Chap 14

eTHINKING 10
Networks
14
The river Pregel runs
through the university town
of Königsberg (now
Kaliningrad in Russia). In
the middle of the river are
two islands connected to each
other and to the rest of the
city by 7 bridges. Many years
ago, a tradition developed
among the university
students where they
challenged one another to
make a round trip over all 7
bridges, walking over each
bridge once, and only once,
before returning to the
starting point. Can it be
done? Try different trips and
record your results.
In this chapter you will
work with a number of
networks and look at a rule
to determine whether a
network can or cannot be
‘travelled’.
areyou 660 Maths Quest 8 for Victoria
Are you ready? READY?

Try the questions below. If you have difficulty with any of them, extra help can be
obtained by completing the matching SkillSHEET. Either click on the SkillSHEET icon
next to the question on the Maths Quest 8 CD-ROM or ask your teacher for a copy.
Use the diagram shown below to answer questions 1 to 4.
B
A
C
D F
E
14.1 The degree of a vertex

1 On the diagram, state how many lines directly join to point:
a A b B c C
d D e E f F
14.2 Vertices, edges and regions of a network

2 State the number of:
a vertices (corners) b edges (straight lines).
14.4 Paths in networks

3 Imagine that the diagram above represents walking paths in a park. Each letter represents a
viewing platform.
a Begining at A, trace a path that you can walk along so that you visit each viewing platform only
once.
b Starting from A, is it possible to walk through the park so that you travel on each path exactly
once? (You may visit any viewing platform more than once.) If so, list a path you could follow.
14.5 Traversable networks

4 Explain whether the diagram can be traced without lifting the pen off the paper.
Chapter 14 Networks 661
What is a network?
People, places and events are all connected. Networks help us to understand connections
and in this chapter we will look at the properties and applications of networks. Euler’s
formula, which has been previously discussed, will be investigated in relation to net-
works.
The last three sections of
the chapter are devoted to
studies of paths, circuits and
trees. In those sections we
will investigate methods of
finding Euler and Hamilto-
nian paths and circuits and
minimal spanning trees for
various networks. We will
also learn how these tech-
niques can be applied in prac-
tical situations and for
problem solving.
Note: Some material
covered in this chapter can
be treated as an extension, or
advanced material, which is
beyond the scope of a typical
Year 8 class.
What does the Internet have in common with the roads in a suburb? They both can
be considered as networks. What is a network?
A network is a collection of objects, connected to each other in some specific way.

The objects are called vertices (or nodes) and the connections are called edges.
The Internet is a collection of computers, connected to each other, while the roads in
a suburb connect all the houses, parks and other features of a suburb.
Even the structure of your family (your family tree) can be considered as a network.
A simple network
Consider the case of Steven and Bettye who are married. We can rep- S B
resent this family as a network, as shown in the figure on the right.
The circles (vertices) represent the people, while the line (the edge)
indicates that there is a connection by marriage.
Later on they decide to have children, and they have a boy, S B
Richard, and a girl, Isabella. The network now looks like the figure
on the right. The additional lines joining S to R and I, and B to R and
R I
I indicate a connection between parents and children.
Later on, Isabella decides to get married to a man named S B
Eric; so now the network would look like the figure on the right.
The line joining I to E indicates their marriage.
R I E
662 Maths Quest 8 for Victoria
We could continue this process indefinitely, creating a family tree structure.

Although it does not look like the ‘traditional’ family tree diagram (shown below), it
is equivalent to it.
S B
R I E
In this case the objects in our network are the people and the lines indicate some
relationship between them.
WORKED Example 1
Draw the network that represents the family tree
showing Matthew, his two parents Brendan and
Bettina, and his grandparents, John and Jennifer
(paternal) and Tony and Judy (maternal).
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 List the objects (people) in the network. A for Mattew, B for Brendan, C for Bettina, D
for John, E for Jennifer, F for Tony, G for Judy.
2 Draw them using the vertical direction D E F G

to indicate the generations.
B C
Join the various people with lines, D E F G

representing parents and marriage.
D is married to E. B C
F is married to G.
D and E are the parents of B. A
F and G are the parents of C.
B is married to C.
B and C are the parents of A.
Representing a network
As we have seen, a network is completely determined by the vertices and the edges that
connect the vertices and can be represented by the diagram. It can also be described
using what is known as the labelling method.
A network can be represented by a list of pairs of vertices. The vertices in every

pair are connected by an edge. This is called the labelling method.
WORKED Example 2
Represent the network shown at right,
D E F G
using the labelling method.
B C
THINK WRITE
1 Start with any vertex, say, A. Vertex A Vertex A: (A, B), (A, C)
is connected to B and to C. List each
connection as a pair.
2 Vertex B is connected to A, C, D and E. Vertex B: (B, C), (B, D), (B, E)
List each connection as a pair, but do
not repeat any connection that has
already been listed. Since the
connection between A and B was listed
as (A, B) in step 1, do not list (B, A).
3 Continue for each remaining vertex: Vertex C: (C, F), (C, G)
Vertex C is connected to A, B, F, G, but
do not repeat (C, A), (C, B).
Vertex D is connected to B and E, but Vertex D: (D, E)
do not repeat (D, B).
Vertex E is connected to B and D, but Vertex E: has no other connection.
these were already listed as (B, E) and
(D, E). So do not list any pairs for E.
Vertex F is connected to C and G but do Vertex F: (F, G)
not repeat (F, C).
Finally, vertex G is connected to F and Vertex G: has no other connection.
C, but these were listed as (C, G) and
(F, G). So do not list any pairs for G.
4 Put all the pairs into a single list. {(A, B), (A, C), (B, C), (B, D), (B, E), (C, F),
(C, G), (D, E), (F, G)}
There should be exactly one pair of vertices for each edge in the network. For worked
example 2 there are 9 edges and 9 pairs. It is often more practical to go from the
labelled network to a network drawing, as shown in worked example 3; this is known
as Euler’s formula.
WORKED Example 3
Draw the network represented by the following pairs of vertices.
{(A, B), (A, C), (B, C), (B, D), (C, D), (C, E), (D, E)}
THINK DRAW
1 Draw vertex A. By studying the set, A B
observe that A is contained in the pairs
(A, B) and (A, C), which tells us it is
connected to B and C. So draw vertices C
B and C and connect them to A.
Cross off the pairs that have been used.
(Once we have used the pair, there is no
need to go back to it.)
2 Vertex B is included in (B, C), so add A B
the connections from B to C. It is also
included in (B, D). So add the vertex D D
and the connections from B to D. Cross C
off the pairs (B, C) and (B, D).
3 Vertex C is included in (C, D), so add A B
the connection from C to D. It is also
included in (C, E). So add vertex E, and D
the connection from C to E. Cross off C
the pairs (C, D) and (C, E).
E
4 Vertex D is included in (D, E) and A B

hence is connected to E. So add the
appropriate connection. D
C
Of course, it is possible to get many different shapes for your drawing, but the
connections (edges) must still be correct.
remember
1. A network is a collection of objects connected to each other in some specific
way. The objects are called vertices (or nodes) and the connections are called
edges.
2. A network can be represented by a list of pairs of connected vertices. This is
called the labelling method.
14A What is a network?

WORKED 1 Draw the network that represents the following family tree.
Example
1
Henry and Ida marry and have one child, Jane.
Jane marries Kenneth and they have one child, Louise.
Louise marries Mark and they have two children, Neil and Otis.
2 Four towns, Joplin, Amarillo, Flagstaff and Bairstow are connected to each other as
follows:
Joplin to Amarillo; Joplin to Flagstaff; Amarillo to Bairstow; Amarillo to Flagstaff;
Flagstaff to Bairstow.
Draw the network represented by these connections.
3 A fifth town, Kingman, is added to the network of question 2, with roads connecting
it to Amarillo, Flagstaff and Bairstow. Modify your drawing, adding the new vertex
and its connections.
WORKED 4 Represent the network shown at right, A B
Example
2
using the labelling method.
C D
5 Represent the network shown in the following diagrams, using the labelling method.
a E C A b A B C c R V
D B F E D Q T U
P S
WORKED 6 Draw the network represented by the following pairs of vertices.
Example
3
{(A, B), (A, C), (B, D), (C, D), (C, E), (D, E)}
7 Draw the network represented by the following.
{(A, B), (A, C), (A, D), (B, E), (C, E), (C, F), (C, G), (D, G)}
8 Draw the network represented by the following list.
{(A, B), (A, C), (B, C), (B, E), (C, D), (C, E), (C, F), (D, E), (E, G), (F, G)}
9 multiple choice
A network consists of vertices and:
A letters B edges C nodes D lists E none of the above
10 multiple choice
Which of the following is not a network?
A The telephone system of Melbourne
B The railway system of Sydney
C The family tree of the Queen
of England
D The history books in a library
E The trails in a national park
leading to tourist attractions
Who was the first Australian to win

an Olympic gold medal?
Match the 10 networks
with the correct set of labels on the right to
find the puzzle code
1 2
A B C B C
A D
D E
C
K
3 E
A B C
L
D E
5
4 B
A C E
A
E
C
B D
E
D N
A
C B
6
B
A W
D
7 E
E C
D I
8 C A
A
D 9 B
D A
C
B E
E
10 C F
A
E
B D
D
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Basic properties of networks
Up until now we have seen networks only as a collection of vertices (or nodes) and the
edges connecting them. What are some of the mathematical properties of such networks?
In this section we will build up a set of rules and properties leading to a very special
formula for networks: Euler’s rule.
The degree of a vertex
The degree of a vertex is the total number of edges to which the vertex is connected.
The degree of each vertex can be obtained by simple counting.
WORKED Example 4
State the degree of each vertex A B
in the network shown at right.
D
C
THINK WRITE
1 Starting with any vertex, count its Vertex A is connected to B and C, so the
number of edges (connections). The degree = 2.
number of edges is equal to the degree
of that vertex.
2 Repeat step 1 for all remaining vertices. Vertex B is connected to A, C and D, so the
degree = 3.
Vertex C is connected to A, B, D and E, so the
degree = 4.
Vertex D is connected to B, C and E, so the
degree = 3.
Vertex E is connected to C and D, so the
degree = 2.
There is another interesting property of the degrees in a network.
The sum of all the degrees in a network is exactly twice the number of edges.
So, for worked example 4 there are 7 edges, which is half of 14, the total of all the
degrees in that network.
Planar networks
A special kind of network is called a planar network, or planar graph.
A planar network is a network in which the edges do not cross each other.
Most networks can be adjusted so that there are no crossing edges. A B
An example of such a network is shown in the figure on the right.
C D
If we realise that the edges do not have to be straight lines but can be curved, we can
redraw the network so that it becomes a planar graph. One possible way this can be
done is shown in the figure below. Can you think of any other way?
A B
C D
For the rest of this section we will work with planar graphs.
Edges, faces and vertices
If you look carefully at any planar graph you will see
that the lines (edges) divide the surrounding space III
A B
into regions, also known as faces.
Consider the network on the right. There are three I
regions (labelled I, II and III). The vertices (A, B, C
and D) are not part of any region. C II D
Note: The space outside the entire network is
counted as a region. (In this case it is the region
labelled III.)
WORKED Example 5
Find the number of vertices, edges
and regions in the network shown
at right.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Label the vertices and count them. D
C E
G
B F
A
Number of vertices = 7
2 Count the edges. The easiest way to do Number of edges = 10
this is to cross off every edge that has
been counted with a small mark. (This
will guarantee that no edge is missed
and no edge is counted twice.)
3 Colour in each region a different colour.
D E
Count the regions. Do not forget the C
region outside the network.
G
B F
Number of regions = 5
Euler’s formula
The famous mathematician Leonhard Euler (pronounced ‘oi-ler’) discovered (among
other things) the relationship between the number of faces, edges and vertices for all
planar networks. This relationship is given by the following formula.
For any planar network,

V=E−F+2
where E is the number of edges, F is the number of faces (regions) and V is the
number of vertices of the network.
WORKED Example 6
Confirm Euler’s formula for the
network shown at right.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Label the vertices and count them. D C
E F
V=6
2 Count the number of edges, crossing out E = 10
each edge that has been counted as you go.
3 Count the number of faces (regions) by
colouring them in. Do not forget the region D C
outside the network.
B
E F
F=6
4 Write Euler’s formula. V=E−F+2
5 Substitute the values of the pronumerals into RHS = 10 − 6 + 2
the right-hand side (RHS) of the formula.
6 Simplify the right-hand side. =4+2
=6
7 Compare the RHS with the LHS and draw = LHS
your conclusion. Therefore, Euler’s formula is confirmed.
History of mathematics
L E O N H A R D E U L E R ( 1 5 Ap r i l 1 7 0 7 – 1 8 S e p t e m b e r 1 7 8 3)
St Petersburg. When he was 31, Euler lost the

sight of one eye, possibly due to overwork. He
left Russia in 1741 to become professor of
mathematics at the Berlin Academy of
Sciences. In 1766 he returned to St Petersburg.
Shortly afterwards he lost the sight of his other
eye because of cataracts.
Euler’s mathematical abilities were
exceptional. It was said that ‘Euler calculated
without effort, as men breathe’. He could work
in a noisy environment and often wrote at home
while his children played around him. Euler had
thirteen children, although only five lived to
adulthood. He was able to go on working even
after he became blind because his memory was
so good that he could do complex calculations
in his head.
Euler made significant contributions to
During his life . . . almost every area of mathematics, including
Captain Cook lands in Australia. geometry, calculus, mechanics, and number
The sextant is invented by Captain John theory. He was one of the first to make use of
Campbell. standard symbols, including π for Pi, Σ for
James Watt develops a more efficient steam summation (adding), f (x) for functions, e x for
engine. the natural logarithms and i for complex
The first restaurant opens in Paris. numbers. He also worked on a proof of Fermat’s
last theorem and was able to solve it for powers
Leonhard Euler was born in Switzerland and of 3 and 4. Like most mathematicians, he
was the son of a Lutheran minister. His father worked on finding formulas for the value of π.
wanted him to study theology, but Euler was far He probably wrote more books than any other
more interested in mathematics. He attended mathematician in history. In his lifetime he
the University of Basel from the age of 13 and published more than 500 books and papers, and
received his masters degree at the age of 17. another 400 were published after his death.
Three years later he entered the Paris Academy Apparently, his last words were simply, ‘I die’.
Prize for the first time. His entry, involving
difficult calculations for the masts of ships in Questions
the Swiss Navy, received an honourable 1. What did Euler lose when he was 31
mention for its excellent mathematical years old?
methods. However, the judges were surprised 2. What ability did Euler have that
that he did not seem to understand that allowed him to go on working when
Switzerland, being surrounded by land, did not he became blind?
actually have a navy! He went on to win the 3. Name four areas of mathematics in
prize on 12 other occasions during his life. which Euler made significant
Euler moved to Russia in 1727, where he contributions.
became professor of physics and of 4. How many books and papers did Euler
mathematics at the Academy of Sciences in publish during his life?
remember
1. The degree of a vertex is the total number of edges to which that vertex is
connected.
2. The total of all the degrees of a network is exactly twice the total number of
edges.
3. A planar network (or planar graph) is a network in which edges do not cross
each other.
4. A planar network has faces (or regions).
5. The space ‘outside’ the entire network is counted as a region.
6. In any planar network, if E = the number of edges, F = the number of faces or
regions and V = the number of vertices, then V = E − F + 2.
7. This is called Euler’s formula.
Basic properties of
14B networks
WORKED 1 State the degree of each vertex in the network shown at right. D C
Example
4 B
E F
2 State the degree of each vertex for the networks shown below. 14.1 SkillS
a b A
HEET
R Q A
B The degree
C D of a
S vertex
V T F E
G
c Q
d A
P
E
14..2 SkillS
HEET
F B
R S
Vertices, edges
D and regions of a
U network
T C
14.3 SkillS
HEET
V W
Euler’s formula
for planar
3 Find the number of regions, edges and vertices for each of networks
D C
the networks in question 2.
WORKED B
Example 4 a Find the number of vertices, edges and regions in the
Math
5 network shown at right.
cad
E F
WORKED
Example Euler’s
b Confirm Euler’s formula for the network shown at right. rule
6
A
5 Confirm Euler’s formula for each of the networks in question 2.
6 Consider the network defined by the following list of edges.

{(A, B), (A, C), (B, E), (B, F), (C, D), (C, E), (D, E), (E, F)}
a Construct a drawing of the network (make sure it is planar).
b Determine the degree of each vertex.
c Confirm Euler’s formula for this network.
7 multiple choice
The planar network at right consists of: A
A 7 regions, 10 faces and 5 edges B
B 5 regions, 10 vertices and 7 nodes C
D
C 5 faces, 10 edges and 7 vertices
D edges which cross E
E none of the above F G
me
8 multiple choice
E ti
The sum of the degrees of all the vertices of a network equals:
GAM
Networks A an odd number

— 001
B half the number of vertices
C twice the number of vertices
SHEE
T 14.1
D half the number of edges
Work
E twice the number of edges
QUEST
S
M AT H
1 This cube is made of wire. Each edge of the cube is 1 metre long. An ant
NG
starts at corner A and walks along as many edges as possible without

E
CH LL going along the same edge twice. How far does the ant walk?
A
2 The cube shown in part 1 is made from a length of wire by bending,

cutting and soldering joints only when necessary. There must be no
loose end of wire. What is the least number of joints to be soldered?
1
1 Draw a network that represents the following family tree.
Ann and Charlie marry and they have 2 children, Bob and Karen.
Bob marries Delia and they have 1 child, Peter.
Peter marries Mary and they have 2 children, Ben and Emily.
2 Four streets are connected to each other as follows. Draw a network represented
by these connections.
Princess Street – Bird Avenue
Princess Street – Charlie Street
Charlie Street – Dundas Street
Princess Street – Dundas Street
3 multiple choice
A network consists of edges and:
A letters B sides C pictures D shapes E vertices
{(A, B), (A, C), (A, D), (B, G), (C, D), (C, E), (C, F), (D, E), (E, F), (F, G)}
Use the network shown to answer questions 5 and 6.

5 Represent the network shown at right using A B
the labelling method.
6 Find the number of vertices, edges and C
regions in the network at right.
D E
Use the following network for questions 7 and 8.

7 What is the degree of vertex B? F
8 Find the number of vertices (V), edges (E) A C
and faces (F) in the network shown and B
confirm Euler’s formula. D
E
The following list of words are to be used to fill in the missing words for questions
9 and 10.
Planar, vertices, edges, degrees, objects, network, twice
9 A network consists of faces, edges and .
10 The sum of the of all the vertices of the network equals

the number of .
Application of networks to
problem solving
The handshake problem
Problems involving contact between people, for example, how many handshakes or
greetings are needed to include everyone, can be solved using networks by following
the steps outlined in worked example 7.
WORKED Example 7
Consider a group of 6 people sitting at a round table. How many handshakes are required
so that each person shakes hands with everyone exactly once?
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Draw a circle representing the table and the 6 A
vertices, A–F, representing the 6 people at the B
F
table.
E C
D
2 Start with person A. This person must shake hands A
with 5 other people — B, C, D, E and F. Show this F B
by adding the appropriate connections to the
diagram (red lines).
E C
D
3 Now consider person B. This person has already A
shaken hands with A (see step 2) and still needs to F B
shake hands with the remaining 4 people — C, D,
E and F. Add 4 connections to the diagram to show
E C
the handshakes of person B (blue lines).
D
THINK WRITE/DRAW
4 For person C, the three people A

remaining to shake hands with are D, E F B
and F. Add appropriate edges to the
diagram (black lines).
E C
D
5 Person D still needs to shake hands A

with two people — E and F. F B
Show this with edges DE and DF
(green lines).
E C
D
6 The last handshake is between A

E and F (orange line). F B
E C
D
7 We now count the total number of The total number of handshakes

handshakes. =5+4+3+2+1
= 15
A network in which every vertex is connected to each of the other vertices is called a
complete network. The final network in the handshake problem above is an example of
a complete network.
The total number of edges in a complete graph can be calculated using the
following rule:
n( n – 1)
Total number of edges = -------------------- , where n = the number of vertices
2
For worked example 7, n will represent the number of people and the edges will
represent the handshakes; therefore,
n ( n – 1 ) 6 ( 6 – 1 ) 30
the total number of handshakes = -------------------- = -------------------- = ------ = 15.
2 2 2
This rule may be used as a checking tool.
Tournaments
The set of steps used to find the number of handshakes considered in worked
example 7 can also be used to work out games or teams in a round-robin tourna-
ment, where each player or team gets to play all the others exactly once. Worked
example 8 shows a different approach to the problem for 6 teams.
WORKED Example 8
Six ten-pin bowling teams (A to F) are playing
in a knockout tournament. Use networks to
organise the games so that each team plays
every other team once.
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Begin by drawing a circle joining each A Games played
vertex to its nearest neighbour. F B Round 1:
Round 1 A plays B
Starting at A and going clockwise, each E C C plays D
team plays the team on its left as shown D E plays F
with red lines. A
Round 2:
Round 2 F B
A plays F
Starting at A and going counter- E plays D
clockwise, each team plays the team on E C C plays B
its right as shown with blue lines. D
2 Round 3 A Round 3:
Join A to the opposite vertex, and then F B A plays D
make connections at right angles to this B plays F
connection (blue lines). C plays E
E C
D
Join B to the opposite vertex, and then F B A plays C
make connections at right angles to this B plays E
connection (black lines). D plays F
E C
D
Join C to the opposite vertex, and then F B A plays E
make connections at right angles to this B plays D
connection (green lines). C plays F
E C
D
By observing the listed games in each round, you can confirm that each team does
indeed play each other team exactly once.
Note: The number of games played by the 6 teams is equal to the total number of hand-
shakes between 6 people.
Odd numbers of teams

A further difficulty arises when an odd number of teams play. One very elegant solution
is to add a dummy team, so that if there are originally 5 teams, then the dummy is the
sixth team. Whoever is scheduled to play the dummy actually gets a bye for that round.
Thus, you could use the method in worked example 8 for a tournament of 5 teams, with
F as the dummy, and therefore there would be byes for teams E, A, B, D and C in the 5
rounds.
remember
1. A network where every vertex is connected to each other vertex is called a
complete network.
n(n – 1)
2. For a complete network: Total number of edges = -------------------- ,
where n = the number of vertices. 2
3. We aim to construct a complete network when solving problems where each
person (or team) needs to contact (or play) every other person (or team).
4. If the number of teams in a tournament problem is odd, add a dummy team and
proceed as you would with an even number of teams.
Application of networks to
14C
L Spre
XCE ad
sheet
E
problem solving Handshake
counter
WORKED 1 Solve the handshake problem for 5, 7, 8, 9 and 10 people, and hence complete the
Example
7
following table.
Number of
people 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of
handshakes 15
2 Check answers obtained in question 1 using the rule:

n(n – 1)
Total number of edges = -------------------- . Comment on results
2
obtained.
WORKED 3 Use networks to determine the schedule for a
Example
8
tournament in which the following numbers of
soccer teams play.
a 4
b 7
c 8
d 9
e 10
Paths and circuits — part I

As we have seen, a network can represent
many physical situations, such as roads and
towns, computers and cables, people and
handshakes or even classrooms and door-
ways. There are certainly situations where
each edge and each vertex is equally impor-
tant. With planar graphs, we can define a
sequence of edges and vertices and we can
look at various sequences through the net-
work.
Sometimes you may wish to have a
sequence that goes through all vertices only
once, for example a travelling salesperson
who wishes to visit each town or shop once.
Sometimes you may wish to use all edges
only once, such as a road repair gang
repairing all the roads in a shire.
Both these cases are known as traversable
networks.
Paths and circuits

A path is a sequence of edges and vertices that begins at one vertex and ends at
another.
A circuit is a sequence that begins and ends at the same vertex.
Consider the network shown on the right. One path going E

through each vertex is E–D–C–B–A. The vertices might rep-
resent 5 different tourist attractions you would like to visit in D
A
one day during your holidays, and the edges might show the
roads connecting those attractions.
C B
One circuit would be E–D–C–B–A–E. In this case, E might
represent your starting and ending point (say, your hotel) and the other 4 vertices may
be the 4 tourist attractions you would like to visit.
Euler paths and circuits

An Euler path (and Euler circuit) uses each edge exactly once.
Euler paths and circuits are useful when the edges are the really important objects, such
as a network of roads connecting towns. This would be the case if you were designing
a bus route that travels along each road, picking up and dropping off passengers. Unfor-
tunately, not all networks have Euler paths or circuits.
What determines whether or not there is an Euler path or Euler circuit? The answer
lies in determining the degree of each vertex and whether each degree is even or odd.
The following table shows the presence or absence of Euler paths and circuits for
networks with different numbers of odd degree vertices.
Degree of vertices Euler path How? Euler circuit How?

All the vertices Yes Start and finish Yes This depends
have even degrees. at any vertex. upon the actual
network.
There are exactly Yes Start and finish No
two odd degree at the two odd
vertices and the degree vertices.
rest are even.
There are any No No
other number
of odd degree
vertices (1, 3,
5 and so on).
Worked example 9 provides more guidance in locating an Euler path.
WORKED Example 9
E
Determine whether there is an Euler path through
the network shown at right, and, if so, give an D
example. A
C B
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Determine the degree of each vertex by Vertex A has a degree = 2.
counting the number of edges connected Vertex B has a degree = 2.
to it. Vertex C has a degree = 3.
Vertex D has a degree = 2.
Vertex E has a degree = 3.
2 Count the number of odd degree vertices, Number of odd vertices = 2
and hence state whether there is an Euler Therefore, the Euler path exists.
path through the network.
3 Since there are exactly 2 vertices with odd E
6 3
degrees (C and E), an Euler path has to start
and finish with these; say, begin at C and D
4 A
end at E. Attempt to find a path which uses
each edge. 5 2
C B
Note: While each edge must be used exactly 1
once, vertices may be used more than once.
To ensure that each edge has been used,
label them as you go.
4 List the sequence of vertices along the path. An Euler path is C–B–A–E–C–D–E.
Note: The number of vertices in the path is one more than the number of edges in the
network. For instance, in worked example 9 there were 6 edges in the network and the
path contained 7 vertices; that is, one more vertex than the total number of edges.
Can you find a different sequence for the network in the previous worked example,
which is also an Euler path? Does this network have an Euler circuit? Why (or why
not)?
Hamiltonian paths and circuits

A path which goes though each vertex exactly once is known as Hamiltonian. If a
Hamiltonian path begins and ends at the same vertex, it is then a Hamiltonian
circuit.
Unfortunately, there is no set method of finding these routes, except by inspection or
trial and error. Most networks have both a Hamiltonian path and a Hamiltonian circuit.
Finding a circuit may require a clever choice of the starting (and ending) vertex.
WORKED Example 10
For the network shown find: B F
a a Hamiltonian path
b a Hamiltonian circuit.
C A E
THINK WRITE
a Choose any starting vertex and attempt a A possible Hamiltonian path is
to visit all the other vertices. (Not all the A–B–F–E–D–C.
edges need to be used.)
b Attempt to close the path obtained in b A possible Hamiltonian circuit is
part a by returning to the starting vertex. A–B–F–E–D–C–A.
Hamiltonian paths and circuits are most useful in ‘travelling salesperson’ types of prob-
lems where the vertices might represent places that the salesperson must visit each week.
remember
1. A path is a specific set of edges and connecting vertices.
2. A circuit is a sequence that begins and ends at the same vertex.
3. An Euler path is a set of edges connecting all the vertices such that each edge
is used exactly once. For such a path to exist, there must be exactly two vertices
of odd degree (and the rest of even degree) or all the vertices must be of even
degree.
4. An Euler circuit is an Euler path that also has the same starting and ending
vertex. For such a circuit to exist, all the vertices must be of even degree.
5. A Hamiltonian path travels through each vertex exactly once.
6. A Hamiltonian circuit is a Hamiltonian path that also has the same starting and
ending vertex.
Paths and circuits —
14D part I A B
WORKED 1 Determine whether there is an Euler path through the network shown at C 14.4 SkillS
Example
9
right, and, if so, give an example.
HEET
2 Determine an Euler path through the networks shown below. E D Paths in
networks
aA B b Q S
c Q S
C P U P U
R T R T
E D Q S
3 Starting at vertex R, determine an Euler path for this planar graph.
(Hint: What vertex should the path end at?) P U
4 A road inspection crew must travel along each R T

Alhambra
road, shown on the map at right, exactly once.
a From either of which two cities must the crew Buford
Hapless
begin its tour?
b Determine a path using each road once.
c Which cities are visited most often and why? Chesterton Grunge City
French Twist
WORKED 5 For each of the networks shown, find: Dullsville
Example
10
i a Hamiltonian path Eulersburg
ii a Hamiltonian circuit.
a b c d
A B A B A B
B C D
E G E G E
C D C D C D
A F E
F F
6 Which of the networks in the four parts of question 5 have Euler paths?
7 multiple choice
An Euler path:
A uses every vertex exactly once B uses every edge exactly once
C always exists D is the same as a Hamiltonian path
E always starts on a vertex whose degree is an even number
8 multiple choice
A Hamiltonian path:
A does not exist if there are any vertices of odd degree
B does not exist if there are exactly 2 vertices of odd degree
C does not have to use every vertex in the network
D does not have to use every edge in the network
E is the same as a Euler path
Paths and circuits — part II

As was mentioned in the previous section, finding a path that starts and ends at the
same vertex and uses all the edges exactly once (an Euler circuit) can be difficult. In
this section we will explore techniques to help us find Euler circuits.
Finding an Euler circuit

Remember that an Euler circuit exists only if all the vertices are of even degree.
WORKED Example 11
Starting with vertex A, find, if possible, A C
an Euler circuit for the network shown.
E
B D
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Confirm that all of the vertices are of Vertex A has a degree = 4.
even degree. Vertex B has a degree = 2.
Vertex C has a degree = 2.
All vertices are of even degree; therefore, an
Euler circuit is possible.
2 Start with vertex A and find the shortest 1

path back to vertex A. (If there is more A C 2
than one such path, select any one of 3 E
them.) A possible shortest path is B D
A–C–E–A.
3 Complete the circuit by going around 1
the remaining vertices (along path A C 2
A–D–B–A). 6 3 E
4
B D
5
4 Confirm that each edge is used once, The Euler circuit is A–C–E–A–D–B–A.
and list the path.
Which method we use to find an Euler circuit depends upon the starting vertex we
choose. For instance, if the starting vertex in worked example 11 was B, it would be
pointless to select the shortest path (B–A–D–B) back to it, as it would be a dead end.
An Euler circuit from B is B–A–C–E–A–D–B.
Generally, if the starting point has the degree of 2, the first and the last connections
of the circuit must be to that point. This means that the shortest path back to the starting
point is no use, as there are no more edges from it and it would be a dead end. Instead
we can first connect the starting vertex with the vertex of larger degree, as shown in
worked example 12.
WORKED Example 12
Find an Euler circuit for the network shown. A B C
D E
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Confirm that all of the vertices are of even Vertex A has a degree = 4.
degree. Vertex B has a degree = 2.
Vertex C has a degree = 4.
All vertices are of even degree; therefore,
an Euler circuit is possible.
2 Choose a starting vertex, say, D.

Since D is of degree 2, the first and last A B C
1
connections must be to D. Therefore, we can
not look for the shortest path back to D, as it D E
would create a dead end. Instead, we need to
first connect D to the vertex of larger degree.
There are 2 such vertices, A and C (both of
degree 4). So, connect D to one of them,
say, A.
3 Find the shortest path back to A (select any 4
if there is more than one such path).
A 2 B 3 C
1
D E
4 Complete the circuit by moving from A 4

back to D, using the remaining edges.
A 2 3
B C
1 7
6
D E
5
5 List the path. The Euler circuit is:

D–A–B–C–A–E–C–D.
Note: We had to have the path CD as the last one, since we chose DA as the first.
remember
1. For an Euler circuit to exist, all the vertices must be of even degree.
2. Complete a circuit by finding the shortest path to the starting vertex, adding
new vertices one at a time until all vertices are part of the circuit.
3. If the starting vertex has the degree of 2, connect it to a vertex of larger degree first.
14E Paths and circuits — part II
WORKED 1 Starting with vertex A, find, if possible, A B

Example
HEET
14.5 11
an Euler circuit for the network shown.
SkillS
D
Traversable
networks E C
2 Starting with vertex D, find an Euler circuit for the network in question 1.
3 Starting with vertex A, find an Euler circuit for the following networks.
a A B C b B C D
F E
E D
A F
WORKED 4 Find an Euler circuit for the networks shown.

Example
12
a b c
F G F B C
A B C D A E D
A B C
E F
D E
G
5 In a computer network, the file server (F) R

is connected to all the other computers
as shown at right. Craig, the technician, F P Q
wishes to test that each connecting cable
is functioning properly. He wishes to
T S
route a signal, starting at F, so that it
travels down each cable exactly once
and then returns to the file server. Find V U
such a circuit for the network configur- W
ation shown at right.
6 multiple choice A C
The Euler circuit for the network shown at right is: D

A A–B–C–D–E–A B D–E–C–B–A–D
C B–C–E–D–A–B D E–C–D–A–B–C–D–E
E
E none of these
7 multiple choice
If a travelling salesman wished to visit each town connected by a network of roads
exactly once and then return home, he would be looking for:
A an Euler path B an Euler circuit C a Hamiltonian path
D a Hamiltonian circuit E none of the above
8 multiple choice
A group of towns are connected by railroad, as shown in the simpli- P
fied network at right. The shire wishes to be able to have a path so
that each rail link can be used exactly once. Where should it add a J N
new link? M
SHEE
T 14.2
A Between J and M B Between L and N
Work
C Between P and M D Between K and M K L
E Between P and L
THINKING Sprouts
Sprouts is a simple pencil and paper game for two players. Here are the rules:
1 Players take turns at being the first to start play.
2 The first player marks 3 separate dots on a piece of paper.
3 The second player draws a line joining two of the dots and adds a dot
somewhere on the line just drawn.
4 The two players continue to take turns at drawing a line joining two of the dots
and adding a new dot somewhere on this line.
However, there are some conditions!

• No dot is allowed to have more than three lines leaving it. (A dot is ‘dead’ when
three lines are leaving it and can be circled to indicate this.)
• No new line may touch or cross any line already drawn.

5 The winner is the last person able to play.
Keep a record of your games and try to develop a winning strategy. You can also
play this game with a different number of starting dots.
COMMUNICATION The bridges of Königsberg

Do you remember the problem posed at the start of the chapter (see page 659)?
Can it be done? Can you travel across all 7 bridges of Königsberg once, and only
once, before returning to the starting point?
1 Try this problem again. (The university students of Königsberg actually called
in Leonhard Euler in 1735 to help them with this problem.)
2 Explain your answer in terms of networks and odd and even vertices.
3 Draw a diagram and add an eighth bridge so that you could travel over all the
bridges once only if you started and finished at different points.
4 Draw another diagram. Can you add an eighth bridge so that you could travel
over all the bridges once only if you started and finished at the same point?
Hint: Each bridge can be represented by an edge and the islands and riverbanks
represented by vertices, as shown at left.
2
A D F
1 Represent the network shown at right by using the labelling
method. B C E
{(A, B), (A, C), (A, D), (A, E), (B, C), (C, D), (C, E)}
C
Use the network shown at right for questions 3 and 4. E
3 Find the number of vertices (V), edges (E) and D
regions (R) in the network shown. B
F
A
4 Confirm Euler’s formula for the network shown. A
C
5 Determine an Euler path through the network shown at right. E
6 multiple choice B D
For an Euler path to exist there must be exactly 2 vertices of odd degree or:
A all vertices must be of odd degree
B one vertex is of odd degree
C one vertex is of even degree
D there is an equal number of odd and even degree vertices
E all vertices must be of even degree.
Use this network for questions 7 and 8.
A G
7 Find a Hamiltonian path.
B
8 Find a Hamiltonian circuit. D
E F
Answer true or false for questions 9 and 10.
9 An Euler path uses every edge only once.
10 A Hamiltonian circuit is a Hamiltonian path that does not have to have the
same starting and ending vertex.
Trees and networks
A special kind of network is called a tree. Like woody trees, network trees have branches.
In network trees, the branches, called edges, come together at points, called vertices.
A tree consists of a number of vertices and the smallest number of edges

necessary, so that each vertex is connected to at least one other vertex.
This ensures that each vertex can ‘communicate’ to all the other vertices either directly
or indirectly.
Identifying trees
The diagrams on the right show trees for 2 and A B A B
3 vertices respectively. For the 3-vertex case,
there are 2 other possible trees. Can you draw
them?
C
The next two diagrams show trees for 4 and 5 A B A B

vertices respectively. Observe that for 4 vertices
there are 3 edges and for 5 vertices there are 4
edges.
C C E
Generally, a tree has one fewer edge than

the number of vertices.
D D
The last figure at right is an example of a network that is not a A B

tree. Note that it has one too many edges. Can you identify the extra
edge (that is, the edge that has to be removed in order for the net-
work to become a tree)?
C E
D
WORKED Example 13
Identify which of the following networks are trees.
a A B F
b A B F
c A G F
C E C E B E
D D C D
d A G F e R S
B E Q T V
C D P U
THINK WRITE
a 1 Count the number of vertices and a Number of vertices = 6
edges. There should be one edge Number of edges = 5
fewer than the number of vertices.
2 Check whether each vertex is A is connected to B.
connected to at least one other and B is connected to F.
state your conclusion. C is connected to D.
D is connected to E.
F is connected to B.
Therefore, the network shown is a tree.
b Count the number of vertices and edges. b Number of vertices = 6

The number of edges must be one fewer Number of edges = 6
than the number of vertices for the Therefore, the network shown is not a tree.
network to be a tree.
c 1 Count the number of vertices and c Number of vertices = 7

edges. There should be one edge Number of edges = 6
fewer than the number of vertices.
2 Check whether each vertex is A is not connected to any vertex.
connected to at least one other and Therefore, the network shown is not a tree.
state your conclusion.
d 1 Check whether the number of edges d Number of vertices = 7

is one fewer than the number of Number of edges = 6
vertices.
2 Ensure that each vertex is connected Each vertex is connected.
to at least one other. Therefore, the network shown is a tree.
e 1 Check if the number of vertices e Number of vertices = 7

exceeds the number of edges by one. Number of edges = 6
2 Ensure that each vertex is connected Each vertex is connected.
to at least one other. Therefore, the network shown is a tree.
The minimal spanning tree
Consider a network of vertices and edges where the edges represent, say, the distance
between the vertices. We wish to find a tree within the network, so that the total dis-
tance along the tree is as small as possible.
This is called the minimal spanning tree and is useful, for example, for a message
system, where the total distance travelled between the vertices should be as small as
possible. The method for finding the minimal spanning tree is particularly simple and is
demonstrated in worked example 14.
WORKED Example 14
In the network shown,
numbers represent the
distances (in km)
between ten towns. Find
the minimal spanning
tree and determine its
total length.
R 15 S 33 W
35 27 24 34
23 26
Q T 10 V X
20 31
25 18
21
38
P U Y
THINK WRITE/DRAW
1 Find the edge with the shortest
R 15 S 33 W
distance. It is the start of the tree. The
35 27 24 34
shortest edge is T–V.
Q 23 T 10 V 26 X
20 31 25
21 18
P U 38 Y
Total distance = 10
2 Find the edge connecting a new vertex 15 33
R S W
to the existing tree (T–V) by the 34
35 27 24
shortest distance.
23 10 26
Town T is connected to S (distance Q T V X
27 km), Q (23 km) and U (31 km). 20 31
21 25 18
Town V is connected to W (24 km), 38
P U Y
X (26 km) and U (25 km).
Choose the smallest distance, T–Q Total distance = 10 + 23
(23 km), and find the total distance = 33
so far.
Continued over page

THINK WRITE/DRAW

R S W
to the existing tree (Q–T–V) by the 34
35 27 24
shortest distance:
Town Q is connected to R (35 km), Q 23 T 10 V 26 X
P (21 km) and U (20 km). 20 31 25
21 18
Town T is connected to S (27 km) and 38
P U Y
U (31 km).
Town V is connected to W (24 km),
X (26 km) and U (25 km).
Choose Q–U (20 km) and find the new Total distance = 33 + 20
total distance. = 53

R S W
to the existing tree (U–Q–T–V) by the 34
35 27 24
shortest distance. Using the same
method as in previous steps, select Q 23 T 10 V 26 X
Q–P (21 km). 20 31 25
21 18
38
P U Y
Calculate the new total. Total distance = 53 + 21

= 74
5 The edge connecting a new vertex to 15 33

R S W
the existing tree (U–P–Q–T–V) by the 34
35 27 24
shortest distance is V–W (24 km).
Q 23 T 10 V 26 X
20 31 25
21 18
38
P U Y
Add 24 to the previous total. Total distance = 74 + 24

= 98
6 The edge with the shortest distance 15 33

R S W
connecting a new vertex to the existing 34
tree (U–P–Q–T–V–W) is V–X (26 km). 35 27 24
Note: If U–V was used, the figure Q 23 T 10 V 26 X
would no longer be a tree. 20 31 25
21 18
38
P U Y

= 124
THINK WRITE/DRAW
7 The next edge with the shortest distance 15 33
R S W
connecting a new vertex to the existing 34
tree (U–P–Q–T–V–W–X) is 35 27 24
X–Y (18 km). Q 23 T 10 V 26 X
20 31 25
21 18
38
P U Y
= 142
8 Select edge T–S (27 km). It connects 15 33
R S W
a new vertex (S) to the existing tree 34
35 27 24
(U–P–Q–T–V–W–X–Y) using the
shortest distance. Q 23 T 10 V 26 X
20 31 25
21 18
38
P U Y
= 169
9 Finally, select the edge S–R (15 km), 15 33
R S W
which connects the last remaining 34
vertex, R, to the existing tree 35 27 24
(U–P–Q–T–S–V–W–X–Y) and has Q 23 T 10 V 26 X
the shortest distance. 20 31 25
21 18
The tree is now complete, as all 38
P U Y
vertices are connected.
Calculate the total and answer the Total distance = 169 + 15
question. = 184
Total length of the minimal spanning tree is 184 km.
It is now possible for each vertex in worked example 14 to communicate with all the
others, with a minimum total distance of 184 km. Suppose there was a major fire in
town T. They would send messages directly to Q, S, and V. These towns would send a
message to towns P, U (from Q), R (from S), W and X (from V) and so on, until every
town had received the message.
Although finding the minimal spanning tree may seem a long process, at each step
the decisions are very simple: just add the shortest edge to a new vertex.
remember
1. A tree uses the smallest number of edges possible, so that each vertex is
connected to at least one other vertex.
2. A tree of n vertices contains (n − 1) edges. (That is, the number of edges is one
fewer than the number of the vertices.)
3. The minimal spanning tree is the tree that has the shortest total overall length.
4. To find the minimal spanning tree, start with the shortest overall edge. Add a
new vertex by finding the shortest edge connecting it to the existing tree, until
all vertices are connected.
14F Trees and networks
WORKED 1 Identify which of the following networks are trees.

Example
13
a b A c d e
C C A F J M F B
A E
L D A I E
D B B D
F K H G C
B N
E C
D E
2 In the network at right, identify one (or more) edges that, when A B
removed, result in the remaining network becoming a tree.
E D C
F
3 Identify one (or more) edges in the figure at right that, when X
added, result in the network becoming a tree. T V
Y
U W
Z
WORKED 4 In the network shown at right, numbers represent the dis- 67
Example B G
14
tances (in km) between seven towns. Find the minimal
51
spanning tree and determine its total length. 44 48
34
A 46 C F
45 41
36 39
37
D E
5 The diagram on the right represents 8 cities and the roads W 77

62 E
connecting them. The distances along each road are also 77
Q 68
indicated. If the distances are in km, find the minimal 45 61
70
spanning tree for this network. Determine the total length R T
67 55
of the tree. 52 72
Y
I 81 61 O
6 Two new towns (X and Z) and their road connections W 77
62 E
are added to the network in question 5, as shown. Find 77
Q 68
the new minimal spanning tree and its length. 45 61
40 70
R T
X 55
52 72
44 67 81 Y
I 36 61 O
49 Z
7 A group of computers are

connected as shown below.
The numbers on the edges
represent the cost (in cents) of
sending a 1 MB mail message
between the computers. Find
the smallest possible cost to
send a message to all the com-
puters.
26
27 36 14 19
17
40 21
18
11
16 24
12 23
16
32
8 multiple choice GAME
time
A Hamiltonian circuit is not a tree because:
A not all the vertices are connected in a Hamiltonian circuit Networks
— 002
B there are more vertices than edges in a Hamiltonian circuit
C there are the same number of vertices and edges in a Hamiltonian circuit
D there are more edges in a Hamiltonian circuit than are required for a tree
E a Hamiltonian circuit does not necessarily connect all the vertices.
9 multiple choice B
19 18 SHEE
T 14.3
The next edge that should be added to the tree shown
Work
by red lines in the figure at right, to form a minimal 11

A C
spanning tree, would be:
9 16
A A–D (length = 15) 15
B C–E (length = 16) D
12
E
C B–C (length = 18)
13 22
D A–B (length = 19) 20
E G–F (length = 23) G F
23
summary
Copy the sentences below. Fill in the gaps by choosing the correct word or
expression from the word list that follows.
1 A network consists of edges and .
2 When using the labelling method to describe a network, the pair
{ . . . (C, F) . . . } means that C is to F.
3 The degree of a vertex is the total number of it has con-
nected to it.
4 In a planar graph there are no edges.
5 Euler’s rule connects the number of edges, vertices and with
a formula V = E − F + 2.
6 If there are 4 people in a room, the smallest number of handshakes, so that
each person shakes hands with everyone else exactly once, is .
7 A is a sequence of edges and vertices that begins at one
vertex and ends at another; a is a sequence which begins and
ends at the same vertex.
8 An Euler path uses each exactly once.
9 An Euler path is possible if either vertices in the network are
of even degree or vertices are of odd degree.
10 A uses each vertex exactly once.
11 A Hamiltonian circuit does not necessarily use in the network.
12 A network with two vertices of degree equal to 3 cannot have an
.
13 A tree consists of a number of vertices and edges necessary,
so that each vertex is connected to at least one other.
14 A tree for a network with 12 vertices would have edges.
15 A minimal spanning tree has possible.
WORD LIST
Euler circuit edges edge connected
11 regions all crossing
vertices every edge Hamiltonian path 6
the smallest total 2 vertex path
length circuit the smallest
number of
CHAPTER
review
1 Draw the following network.
{(A, B), (A, C), (A, D), (B, E), (C, E), (C, F), (D, F), (E, G), (F, G)} 14A
2 Represent the network shown at right, using the labelling method. Q
14A
R S
T U
V W
A X Y B
3 State the degree of each vertex in the network in question 2.

14B
4 For the network shown at right: A F E
a count the number of vertices (V)
b count the number of edges (E) 14B
B D
c count the number of faces (F)
d confirm Euler’s formula.
C
5 Eight beach-volleyball teams (A to H) are playing in a knockout tournament. Use networks

to organise the games so that each team plays every other team once. 14C
6 How many handshakes will it take if there are 8 people and everyone shakes hands with
everyone else exactly once? 14C
7 For each of the following networks, state whether an Euler path and/or an Euler circuit
are/is possible. 14D
a A network with 2 vertices with the degree = 2 and 2 vertices with the degree = 3
b A network with 3 vertices with the degree = 2 and 2 vertices with the degree = 3
c A network with 3 vertices with the degree = 2 and 3 vertices with the degree = 3
d A network with 2 vertices with the degree = 2 and 3 vertices with the degree = 3
e A network with 5 vertices with even degrees
f A network with 4 vertices with odd degrees
g A network with 1 vertex with the degree = 2, 2 vertices with the degree = 3 and 2
vertices with the degree = 4
8 a For the network shown at right, find:
iii an Euler path ii a Hamiltonian path
A F E
14D
iii a Hamiltonian circuit.
b Explain why is there no Euler circuit. B D
9 Modify the network in question 8 so that there is a possible Euler circuit. Draw a circuit,
starting with vertex A. 14E
10 a For the network shown at right, state two possible Euler paths, C
starting with different vertices.
b Modify the network by adding a new vertex, F, so that an Euler B D
circuit is possible.
c For the modified version of the network, state an Euler circuit,
beginning with:
i vertex B A E
ii vertex C.
11 How many edges are required for a tree connecting:
14F a 4 vertices? b 8 vertices? c 100 vertices?
12 Find the minimal spanning tree for each of the networks shown and determine the total
length of each.
a C b A 2 4 c
14F 5.4
3
B
4
C 30
V
R 29
12.3 A
9.9 5.2 8 X
5 3 31
4.9 D E 18 15
6 27 Y
D 3. 6 5.1 4 5 S
B 17
9.7
3.8 F 26 23
E P
11.6 21 36
20 25 W
20
T 11 10 U
32 33
Q
34
Z
13 The graph at right represents seven towns labelled A–G in a 67 G

14A–F particular district. The lines (edges) represent roads linking the B
51 48
44
towns (vertices), with distances given in km. 46 34 F
A C
a Does the graph represent a connected planar graph? 41 39
36 45
b Determine the number of: iii vertices D E
iii edges 37
iii faces (regions) for the given graph.
c Using the answers from part b, determine whether Euler’s formula holds for the given
graph.
d iii Write the degree of each vertex.
iii Calculate the sum of the degrees of all the vertices and compare with the number of
edges.
iii How many odd-degree vertices are there?
A sales representative from a communication company wishes to visit each town in the
district beginning with town C.
e Give a route to be used by the sales representative so that no road is used more than once.
f Is the route in part e an example of:
iii an Euler circuit? iii an Euler path?
iii a Hamiltonian circuit? iv a Hamiltonian path?
Comment on why the other options are not acceptable for the route chosen in part e.
g Calculate the shortest distance from town A to town G.
After visiting each town, the sales representative recommends the communication
network be upgraded.
test
yourself h Remove the edges from the given graph to produce the minimal spanning tree for this
CHAPTER
14 network.
i Determine the total length of the minimal spanning tree.

Chap 14

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eTHINKING 10

Are you ready? READY?

Use the diagram shown below to answer questions 1 to 4.

14.1 The degree of a vertex

14.2 Vertices, edges and regions of a network

14.4 Paths in networks

14.5 Traversable networks

A network is a collection of objects, connected to each other in some specific way.

We could continue this process indefinitely, creating a family tree structure.

2 Draw them using the vertical direction D E F G

Join the various people with lines, D E F G

A network can be represented by a list of pairs of vertices. The vertices in every

4 Vertex D is included in (D, E) and A B

14A What is a network?

Who was the first Australian to win

There is another interesting property of the degrees in a network.

For any planar network,

St Petersburg. When he was 31, Euler lost the

5 Confirm Euler’s formula for each of the networks in question 2.

6 Consider the network defined by the following list of edges.

Networks A an odd number

E twice the number of edges

starts at corner A and walks along as many edges as possible without

2 The cube shown in part 1 is made from a length of wire by bending,

Use the network shown to answer questions 5 and 6.

Use the following network for questions 7 and 8.

9 A network consists of faces, edges and .

10 The sum of the of all the vertices of the network equals

4 For person C, the three people A

5 Person D still needs to shake hands A

6 The last handshake is between A

7 We now count the total number of The total number of handshakes

Odd numbers of teams

2 Check answers obtained in question 1 using the rule:

Paths and circuits — part I

Paths and circuits

Consider the network shown on the right. One path going E

Euler paths and circuits

Degree of vertices Euler path How? Euler circuit How?

Worked example 9 provides more guidance in locating an Euler path.

Hamiltonian paths and circuits

4 A road inspection crew must travel along each R T

Paths and circuits — part II

Finding an Euler circuit

2 Start with vertex A and find the shortest 1

2 Choose a starting vertex, say, D.

4 Complete the circuit by moving from A 4

5 List the path. The Euler circuit is:

14E Paths and circuits — part II

WORKED 1 Starting with vertex A, find, if possible, A B

WORKED 4 Find an Euler circuit for the networks shown.

5 In a computer network, the file server (F) R

The Euler circuit for the network shown at right is: D

However, there are some conditions!

• No new line may touch or cross any line already drawn.

COMMUNICATION The bridges of Königsberg

A tree consists of a number of vertices and the smallest number of edges

The next two diagrams show trees for 4 and 5 A B A B

Generally, a tree has one fewer edge than

The last figure at right is an example of a network that is not a A B

b Count the number of vertices and edges. b Number of vertices = 6

c 1 Count the number of vertices and c Number of vertices = 7

d 1 Check whether the number of edges d Number of vertices = 7