Opamp Trivia Notes

Op-Amp Basics
Peggy Alavi
Application Engineer
September 3, 2003
SLIDE 1
OP-AMP BASICS
PEGGY ALAVI, APPLICATION ENGINEER,
AMPLIFIERS GROUP
NATIONAL SEMICONDUCTOR
Presentation Transcript
1
Op-Amp Basics – Part 1
• Op-Amp Basics
– Why op-amps
– Op-amp block diagram
– Input modes of Op-Amps
– Loop Configurations
– Negative Feedback
– Gain Bandwidth Product
• Op-Amp Parameters
• Op-Amp Internal Circuit
© 2003 National Semiconductor Corporation
SLIDE 2
In today’s presentation we will be talking about
operational amplifiers, their basic parameters, and the
internal circuitry of op-amps.
2
• Op-Amp Basics – Common Mode
• Op-Amp Parameters Rejection
– Input Offset Voltage – CMRR
– Input Bias Current – CMVR
– Input Offset Current – PSRR
– Output Impedance – Gain and Phase Margin
– Slew Rate – Abs Max Rating
– Noise – Operating Ratings
SLIDE 3
We’ll start by talking about op-amps building blocks, their
loop configuration, why we use them in feedback, and in
what forms of feedback.
3
• Op-Amp Basics
• Op-Amp Parameters
– Biasing circuit
– Differential Input Stage
– Voltage Gain Stage
– Output Stage
SLIDE 4
After that we’ll cover some of the op-amp parameters
such as offsets, slew rate, CMRR, and CMVR.
4
What is an Op-Amp?
• Inexpensive, efficient, versatile, and readily available
building blocks for many applications
• Amplifier which has
– Very large open loop gain
– Differential input stage
– Uses feedback to control the relationship
between the input and output
SLIDE 5
Finally we will go over the internal circuitry of an op-amp.
We will cover a very general and basic op-amp. In this
section we’ll talk about the different stages of an op-amp.
So what is an op-amp? Op-amps are fairly cheap and
widely available from many different vendors. They’re
used in many different applications and they’re basically
amplifiers which should have the following
characteristics: They have very large open loop gain,
differential input stage, and they use feedback to
establish and control the relationship between the output
and input signals.
5
What does an Op-Amp do?
• Performs many different “operations”
– Addition/Subtraction
– Integration/Differentiation
– Buffering
– Amplification
• DC and AC signals
+ dx
⌠ ∑ dt
⌡ − ×
SLIDE 6
Op-amps can perform many different operations. These
“operations” include addition, subtraction, multiplication,
integration and etcetera. They are also “amplifiers”, and
amplifiers can perform buffering or they can amplify DC
and AC signals.
6
Where is an Op-Amp used?
• Many applications including
– Comparators
– Oscillators
– Filters
– Sensors
– Sample and Hold
– Instrumentation Amplifier
SLIDE 7
Op-amps are used in many different applications. These
applications include filters, sensors, sample and hold
circuits, instrumentation amplifiers, and many other
applications which we have not included in this slide.
7
Operational Amplifier
• Op-Amps must have:
– Very high input impedance
– Very high open loop gain
– Very low output impedance
SLIDE 8
Operational amplifiers in general have five pins; two of
those are inputs, two of the pins are supply pins and
finally there’s an output pin. Some op-amps may have
more pins for external compensation. Some op-amps
have shutdown pins, and some may have a differential
output stage. We’re not going to cover those since this
presentation is intended to cover basics of op-amps.
Op-amps must have very high input impedance, very
high open loop gain, and very low output impedance. It’s
next to impossible to achieve all these three in one single
stage. This is why op-amps generally have three different
stages.
8
Op-Amp Block Diagram
V CC
Differential Voltage Output OUTPUT

INPUTS
Amplifier Amplifier Amplifier
+
-V EE
SLIDE 9
The first stage (of the op amp) is a differential amplifier.
The second stage is the gain stage and finally the third
stage is the output stage of the operational amplifier.
9
Differential Amplifier Stage
• Provides differential input for the op-amp
• Provides dc gain
• Has very high input impedance
– Draws negligible input current
• Enables user to utilize ideal Op-Amp equations
for circuit analysis
SLIDE 10
Here you can see the block diagram of a simple and
general-purpose amplifier with the three stages shown.
The first stage or the differential input stage of the
amplifier must have very high input impedance. This will
cause the op-amp to draw very negligible amounts of
input current. The very small input current enables the
user to utilize the ideal op-amp equations for circuit
analysis purposes. This stage also provides the DC gain
of the amplifier.
10
High Gain Voltage Amplifier
• Provides the “gain” of the amplifier
• Gains up the differential signal from input and
conveys it to the output stage
SLIDE 11
The next stage of the op-amp is the voltage gain stage.
The gain stage is mainly responsible for gaining up the
input signal and sending it to the output stage. It’s worth
mentioning that there are many different op-amp designs,
and some of them may have more or less than the
classical three stages that we are covering.
11
Low Impedance Output Stage
• Delivers current to the load
• Very low impedance output stage
– To minimize loading the output of the op-amp
• May have short circuit protection
SLIDE 12
We also see that the op-amp must have very low output
impedance. This minimizes the loading of the output of
the op-amp by output stage of the op-amp. The output
stage delivers current to the op-amp’s load and it may or
may not have short circuit protection.
12
Inputs of Op-Amp
• Two Input terminals
– Positive Input (Non-Inverting)
– Negative Input (Inverting)
• Can be used in three different “input” modes
– Differential Input Mode
– Inverting Mode
– Non-Inverting Mode
V cc
-
INPUTS OUTPUT
+
-VEE
SLIDE 13
As we’ve already mentioned, op-amps have two input
pins. One is the non-inverting pin or the positive pin and
the other input is the inverting or the negative pin.
13
Differential Input Mode
• Both input terminals are used
• Input signals are 180° out of phase
• Output is in phase with non-inverting input
VCC
-VEE
SLIDE 14
In general, op-amps can be setup in three different input
modes. These three are differential input mode, inverting
input mode and non-inverting input mode.
In the differential input mode, the signal is applied to both
of the input terminals. These signals have to be out of
phase and the output is going to be completely in phase
with the non-inverting signal. In case the signals that are
applied to both the inputs are in phase, there should be
no output and that input signal is referred to as the
common mode signal. It is worth mentioning that we will
exchange between the terms output is grounded or
output is sitting at mid-supply or output is zero and that’s
all because we are assuming that we have dual supply
voltage. So basically we have a negative voltage and a
positive voltage on the supply ends of the op-amp. Under
those conditions, all these three terms mean the same
thing and throughout the presentation we’ll exchange
between the three.
14
Inverting Mode
• Non-Inverting input is grounded (Connected to mid-
supply)
• Signal is applied to the inverting input
• Output is 180° out of phase with input
VCC
-VEE
SLIDE 15
In the inverting mode the non-inverting input of the
amplifier is grounded or it’s connected to mid-supply.
Input signal is applied to the negative input and the
output signal is completely out of phase with the input
signal. The graphic on this slide is showing the signals.
15
Non-Inverting Mode
• Inverting Input is grounded
• Signal is applied to the non-inverting input
• Output is in phase with the input
VCC
-VEE
SLIDE 16
In the non-inverting input mode the signal is applied to
the positive input of the amplifier while the negative input
of the amplifier is grounded. Output signal under these
conditions is going to be completely in phase with the
input signal.
16
Open Loop VS Closed Loop
• Open Loop
– Very high gain
– Noise and other “unwanted” signals are amplified
by the same gain factor
• Creates poor stability
– Used in comparators and oscillators
• Closed Loop
– Reduces the gain of an amplifier
– Adds stability to the amplifier
– Most amplifiers are used in this configuration
• Op-Amps are normally not used in open loop mode
SLIDE 17
Before going over the next slide, please note that
operational amplifiers are not used in open loop
configurations.
In open loop, amplifiers have very high gain. However,
the noise and all the other unwanted signals is gained up
by the same factor as the so-called “wanted” signals.
The open loop configuration has very high sensitivity and
it’s mainly used in comparators, which are not op-amps.
17
Closed Loop
• Output is applied “back” into the inverting input
• Op-Amps use negative feedback
– The “fed back” signal always opposes the effects
of the input signal
– Both inputs will be kept at the same voltage
• Is used in both inverting and non-inverting
configurations
SLIDE 18
Closed loop reduces the gain of the amplifier. However, it
adds stability and op-amps are used in closed loop
configurations. In closed look configuration part of the
output signal is applied back into the inverting input of the
amplifier. This creates negative feedback, which is
generally the type of feedback that’s used in op-amp.
Positive feedback is mainly used in oscillators.
18
Why Negative Feedback
• It helps overcome distortion and non-linearity
• The relationship between input and output signal is
dependent on and controlled by external feedback
network
• Allows user to “tailor” frequency response to the
desired values
• It makes circuit properties predictable and less
dependent on elements such as temperature or
internal properties of the device
SLIDE 19
In op-amps the fedback signal is always opposing the
effect of the input signal (remember that we are using
negative feedback.) Negative feedback is used in both
inverting and non-inverting configurations of operational
amplifiers.
The main reasons we use negative feedback are listed in
this slide. Since the relationship between the input and
output signals is mostly dependent on external
components such as resistors, the circuit properties are
easier to predict. Also they will have lower dependency
on the internal circuitry of amplifiers and, hence, it is
easier to overcome non-linearity and distortion in our
setup.
19
Inverting Closed Loop
• RF is used to feedback “part” of the output to the
inverting input
• Negative input is at virtual ground
• Characteristics of this circuit almost entirely
determined by values of RF and RG
I feedback RF
V cc
I in
Vin RG
-
Virtu a l
+ Vout
g ro u n d
-V EE © 2003 National Semiconductor Corporation
SLIDE 20
In inverting closed loop configuration, a resistor is used to
feedback part of the output signal back into the inverting
input of the amplifier.
20
Inverting Closed Loop
SLIDE 21
As we’ve already mentioned, virtually no current flows
into the amplifiers input. In this configuration the positive
input is grounded. We will show that the circuit
characteristics are determined by values of feedback
resistor and gain resistor. Since no current is flowing into
the input pin of the amplifier, all the current that’s coming
back from the feedback path is going to go through the
gain resistor. So, basically, the input current and the
feedback current are going to be equal. Since the non-
inverting pin is grounded, the inverting pin is going to be
sitting at virtual ground.
You can see that the feedback current is equal to -Vout /
RF. The negative sign indicates that the output signal is
completely out of phase with the input signal. The input
current is VIN / RG. Now if we set these two currents
equal, we find the gain relationship of the operational
amplifier is Vout / VIN = -RF / RG. This is referred to as the
operational amplifier’s closed loop gain. As mentioned
before, the negative sign indicates that the input and
output signal are completely out of phase with each 21
other
Example: Inverting Amplifier
SLIDE 22
In the next slide we’re going to go over a very simple
numerical example. An input signal with the peak-to-peak
amplitude of 100mVpp is applied to the inverting input of
the op-amp and the values of RG and RF are given as RG
= 1K and RF = 9K. We can utilize the equations from the
previous slide and find out that Iin and If , the feedback
current, are going to be equal to 0.1mA. Finally, the
closed loop gain is equal to the ratio of the feedback
resistor to the gain resistor or “9.” This indicates that the
amplitude of the output is going to be 9 times higher than
that of the input signal, and hence the output signal is
900mVpp. Also note that since we’re talking about the
peak-to-peak values, the minus sign of the inverting
amplifier is not shown. However, the output signal at any
point is completely out of phase with the input signal.
22
Non-Inverting Closed Loop
• RF is used to feedback “part” of the output to the
inverting input
• Input, output, and feedback signal in phase
• The feedback is negative
SLIDE 23
In the non-inverting closed loop configuration, again, a
feedback resistor is used to feedback part of the output
signal back into the inverting input. The input signal is
applied to the non-inverting input of the amplifier but
since the feedback path is around the inverting pin,
please note that we still have negative feedback.
23
Non-Inverting Closed Loop
SLIDE 24
Here again you can see that feedback current is equal to
the input current. Also the voltage on the inverting input is
equal to that on the non-inverting input pin. So, we can
write the equation for the input current and feedback
current. Input current is going to be equal to input voltage
divided by gain resistor and the output current equals the
output voltage minus input voltage divided by feedback
resistor. Setting these two equal and performing simple
mathematical operations we’ll see that the output voltage
to input voltage ratio, or the op-amp’s closed loop gain
for the non-inverting configuration is equal to one plus the
ratio of feedback resistor to the gain resistor.
24
Example: Non-Inverting Amp
SLIDE 25
We’re going to work on a numerical example for this
case. We’re going to input a 100mVpp signal on the non-
inverting input of the op-amp and we’re going to use the
same gain resistor and feedback resistor as in the
inverting case, 1K and 9K. Here the ratio of the two
resistors is still 9, but we have a factor of 1 added, so the
output voltage amplitude is going to be 10 times larger
than the input voltage amplitude and the two signals are
going to be completely in phase. The output signal is
1Vpp.
25
Bandwidth Limitation
• Frequency bandwidth
is measured at the
point where gain falls
to 0.707 of maximum
signal
– The -3dB
bandwidth
• Open loop
configurations are
extremely bandwidth
limited
• Closed loop
configuration
significantly
increases an op-
amp’s bandwidth
SLIDE 26
Bandwidth is a very important parameter of op-amps.
Frequency bandwidth is measured at the point where the
op-amp gain falls to 0.707 or 1/√2 of its maximum value.
This point is usually referred to as the -3dB point of the
amplifier and that indicates that that gain at that point has
dropped by 3dB from its maximum value. The -3dB
points at some different cases are shown here. The open
loop configuration is going to have a higher DC gain.
However, as we can see from the figure, this
configuration is extremely bandwidth limited. That means
the gain starts rolling off at only a few hertz, or that the -
3dB frequency is only a few hertz. In closed loop
configuration the DC gain of the amplifier or the gain of
the amplifier at zero frequency is reduced. However, the
op-amp bandwidth is much wider and basically that
means the frequency at which the op-amp starts rolling
off has increased (remember that this is the -3dB point.)
The frequency at which the op-amp gain is only 1 or at
0dB, is called the unity gain frequency.
26
Gain Bandwidth Product
• Gain X Bandwidth = Unity Gain Frequency
• Known as GBWP
• Used to determine an op-amp’s bandwidth in an
application
– GBWP is specified in datasheet
– Gain is set by user
SLIDE 27
A very interesting relationship holds between the
frequency and the bandwidth of op-amps and that’s the
gain bandwidth product. The gain of the op-amp at any
given point multiplied by its -3dB bandwidth is going to
give us the unity gain frequency and this known as the
gain bandwidth product. The gain bandwidth product is
used to determine op-amps bandwidth in a certain
application. Gain bandwidth is specified in the data sheet
and a user usually sets up the gain and this way the user
can actually find out the bandwidth of the circuit.
27
Op-Amp Parameters
SLIDE 28
In the next part of the presentation we’ll be talking about
some of the basic operational amplifier parameters.
28
Input Offset Voltage
• Ideally, output at mid-supply when the two inputs
are equal
• Realistically, a voltage will appear on output when
both input voltages are the same
• Minimal voltage difference “offset” on inputs will set
the output to mid-supply again
• This is Input Offset Voltage
VOS
SLIDE 29
The first parameter that we’re going to cover is the input
offset voltage of the amplifier. Ideally the output of the
amplifier should sit at mid-supply when the two input
voltages have the same voltage or they’re equal.
However, a voltage will appear on the output under this
condition. To prevent this from happening a very small
amount of voltage difference or “offset” is applied to the
inputs of the amplifier and this will set the output back to
mid-supply. This amount of offset voltage is simply
referred to as input offset voltage.
29
Input Bias Current
• Ideally should be zero
• Positive input bias current:
– Small current seen on the non-inverting input of
an amplifier
• Negative input bias:
– Small current seen on the inverting input of an
amplifier
• Input Bias Current:
– Average of currents on inputs of an amplifier
IBIAS
SLIDE 30
Input bias current. Again, this is a parameter that would
ideally be zero. A positive input bias current refers to
small current that’s seen on the non-inverting input of the
amplifier and similarly, negative input bias current is the
small amount of current that’s seen on the inverting pin
of the amplifier. Input bias current refers to the average of
these two values. Simply put, input bias current is the
average of the two input currents of the amplifier.
30
Input Offset Current
• Ideally input currents should be equal to obtain zero
output voltage
• Realistically, to set output to zero, one input would
require more current than the other
• Input offset current: Difference between the two
input currents to achieve zero output
IOS
SLIDE 31
Input offset current refers to the difference between the
bias currents of the amplifier. Again, ideally the two
currents should be equal to obtain a zero output voltage.
However, there has to be a difference between the two
bias currents to set the output to zero. This difference is
referred to as input offset current.
31
Output Impedance
• Ideally should be zero
• It is usually “assumed” to be zero
– This way op-amp behaves as a voltage source
– Op-amp capable of driving a wide range of loads
ZOUT
SLIDE 32
Output impedance of an amplifier: Amplifiers should have
very low output impedance and usually it’s assumed to
be zero and in this way op-amps will behave like a
voltage source and it will be capable of driving a very
wide range of loads.
32
Slew Rate
• Maximum rate of change of the output voltage per
unit time
• ∆VOUT
SR =
∆t
• Expressed in
V
µs
• Basically says how fast the output can “follow” the

input signal
SLIDE 33
The next parameter we’re going to talk about is slew
rate. Slew rate refers to the maximum rate of change of
the output of the amplifier per unit time. Usually it’s
expressed in volts per microsecond and it tells you how
fast your output of the op-amp can follow its input. In the
graph you can see the output signal is “slewing.” The
blue signal is applied to the input of the amplifier and the
red signal or the output is trying to follow the input as fast
as it can but it slews on the rising edge and the falling
edge.
33
Internal Noise
• Caused by internal components, bias current, and
drift
• Noise or “unwanted” signal is amplified along with
the “wanted” signal
R
– Noise gain = 1+ F
RG
• Can be minimized by keeping feedback and input
series resistor values as low as possible
– Bypass capacitor on feedback resistor reduces
noise at high frequencies
SLIDE 34
Next we’re going to be talking about noise of amplifiers.
There are two major sources of noise and we’re going to
touch up on them very lightly since noise is a very broad
topic and covering noise in detail is outside the scope of
this presentation.
Internal noise of an amplifier, as the name carries it, is
caused by internal components of the amplifier, bias
current, and/or drift. Noise or unwanted portion of the
signal is usually amplified along with the wanted portion
of the signal. Noise is always gained in the non-inverting
configuration or (1 + RF/RG). There are certain ways that
we minimize the amount of noise. One is by keeping the
feedback resistors as low as we possibly can and also we
can use bypass capacitors in parallel with the feedback
resistor at higher frequencies.
34
External Noise
• Caused by electrical devices and components
– Power Supply Noise
– Resistor Noise
• Proper circuit construction technique will minimize
this noise
– Adequate shielding
– Reduce Resistor values when possible
– Use 1% or higher accuracy resistors
SLIDE 35
Different electrical devices and components, such as
power supply or resistors can be the cause of external
noise in amplifiers. We can use proper circuit
construction to minimize the effects of external noise in
our circuits. One way to achieve this is to use shielding
around power supply or reducing the resistor values
whenever it’s possible.
35
Common Mode Rejection
• Feature of differential amplifiers
• Common Mode signal is when both inputs have the
same voltage “common voltage”
• Output should be zero in this case, op-amp should
“reject” this signal
SLIDE 36
Common mode rejection is a feature of differential
amplifiers. Op-amps are amplifiers with differential input;
so common mode rejection applies to operational
amplifiers. Common mode signal is when both of the
inputs of the amplifier have the same voltage or they
have a “common voltage” across them. Under this
condition the output of the amplifier should be zero or the
amplifier should reject the signal and not amplify it.
36
Common Mode Rejection Ratio
• CMRR
• Ratio of differential gain to common mode gain when
there is no differential voltage on the input
• Usually expressed in dB
• Decreases with frequency
– Common mode gain increases with frequency
SLIDE 37
Common mode rejection ratio or CMRR is the ratio of
differential gain of the amplifier to the common mode gain
of the amplifier when there is no differential signal on the
input. As the graphics in the current slide show, we see
that the differential gain of the amplifier is in response to
the differential input signal between the two inputs of the
amplifier and the common mode gain of the amplifier is
the gain of the common mode signal.
37
Common Mode Rejection Ratio
• Ability of an op-amp to reject common mode signal
while amplifying the differential signal
Ad ∆VOS
CMRR = 20 LOG A = 20 LOG
CM ∆VCM
Ad : Differential Gain
ACM : Differential Gain
VOS : Offset Voltage
VCM : Common Mode Voltage
SLIDE 38
Common mode rejection ratio decreases with frequency.
As we mentioned, common mode rejection ratio is the
ability of an op-amp to reject the common mode signal
while it’s still amplifying its differential signal. CMRR is
usually expressed in dB and the two equations that we
have here are two different ways to calculate common
mode rejection ratio; 20 log of the ratio of differential gain
to common mode gain and/or 20 log of the ratio of the
change in offset voltage to the change in common mode
voltage.
38
Common Mode Voltage Range
• Range of input voltage,
VCM, for which the
differential pair behaves
as a linear amplifier
– Upper limit determined
by one of the two input
transistors saturating
(DC value of collectors)
– Lower limit is
determined the by
transistor supplying
bias current
SLIDE 39
Common mode voltage range of the signal: Common
mode voltage range of the signal refers to the input
voltage range for which the differential input pair is still
within its linear operating region. The upper and lower
limits are determined by different transistors and internal
circuitry of the op-amp and we’ll go over them when
we’re talking about the internal circuitry of operational
amplifiers.
39
Power Supply Rejection Ratio
• Ratio of differential gain to small signal gain of the
power supply
– Ratio of change in power supply voltage to the
change in offset error
SLIDE 40
The next parameter we’re going to be talking about is
power supply rejection ratio. Power supply rejection ratio
or PSRR is the ratio of differential gain to small gain of
the power supply. Another way to look at it is ratio of
change of the power supply voltage to the change in
offset error. When looking at a product’s datasheet, you
will notice that PSRR and CMRR are specified and
guaranteed for DC conditions or for zero frequency.
There might be additional supplemental AC curves for
these parameters that show the behavior of PSRR and
CMRR over frequency.
40
Gain and Phase Margin
• Gain Margin:
Gain of the amplifier at the point where there is
a 180° phase shift
– If gain more than unity, amplifier unstable
• In dB this means negative gain stable
• Phase Margin:
Difference between phase value at unity gain
(0dB) and 180°
– If at 0 dB, phase lag is greater than 180°, amplifier
is unstable
SLIDE 41
Finally we’ll talk about the gain and phase margin of
amplifiers. Gain margin of an amplifier is the gain of an
amplifier at the point where there’s already been an 180o
phase shift and if the gain at this point, at 180o phase
shift, is more than unity then the amplifier is going to be
unstable. That’s because once there’s been an 180o
phase shift feedback is actually going to be positive. In
terms of dB that means negative gain is going to be
stable at 180o degree phase shift.
Phase margin is the difference between the phase when
gain is unity, or zero dB, and 180o. If at zero dB the
phase lag is greater than 180o the amplifier’s unstable for
the reasons that we just mentioned because that would
imply that the gain margin is positive.
41
Gain and Phase Margin
SLIDE 42
In this graphic we can see that phase margin and gain
margin of an amplifier, which is clearly stable. The gain
margin has a negative value and it is measured when
there’s been 180o phase shift in the amplifier. The phase
margin happens at 0dB and the phase lag is less than
180o.
42
Absolute Maximum Rating
• “Maximum” means the op-amp can safely tolerate
the maximum ratings as given in the datasheet
without damaging its internal circuitry
• Operation of op-amp beyond the maximum rating
limits will permanently damage the device
SLIDE 43
The next two parameters we will talk about are actually
datasheet limits that play important roles. The first one is
absolute maximum ratings of an amplifier. As the term
carries it, the maximum here refers to the maximum limits
that an op-amp will actually be able to operate safely. If
the op-amp is forced to operate under conditions that
exceed the maximum ratings, there will be permanent
damage to the internal circuitry of the op-amp. Absolute
maximum ratings are usually mentioned in the data
sheets.
43
Operating Ratings
• Conditions under which an amplifier is functional;
however specific performance guarantees do not
apply to these conditions
– i.e. Table guarantee ±2.5V
Operating Rating Vs = ±5V
SLIDE 44
Next is operating ratings of the amplifier. These are
conditions under which the amplifier is functional.
However, specific performance guarantees do not apply
to these conditions. An example could be an op-amp for
which the guaranteed table specifications are when there
is ± 2.5 volts supply, but operating rating of the amplifier
exceeds these values.
44
Op-Amp Internal Circuit
SLIDE 45
In the final part of the presentation we’ll go over op-amp
internal circuitry. As mentioned before, please keep in
mind that this is going to be a very simple and general
amplifier and there are very many different variations to
op-amps internal circuitry and design. The graphic in this
slide is just showing us the op-amps standard triangle.
Instead of having three blocks to represent different
stages of its internal circuitry, we have inserted the actual
schematic. This should help in the process of
understanding what each transistor is supposed to
achieve. I think it is a good “big picture” view before we
go into the details of each stage.
45
SLIDE 46
The next slide “zooms in” on the circuit schematic
without showing the pins.
46
Internal Circuit of
Classic Op-Amp LM741
SLIDE 47
The first part of the circuit that we’re going to cover is the
biasing circuit of the amplifier. The biasing provides the
device with the current that it needs for driving all of the
transistors in it. For this particular design the biasing
branch consists of Q12, R5, and Q11. The current
through R5 is equal to VCC minus VEE minus the two-
diode drops, Across Q12 and Q11, divided by value of
R5. This current is seen at base of Q11.
47
Biasing Circuit
SLIDE 48
The next stage that we will talk about is the differential
input stage of the amplifier. The current at the base of
Q11 is mirrored to base of Q10. This current is then
delivered to base of Q3 and Q4. The differential input
stage consists of Q1 and Q2 in series with Q3 and Q4.
Any differential signal across either one of these inputs
will flow current through the input stage and then to Q8
and Q9.
Q1 and Q2 are connected as emitter followers. This
provides the high input impedance that input stage of this
stage and eventually the operational amplifier needs. Q3
and Q4 provide DC level shifting. They also protect Q1
and Q2 from emitter-base junction breakdown. For NPN
transistors, the emitter-base junction breakdown happens
at about 7 volts of reverse bias. For PNP transistors, this
breakdown happens at about 50 volts. If, accidentally, the
input pins have a large reverse voltage across, Q3 and
Q4 actually protect Q1 and Q2 and prevent the op-amp
from breaking down.
48
Differential Input Stage - 1
SLIDE 49
Q5, Q6, Q7, along with the resistors R1, R2, and R3,
form the load circuit on the input stage. This is a high
impedance load and this load converts the differential
signal of the input transistors into a single ended signal at
Q6s collector. The single ended signal is then delivered
to the second stage of the amplifier, which is the gain
stage.
49
Differential Input Stage - 2
SLIDE 50
As we can see, signal from collector at Q6 is fed into
Q16s base. Q16 is connected as an emitter follower,
which gives this stage very high input impedance. Since it
minimizes the loading of the input stage of the amplifier, it
prevents gain loss at this stage. Q17 is connected as a
common emitter amplifier. The load of Q17 is the output
resistance of Q13b and reaches the PNP transistor and
parallels with the input resistance of Q23, which is
another PNP transistor. Output of the second stage of the
amplifier is taken as collectors of Q17.
50
Voltage Gain Stage - 1
SLIDE 51
One concept that is repeatedly used in op-amp circuits is
active load. Active load is when a transistor current
source is used as a load resistance. This way you can
achieve very high gains without the actual need for high
resistors and this helps us by saving chip area. Also
having a large value resistor would require a large supply
voltage source. By using an active load, we no longer
need to have the high supply voltage. An example of this
active load is the load on collector of Q17. A
compensation capacitor is used in this part of the circuit.
It’s a Miller compensation capacitor, which provides
frequency compensation for the amplifier. It’s connected
in the feedback path and it creates a dominant pole at
about 5 Hz. This is going to shift the other poles of the
amplifier further out. It also gives the op-amp a fairly
uniform 20dB per decade drop.
51
Voltage Gain Stage - 2
• Active load: use of
transistor current source as
a load resistance
– high gain without high
loadINresistance
+ IN -
• Saves chip area

• No need for high
supply voltage
• CC Miller compensation
capacitor
– Frequency compensation
SLIDE 52
Finally, we’ll talk about the output stage of an op-amp.
Q14 or the source transistor and Q20 or the sink
transistor form the output complementary stage of the
amplifier. Q14 and Q20 have larger areas compared to
the other transistors so that they can provide larger
currents with minimal temperature effect on the device.
When the output of the amplifier is pulled positive, Q14
conducts more power and it pulls the output more
towards the positive supply. The opposite happens when
the output is pulled negative, meaning Q20 is going to
conduct more and the output is actually pulled more
towards the negative supply and it’ll move downward.
52
Output Stage - 1
• Q14 (Source transistor) and
Q20 (Sink transistor) form
the output complementary
symmetry stage
– Output pin between R8
and
IN + R9 IN -
– Output goes positive,

Q14 conducts more
• Pulls output towards
positive supply
– Output goes negative,
Q20 conduct more
• Pulls output towards
negative supply
SLIDE 53
This amplifier has short circuit protection. Like we talked
about earlier, not all amplifiers have short circuit
protection. Q15 provides short circuit protection for the
source transistor or Q14 and Q21 provides short circuit
protection for the sink transistor or Q20. Also in this
output stage we see that Q18 and Q19 bias the output
transistors in the linear region and these two transistors
are fed by Q13a, which is shown at the very top of the
circuit.
53
Output Stage - 2
• Q15 current limiting protection,
short circuit protection, for Q14
• Q21 current limiting protection,
short circuit protection, for Q20
• Q18INand
+
Q19 bias INthe
-
output
transistor in linear region
– Fed by Q13a
SLIDE 54
Q23 is connected as an emitter follower. This minimizes
the loading effect on the output of the second stage of
the amplifier. The output stage that we’ve presented here
is a class AB output stage. As we’ve already mentioned,
Q14 and Q20 have larger areas. That’s because we want
to be able to draw more current from them. The output of
the amplifier has very low output impedance.
54
Output Stage - 3
• Q23 emitter follower
– Minimizes loading on output
of 2nd stage
• Class
IN + AB outputIN stage
-
• Q14 and Q20 have larger area
– Supplies fairly large load
currents
– Minimal power usage
• Negligible temperature
effect
• Low output impedance
SLIDE 55
During this presentation we went through some of the
very basic configurations that you’ll see in operational
amplifiers, and that includes an inverting and a non-
inverting closed loop configuration. And we talked about
the basic parameters of op-amp and then we went over
the internal circuitry of the LM741.
55
Conclusion
During this presentation we covered
• Basic op-amp configurations
• Basic parameters of op-amps
• Internal Circuit of the 741
Thank you for participating in this webcast!
For more information about Amplifiers products,

please go to:
http://amplifiers.national.com
SLIDE 56
Thank you very much for participating in this webcast and
if you do have more questions about amplifiers, please
go ahead to the website that’s mentioned over there.
Editor’s Note: This presentation focused on the “classic”

op amp, which uses voltage-mode feedback. Another
type of op amp uses current-mode feedback, and has
slightly different characteristics than those presented
here. For information on current-feedback op amps, see
the following online seminars at
http://www.national.com/onlineseminar/#amps.
“Current Feedback Op Amps: Tips for Best
Performance,” by Loren Siebert
“The Other Feedback – Theory and Application of
Current Feedback Op Amps,” by Alan Buchholz
(END OF PRESENTATION)
56
Thank You!
• This seminar will be available in our archive shortly.
• If you have additional questions for our presenter,

please send them to our customer response center
at new.feedback@nsc.com.
• The online technical journal National Edge is

available at http://www.national.com/nationaledge/.
• Sign up for National’s biweekly newsletter,

News@National by updating your online profile at
http://www.national.com/profile/user_info.cgi.
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Differential Voltage Output OUTPUT

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• Basically says how fast the output can “follow” the

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• Saves chip area

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– Output goes positive,

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Thank you for participating in this webcast!

For more information about Amplifiers products,

© 2003 National Semiconductor Corporation

Editor’s Note: This presentation focused on the “classic”

• This seminar will be available in our archive shortly.

• If you have additional questions for our presenter,

• The online technical journal National Edge is

• Sign up for National’s biweekly newsletter,

© 2003 National Semiconductor Corporation

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