Whereas for a coil with N turns, we have
 4

It is important to note that small loop antennas are

not as useful and practical as dipole antennas. They have
small radiation resistances, usually lower than their loss
resistances. Thus, they do not make good radiators. As
such, they tend to be used only in the receiving mode of
an antenna in which the signal-to-noise ratio is unimpor-
tant. The efficiency of the loop antenna can be improved
by increasing the number of loops, or increasing the cir-
cumference. [1]-[7]
The previous discussion on the dipole antenna and loop
antenna are only two examples of the many antennas
now available. The type of antenna used depends on
the needs of the project. Single antennas do not always
provide the requirements necessary for a project. Ar-
rays are often used to reinforce the radiation patterns in
some desired directions, and suppress it in other undesir-
able directions. This is a particularly useful method for
contemporary wireless communications, radar, satellite
broadcasting, etc. [9],[10] Again, the reader is directed
to the references below for further, detailed discussions
of antenna theory and practical applications.
FIG. 4: Elevation amplitude patterns showing the radiation
pattern for loop antennas of various diameters. Image taken
from Balanis [1]

[1] C.A. Balanis, Antenna Theory: Analysis and De-

sign. 1st ed. (Harper and Row, New York, 1982).
2πa 4 2 [2] J.D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics. 3rd ed.
Rr = 20(π)2 ( ) N (20) (Wiley, New York, 1999).
λ
[3] K.F. Lee, Principles of Antenna Theory. (Wiley,
It should also be noted that in the far-field region New York, 1984).
2πr  λ, the fields reduce to the following, with A as
[4] D. Corson, P. Lorrain Introduction to Electromag-
the geometrical area of the loop:
netic Fields and Waves. (Freeman, San Francisco, 1962).
[5] T. Macnamara, Handbook of Antennas for EMC.
Br ≈ Bθ = Er = Eθ = 0 (21) (Artech, Boston, 1995).
[6] R.E. Collin, F.C. Zucker Antenna Theory.
(McGraw-Hill, St. Louis, 1969).
[7] Y.T. Lo, S.W. Lee Antenna Handbook: Antenna
πAI0 e−ikr
Bθ = − sinθ (22) Fundamentals and Mathematical Techniques. (Van Nos-
(λ2 )r trand Reinhold, New York, 1993).
[8] W.L. Stutzman, G.A. Thiele Antenna Theory and
r
µ0 πAI0 e−ikr Design. (Wiley, New York, 1981).
Eφ = sinθ (23) [9] H.J. Visser, Array and Phased Array Antenna Ba-
0 (λ2 )r
sics. (Wiley, San Francisco, 2005).
However, the previously determined equations for Prad [10] S. Barbarossa, Multiantenna Wireless Communi-
and Rr (17)-(19)are still valid in the far-field limit. cation Systems. (Artech, Boston, 2005).