THE PROKARYOTIC CELL:

BACTERIA
A. SIZES, SHAPES, AND ARRANGEMENTS OF
BACTERIA
The overall purpose of this Learning Object is to recognize
common bacterial shapes and arrangements, and appreciate the
extremely small size of bacteria.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES FOR THIS SECTION

Bacteria are:

a. prokaryotic.

b. single-celled, microscopic organisms (Exceptions have been discovered that

can reach sizes just visible to the naked eye. They include Epulopiscium
fishelsoni, a bacillus-shaped bacterium that is typically 80 micrometers (µm) in
diameter and 200-600 µm long, and Thiomargarita namibiensis, a sperical
bacterium between 100 and 750 µm in diameter.)

c. generally much smaller than eukaryotic cells.

d. very complex despite their small size. Even though bacteria are single-celled
organisms, they are able to communicate with one another through a process
called quorum sensing. In this way they can function as a multicellular population
rather than as individual bacteria. This will be discussed in greater detail in Unit
2.

Bacterial Communication: Quorum Sensing

To view a nice interactive illustration comparing size of cells and microbes, see
the Cell Size and Scale Resource at the University of Utah.

Most bacteria come in one of three basic shapes: coccus, rod or bacillus, and
spiral.
1. The coccus (def)
The cocci are spherical or oval bacteria having one of several distinct
arrangements based on their planes of division.

a. Division in one plane produces either a diplococcus or streptococcus

arrangement.

diplococcus: cocci arranged in pairs

- photomicrograph of a diplococcus
- scanning electron micrograph of a Streptococcus pneumoniae, a diplococcus;
courtesy of CDC
- scanning electron micrograph of a Neisseria, a diplococcus; courtesy of Dennis
Kunkel's Microscopy

streptococcus: cocci arranged in chains

- photomicrograph of a streptococcus
- scanning electron micrograph of a Streptococcus pyogenes, a streptococcus;
courtesy of Dennis Kunkel's Microscopy
- transmission electron micrograph of Streptococcus from the Rockefeller
University web page.

b. Division in two planes produces a tetrad arrangement.

a tetrad: cocci arranged in squares of 4

- photomicrograph of a tetrad

c. Division in three planes produces a sarcina arrangement.

sarcina: cocci in arranged cubes of 8

- photomicrograph of a sarcina

d. Division in random planes produces a staphylococcus arrangement.

staphylococcus: cocci arranged in irregular, often grape-like clusters

- photomicrograph of a staphylococcus
- negative image of Staphylococcus aureus
- scanning electron micrograph of Staphylococcus aureus, a staphylococcus;
courtesy of Dennis Kunkel's Microscopy
- Scanning electron micrograph of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA); courtesy of CDC

An average coccus is about 0.5-1.0 micrometer (µm) in diameter. (A micrometer

equals 1/1,000,000 of a meter.)

2. The rod or bacillus (def)

Bacilli are rod-shaped bacteria. Bacilli all divide in one plane producing a
bacillus, streptobacillus, or coccobacillus arrangement.

a. bacillus: single bacilli

- photomicrograph of a bacillus
- scanning electron micrograph of a bacillus; courtesy of CDC
- Scanning electron micrograph of Escherichia coli O157H7, a bacillus; courtesy
of CDC

b. streptobacillus: bacilli arranged in chains

- photomicrograph of a streptobacillus

c. a coccobacillus: oval and similar to a coccus

An average bacillus is 0.5-1.0 µm wide by 1.0-4.0 µm long.

3. The spiral (def)

Spirals come in one of three forms, a vibrio, a spirillum, or a spirochete.

a. vibrio: a curved or comma-shaped rod

- photomicrograph of a vibrio
- scanning electron micrograph of a Vibrio cholerae, a vibrio; courtesy of Dennis
Kunkel's Microscopy

b. spirillum: a thick, rigid spiral

- photomicrograph of a spirillum

c. spirochete: a thin, flexible spiral

- photomicrograph of a spirochete
- scanning electron micrograph of the spirochete Leptospira; courtesy of CDC
- scanning electron micrograph of the spirochete Treponema pallidum; courtesy
of CDC

Spirals range in size from 1 µm to over 100 µm in length.

4. Exceptions to the above shapes

Trichome-forming, sheathed, stalked, filamentous, square, star-shaped, spindle-

shaped, lobed, and pleomorphic (def).

http://student.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit1/shape/shape.html
Supplemental Lecture (98/03/28 update) by Stephen T. Abedon (abedon.1@osu.edu)

1. Chapter title: Bacteria Cell Shapes and Arrangements

a. A list of vocabulary words is found toward the end of this document
b. Following binary fission, the newly formed bacteria spontaneously assume
(or, end up with) a characteristic shape. This shape varies significantly
among species of bacteria and may be employed in the course of isolate
identification. Two major shape classes are cocci and bacilli though there
are many variations on these themes, additional distantly related shapes, as
well as many variations on the degree to which cells separate or interact
following their division.
2. Bacteria sizes
a. Large range in size:
i. Bacteria range in size from approximately as small as the largest
viruses to large enough for single cells to be visible by the naked
eye.
ii. That is, from about 0.1 to about 600 �m over a single dimension.
iii. "Bacteria vary in size as much as in shape. The smallest (e.g.,
some members of the genus Mycoplasma) are about 100 to 200 nm
in diameter, approximately the size of the largest viruses
(poxviruses). Escherichia coli, a bacillus of about average size, is
1.1 to 1.5 �m wide by 2.0 to 6.0 �m long. A few become fairly
large; some spirochetes occasionally reach 500 �m in length, and
the cyanobacterium Oscillatoria is about 7 �m in diameter (the
same diameter as a red blood cell). Recently a huge bacterium has
been discovered in the intestine of the brown surgeonfish,
Acanthurus nigrofuscus. Epulopiscium fishelsoni grows as large as
600 �m by 80 �m, a little smaller than a printed hyphen. It is
now clear that a few bacterium are much larger than the average
eucaryotic cell." (p. 39-40, Prescott et al., 1996)
b. Example: a very big bacterium:
i. Epulopiscium fishelsoni is an example of a very big procaryote.
ii. "Epulopiscium fishelsoni (is) a procaryote related to the gram-
positive genus Clostridium. . . Epulopiscium appears to overcome
the size limits set by diffusion by having an outer layer consisting
of a highly convoluted plasma membrane. . . The bacterium
reproduces when between one and about seven daughter cells
develop asexually within the parent and then escape through a
centrally located slit in the parental cell envelope. . . The discovery
of this procaryote greatly weakens the distinction between
procaryotes and eucaryotes based on cell size. . ." (p. 41, Prescott
et al., 1996)
iii. In stark contrast to the large size of Epulopiscium fishelsoni, there
exists an extremely small (i.e., bacteria size) eucaryote,
Nanochlorum eukaryotum. "Nanochlorum eukaryotum is only
about 1 to 2 �m in diameter (about the size of E. coli), yet is truly
 eucaryotic and has a nucleus, a chrloroplast, and a mitochondrion."
(p. 41, Prescott et al., 1996)
3. Surface to volume ratio
a. "Because of their small size, bacteria have a large surface-to-volume ratio.
For example, spherical bacteria with a diameter of 2 �m have a surface
area of about 12 �m2 and a volume of about 4 �m3. Their surface-to-
volume ratio is 12:4, or 3:1. In contrast, eukaryotic cells with a diamter of
20 �m have a surface area of about 1200 �m2 and a volume of about
4000 �m3. Their surface-to-volume ratio is 1200:4000, or 0.3:1---only
one-tenth as great. The large surface-to-volume ratio of bacteria means
that no internal part of the cell is very far from the surface and that
nutrients can easily and quickly reach all parts of the cell." (p. 75, Black,
1996)
b. The large surface to volume ratio seen in bacteria is one reason that
procaryotes are so successful despite their relatively simple morphologies.
4. Cocci [sing. Coccus]
a. Generally spherical:
i. A bacterial shape.
ii. Generally spherical though with some variation from this theme
(i.e., elongation or flattening on one side).
b. Example: Chlamydia trachomatis
c. See illustration below.
5. Diplococci
a. Cocci that remain in pairs after they divide. See illustration below.
b. Examples:
i. Neisseria gonorrhoeae
ii. Neisseria meningitidis
6. Streptococci
a. Cocci that fail to separate after they divide, but instead remain in chains of
cells.
b. Examples:
i. Streptococcus spp.
ii. Enterococcus spp.
iii. Lactococcus spp.
c. See illustration below.
7. Tetrad
a. Cocci that fail to separate after they divide, but instead remain in groups of
four forming squares.
b. Micrococcus luteus
c. See illustration below.
8. Sarcinae ('sër-si-ne)
a. Cocci that fail to separate after they divide, but instead remain in groups of
eight forming cubes.
b. Examples: Sarcina spp.
c. See illustration below.
9. Staphylococci
 a. Cocci that fail to separate after they divide, but instead remain in
amorphous sheets or clumps.
b. Examples: Staphylococcus aureus
c. See illustration below.
10. Illustration, cocci

11. Bacilli [sing. Bacillus]

a. Rods:
i. Variations on rod-shaped bacteria:
1. rod
2. tapered rod
3. staff
4. cigar
5. oval
6. curved
ii. Basically, bacilli are longer than they are wide and lack extreme
curvature.
b. Bacilli typically divide only across their short axis.
c. Examples:
i. Consider rod shaped to be default for a bacterium. That is, if you
don't know what shape a bacterium is, your best bet is to just go
with rod.
ii. Examples otherwise include:
1. Bacillus anthracis
2. Bacillus subtilis
 3. Chlostridium botulinum
4. Chlostridium perfringens
5. Chlostridium tetani
6. Escherichia coli
7. Haemophilus influenzae
8. Klebsiella spp.
9. Lactobacillus spp.
10. Legionella spp.
11. Listeria monocytogenes
12. Mycobacterium leprae
13. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
14. Pasteurella pestis
15. Proteus spp.
16. Pseudomonas spp.
17. Salmonella spp.
18. Serratia marcescens
19. Shigella spp.
20. Yersinia pestis
21. In addition to this list is Vibrio cholerae, which is a curved
rod.
d. See illustration below.
12. Diplobacilli
a. Paired rods:
i. Bacilli that remain in pairs after they divide.
ii. See illustration below.
13. Streptobacilli
a. Bacilli that fail to separate after they divide, but instead remain in chains
of cells.
b. Example: Bacillus megaterium
c. See illustration below.
14. Coccobacilli
a. Ambiguous designation:
i. A short Bacilli that nearly looks like a cocci.
ii. A shape that exists simply to show that bacteria are so diverse that
even characterizing them by shape is ambiguous?
b. Example: Bordetella pertussis
c. See illustration below.
15. Illustration, bacilli
16. Additional bacterial shapes
a. Additional bacterial shapes include:
i. Budding Hyphomicrobium spp.
ii. Commas
1. Bdellovibrio spp.
iii. Corkscrews
iv. Helical
1. Borrelia burgdorferi
2. Helicobacter pylori
3. Treponema pallidum
v. mycelium (hyphae)
1. Actinomycetes
2. Hyphomicrobium spp.
vi. spirillum (rigid, wavy spirals)
vii. spirochetes (flexible spirals)
1. Borrelia burgdorferi
2. Treponema pallidum
viii. squares
ix. stars
x. etc.
b. See, for example, the illustration of a spirochete below.
17. Illustration, spirochete
18. Monomorphic
a. A trait of a bacterium that tends to display the same shape regardless of
physiological or environmental conditions.
19. Pleomorphic [polymorphic, pleiomorphic]
a. A trait of a bacterium that can display different shapes under different
physiological or environmental conditions, or even in the same culture.
b. Examples:
i. Corynebacterium diphtheriae
ii. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
iii. Rickettsia prowazekii
iv. Rickettsia rickettsiia
c. Note that both Corynebacterium diphtheriae is a pleimorphic rod.
20. Vocabulary
a. Bacilli
b. Bacilli, illustration
c. Bacillus
d. Additional bacterial shapes
e. Cocci
f. Cocci, illustration
g. Coccobacilli
h. Coccus
i. Diplobacilli
j. Diplococci
k. Monomorphic
l. Pleomorphic
m. Polymorphic
n. Sarcinae
o. Spirochete, illustration
p. Staphylococci
q. Streptobacilli
r. Streptococci
s. Surface to volume ratio
t. Tetrad
21. Practice questions
a. Draw in outline and label (i) streptobacilli, (ii) diplococci, and (iii)
staphylococci (make sure I can tell the difference between your cocci and
bacilli). [PEEK]
b. You observe a culture of predominantly round (presumably spherical)
bacteria that though apparently fully divided, nevertheless have failed to
separate, thus resulting in long chains of cells. What, generally, might you
call such an arrangement? [PEEK]
c. Which of the following normally occurs as only individual, spherical
cells? (circle best answer) [PEEK]
i. Chlamydia trachomatis.
ii. Escherichia coli.
iii. Bacillus subtilis.
iv. Clostridium tetani.
v. Helicobacter pylori.
vi. Treponema pallidum.
d. In terms of planes of division, describe why Micrococcus luteus forms
tetrads rather than streptococci.[PEEK]
e. Circle all of the spiral or helical-shaped bacteria. [PEEK]
i. Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus subtilis, Bdellovibrio spp., Bordetella
pertussis, Borrelia burgdorferi, Chlamydia trachomatis,
Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium
tetani, Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Escherichia coli, Helicobacter
pylori, Hemophilus influenzae, Klebsiella spp., Lactobacillus spp.,
Legionella spp., Listeria monocytogenes, Mycobacterium leprae,
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Neisseria
gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitidis, Pasteurella pestis, Proteus
spp., Pseudomonas spp., Rickettsia prowazekii, Rickettsia
rickettsii, Salmonella spp., Serratia marcescens, Shigella spp.,
Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus spp., Treponema pallidum,
Vibrio cholerae, Yersinia pestis
f. Name one pleomorphic bacterium. [PEEK]
g. Cells are generally small because __________. (circle best answer)
[PEEK]
i. this assures that they can fit in small places.
ii. this assures that their plasma membrane is sufficiently large.
iii. this assures that their nucleus remains in contact with their
cytoplasm.
iv. phospholipids are expensive to make so are used sparingly.
v. all of the above.
vi. none of the above.
h. What is the shape of Bdellovibrio spp. [PEEK]
i. Shape and arrangement in which Neisseria meningitidis is normally found.
[PEEK]
j. Describe the shape and arrangement of the cells of Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
[PEEK]
k. Distinguish Listeria monocytogenes and Vibrio cholerae in terms of cell
shape. [PEEK]
l. Vibrio cholera? [PEEK]
m. Treponema pallidum? [PEEK]
 n. The shape and arrangement of __________ is diplococci. [PEEK]
i. Escherichia coli
ii. Micrococcus luteus
iii. Neisseria Meningitidis
iv. Mycobacterium tuberculosis
v. Mycoplasma pneumoniae
vi. Mycobacterium smegmatis
o. What is the arrangement of Micrococcus luteus? [PEEK]
22. Practice question answers
a. A streptobacillusstreptobacilli is found in a chain of cells which are
connected at the polar ends, not on the broad sides. A
diplococcusdiplococci is found as one of a pair of circular (actually
spherical) cells bound together. A staphylococcusstaphylococci is a
circular cell found in a sheet or clump of such cells.
b. Streptococci
c. i, Chlamydia trachomatis.
d. Tetrads form when division occurs in two alternating and perpendicular
planes, while streptococci form as a consequence of division consistently
in only a single plane (i.e. on perpendicular to the central axis of the
chain).
e. Borrelia burgdorferi, Helicobacter pylori, Treponema pallidum.
f. Corynebacterium diphtheriae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae, Rickettsia
prowazekii, Rickettsia rickettsii.
g. ii, this assures that their plasma membrane is sufficiently large. This is
another way of saying that having a large surfact to volume ratio is often
advantageous to a cell.
h. partially helical, comma shaped, non-spirochete; bacilli is a very weak
answer which I would consider unacceptable given the publication of this
statement (i.e., if you are reading this from your lecture notes copy, don't
use it).
i. Diplococci
j. Diplococci
k. Vibrio cholerae is a curved rod while Listeria monocytogenes is simply a
rod.
l. <spirochete/flexible spiral/helical
m. Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitidis
n. Tetrad
23. References
a. Black, J.G. (1996). Microbiology. Principles and Applications. Third
Edition. Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. pp. 75-78.
b. Prescott, L.M., Harley, J.P., Klein, D.A. (1996). Microbiology. Third
Edition. Wm. C. Brown Publishers, Dubuque, IA. pp. 37-41.
c. Tortora, G.J., Funke, B.R., Case, C.L. (1995). Microbiology. An
Introduction. Fifth Edition. The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing, Co.,
Inc., Redwood City, CA, pp. 71, 72-73.
http://www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu/~sabedon/biol2010.htm
Tests Used in the Identification of
Bacteria
X

David Chandler
David Chandler has been freelance writing since 2006 for print and online publications
including Trails.com and eHow. He holds a bachelor's degree from the University of
South Florida where he was educated in international studies and microbiology. A former
reconnaissance Marine, he is an active hiker, diver, kayaker, sailor, and angler. He has
traveled extensively throughout North America, South America, and the Pacific Islands.
By David Chandler, eHow Contributor

Bacteria are among the most numerous and diverse group of organisms on the planet.
Determinative bacteriology employs a number of nutritional and biochemical tests to
identify bacteria. Traditionally, these methods have often required extensive time to
culture, isolate and test the bacteria. However, recent technological advances have
allowed rapid detection methods to be developed.

Staining
o The Gram stain is frequently employed as an initial step in bacterial
identification and uses a stain, decolorizer, and counterstain to identify
bacteria according to their cell wall. Other staining methods include acid-
fast staining, spore staining and negative staining.

Cell Morphology
o When viewed under the microscope, bacteria may be categorized
according to the shape of their cells. These shapes include bacilli (rod-
shaped) bacteria cells and cocci (spherical-shaped bacteria cells).

Nutrient Agar
o Bacteria are often simultaneously on multiple agar dishes each containing
varying nutrients. Bacteria can be further segregated by the nutrients
required for growth, colony morphology, and in some cases, substances
which inhibit growth.

Biochemical Tests
 o The reaction of bacteria to certain substances can aid in identification. For
example, a catalase test detects the presence of the catalase enzyme by
adding hydrogen peroxide and observing for the formation of oxygen
bubbles.

Serological
o Antibodies may be used to detect very specific proteins on a bacterium.
This has enable the development of agglutination tests, ELISA (enzyme-
linked immunosorbent assay) and the Western Blot.

DNA
o Increasingly, methods are being developed and employed which allow
bacteria to be identified according to genetic markers within their genome.
These methods allow for much quicker identification and a substantial
amount of automation to bacterial identification.

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References
• "Proceedings of the 24th Conference of the Association for Biology Laboratory
Education;" Identification of bacterial species. Christopher, K. and E. Bruno.;
2003
• "Journal of Clinical Microbiology;" Rapid identification of bacteria by PCR-
single-strand conformation polymorphism; Widjojoatmodjo, M.N., A. C. Fluit
and J. Verhoef.; December 1994.
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