Chapter-6

Multiplexing
Multiplexing is defined as the combining of two or more signals into a single wave from
which signals can be individually recovered. While dealing with communication systems
(telecommunication), the signals are voice channels and we can literally combine more
than 1000 such channels for transmission over a medium, where the medium under
consideration is able to accommodate the required bandwidth. On a wire pair we can
combine 24,30 or 48 channels while on LOS microwave communication we can carry
1800 analog channels or hundreds of digital channels. On fiber optics we can carry
thousands of digital channels.
There are essentially two generic ways we can multiplex voice channels (excluding
optical communication part)
1. In the frequency domain using frequency division multiplexing (FDM).
2. In the time domain using time division multiplexing (TDM).

Frequency Division Multiplexing:

Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is a method of allotting a unique band of
frequencies in a comparatively wide band-frequency spectrum of the transmission
medium to each communication channel. The communication channel may be a voice
channel 4KHz wide, a telegraph channel 120Hz wide; a 15KHz broadcast channel, a 48
KHz data channel, or a 4.2 MHz television channel.
We have to keep in mind that all multiplex systems works on a four-wire basis. The
transmit and receive paths are separate as shown in the figure below.

Multiplex Demultiplex
Four wire Voice unit Transmission
unit Four wire Voice
Medium Channels
Channels (Send) (Receive)

Demultiplex Multiplex
Four wire Voice unit Transmission
unit Four wire Voice
Medium Channels
Channels (Receive) (Send)
Now let us have an insight on how SSBSC plays an important role on FDM which is
most commonly used in telephony. The first step to understand FDM requires an
understanding of heterodyning or mixing of signals.

MIXER
A Output
B
In the figure above mixing of signals of frequencies A and B is shown. Let us analyze on
the frequencies present at the output of the mixer.
Both of the signals will be present, as well as signals representing their sum and
difference in the frequency domain. Thus signals of frequencies A, B, A+B, A-B will be
present at the output of the mixer. But if the mixer is a balanced mixer, only signals A+B,
A-B will be present. Such a mixing process is repeated many times in FDM equipment.
Now let us consider a continuous spectrum of frequencies between 300Hz and 3400Hz
(CCITT voice channel). We represent the spectrum as a triangle:

300 3400Hz

As a result of frequency translation (mixing: Input A=300-3400Hz, B=20KHz), we have

another triangle:

20,300 23,400Hz

Here, we have taken the sum and filtered out all other frequencies. In other words we say
we have selected the upper sideband. Thus we have triangle facing to the right, termed an
upright or erect sideband.
We can also take the difference, such that
20,000-300=19700Hz, 20,000-3400=16,600Hz
We see that in the translation (mixing process) we have had an inversion of frequencies.
The higher frequencies of the voice channel become the lower frequencies of the
translated spectrum , and the reverse occurs when the difference is taken. We represent
this by a right triangle facing the other direction(left):

16,600 19,700Hz

This is called an inverted sideband. In summary, we can say when we take the sum we
will get an erect sideband. When we take the difference in the mixing process,
frequencies invert and we have an inverted sideband represented by a triangle facing left
as shown in the figure of the previous page.
 CCITT Modulation Plan:
FDM is extensively used in telephony to transmit number of telephone channels
simultaneously over a transmission medium like coaxial cable, twisted pair, and
microwave link. Before transmission, we have to develop the band of frequencies known
as line frequency (i.e ready for transmission on the transmission medium) and the
modulation plan guides us in the development of line frequency. Basic telephone channel
is band limited to 300-3400Hz(BW=3100Hz). A frequency slot of 4kHz is assigned to
each telephone channel so that there is a guard band of 900 Hz for each channel.
To facilitate interconnection among the different telecommunication systems national and
multinational, CCITT has recommended the standard modulation plan.

Formation of Standard CCITT Group:

The standard Group in the plan consists of 12 voice channels occupying the frequency
band of 60-108kHz. Mixing the each of the 12 voice channels with a particular carrier
frequency associated with the channel forms the group. Lower sidebands are then
selected. The layout of the standard group is shown in the figure below:

12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
64 104 108
60

Here, the carrier frequency used for the various channels are as follows:
Channel-1 108kHz Channel-7 84kHz
Channel-2 104kHz Channel-8 80kHz
Channel-3 100kHz Channel-9 76kHz
Channel-4 96kHz Channel-10 72kHz
Channel-5 92kHz Channel-11 68kHz
Channel-6 88kHz Channel-12 64kHz

Formation of Standard CCITT Super group:

A super group consists of 5 standard CCITT groups, equivalent to 60 voice channels. The
super group occupies the frequency band of 312-552 kHz. Each group making up the
super group is translated in frequency to the super group band by mixing with the proper
carrier frequency. The carrier frequencies used are tabulated below.
Group1 312kHz Group 4 456kHz
Group2 360kHz Group 5 504kHz
Group3 408kHz
In the mixing process the difference is taken (Lower sidebands). The layout of the
formation of super group is shown in the figure below:

Group 1 2 3 4 5
312 360 408 456 504 552 kHz

Formation of Standard Basic Mastergroup

and Super Mastergroup:
Frequency division multiplexing of five Supergroups forms a Basic Mastergroup. That
means a basic Mastergroup contains 300 voice channels. It occupies the frequency band
of 812-2044kHz. Here also in the mixing process the difference is taken. The carrier
frequencies used are tabulated below:

Supergroup-1 1364kHz Supergroup-5 2108kHz

Supergroup-2 1612kHz Supergroup-4 2356kHz
Supergroup-3 1860kHz

812 1502 |8| 1060 1300 1308 1548 1556 1769 1804 2204

Note: In between each supergroup there is a gap of 8 kHz. This is due to the selection of
carrier frequencies.

Multiplexing three basic Mastergroup forms a Super-Mastergroup. That is the super

Mastergroup contains 900 voice channels. Here also during the mixing process the
difference is taken. The super-Mastergroup occupies the frequency band of 8516-
12388kHz. The carrier frequencies used are tabulated below:

B.mastergroup1 13200kHz
B.mastergroup2 11880kHz
B.mastergroup3 10560kHz

Satellite Systems and Application

Satellite communication can be considered as an extension of Line of Sight (LOS)
microwave communication systems. For efficient and effective communication each
earth terminals should be in LOS with the satellite. Most of the presently employed
communication satellites are RF (radio frequency) repeaters. With the advancement of
technology now a days satellites are able to process the received signals. A processing
satellite, as a minimum regenerates the received digital signal. This kind of satellite can
decode the incoming bit stream and recode it again and transmit it. It also may have some
bulk switching capability, switching to crosslinks connecting to other satellites.
Theoretically, three such satellites in a geostationary orbit placed correctly can provide
communication from one earth station to another located anywhere on the earth surface.
Some important terminologies used in satellite communication:

Earth Station: A radio facility located on the earth’s surface that communicates with
satellites.
Terrestrial Station: a radio facility on the earth’s surface that communicates with other
similar facilities on the earth’s surface.
Up-link: Signal path from the earth-station transmitter to the satellite receiver.
Down-link: Signal path from the satellite to earth station.
Orbit: Hypothetical path on which the satellites moves.
Apogee: Point in the orbit where the distance between satellite and earth is farthest.
Perigee: The distance of closest approach to the earth.
Footprint: The outline of antenna pattern on the earth.

Some applications of satellite systems are mentioned below:

• On international high-usage trunks country to country.
• On national trunks.
• In sparsely populated, highly rural, “out-back” areas where it may be the only
form of communication
• On private and industrial networks including VSAT networks.

The choice of orbit is an important consideration in satellite communication system

design. Most of the communication satellites are placed in the geosynchronous orbit, that
is, they occupy a circular orbit above the equator at a distance of 35,784 km above the
earth’s surface. At this height, the satellite’s orbital period is equal to the time taken by
the earth to complete one rotation i.e. 23hrs 56 minutes or approximately 24hrs. Now if
the direction of rotation of earth and the satellite motion is same then this satellite appears
to be stationary above one spot on the earth’s surface. So these kinds of satellites are
known as geostationary satellite. E.g. INMARSAT.

In most of the cases it is necessary to aim an earth-station antenna at a geostationary

satellite only once. Satellites in other orbits require the antenna to follow or track the
satellite (which will not always be above the horizon). Therefore, non-geo stationary
satellites (orbital satellites) cannot be used singly for continuous communication.
Satellite orbits are usually divided into three ranges. Low-earth-orbit (LEO) satellites
range from 300 to 1500 km above the earth surface. For e.g. Global Star, IRRIDIUM.
Medium-earth-orbit (MEO) satellites are about 8000 to 20,000km in altitude.

The gap between LEO and MEO is there to prevent damages on satellites due to the
radiation of Van Allen Belts. This radiation belt extends from 1500 to 5000 and from
13000 to 20000 km above the earth surface. MEO satellites are therefore placed near the
lower end of the MEO range to avoid upper Van Allen Belt.
Though geostationary satellites are very convenient and most commonly used, they do
have some disadvantages. As they are very far from the earth the transmitted signal
suffers a great deal of attenuation on the way to and from the satellite. This is not too
serious where large parabolic reflectors are practical, but it makes GEO satellites
awkward for mobile communications. As GEO satellites are very far from the earth,
which causes a considerable time delay in telephone conversations. As all GEOs are to be
placed at the same geosynchronous orbit, there is a problem with congestion above the
most desirable spot on the earth. Since all the satellites must be directly above the
equator, communication in southern and northern latitudes is difficult.

The signal propagation between earth and satellite is similar to terrestrial LOS
propagation. As the signal travels through the ionosphere, signals below VHF region is
not suitable. At VHF and UHF range, the ionosphere rotates the polarization of the signal
in random ways known as Faraday Rotation. This effect necessitates in the circular
polarization of the signals in VHF and UHF range. While as if the signal is in microwave
range then the ionosphere has negligible effect and either linear or circular polarization
can be used.
 Frequency Bands: Desirable and Available
The most desirable frequency bands for commercial satellite communication are in the
spectrum 1-10GHz.These bands are:
3.7-4.2 GHz Down-link
5.925-6.245 GHz Up-link
7.250-7.750GHz Down-link-military purpose
7.9-8.4GHz Up-link military purpose

The designers select these frequency bands because at these bands there is less
atmospheric absorption, no rainfall attenuation, less noise both manmade and
galactic, less free space loss compared to the higher frequencies. Despite the above
mentioned advantages commercial satellites use higher frequency bands because the
above-mentioned frequency bands are shared with terrestrial services. The higher
frequency bands used are:
10.95-11.2GHz Down-link
11.45-12.2GHz Down-link
14.0-14.5GHz Up-link
17.7-20.2GHz Down-link
27.5-30.0GHz Up-link

Multiple Access of Satellite:

Above 10GHz the rainfall attenuation and scattering loss should be taken into account.

Satellite contains active elements like receiver, amplifier, signal processors, transmitter,
antennas etc. The antenna is a common device shared by both transmitter and receiver.
The signal level transmitted by the satellite is very low so we need to amplify the
received signal. Therefore a special front-end amplifier called LNA (Low Noise
Amplifier) is used in the receiver section.

Multiple Access is defined as the ability of a number of earth stations to get connected
with the common satellite. This accessing method is classified as: (1) Pre-assigned
Multiple access & Demand Assigned Multiple Access (DAMA), (2) assignment on
frequency domain –Frequency Domain Multiple Access (FDMA) & (3) on time domain-
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA).

On a comparatively higher traffic route pre-assigned multiple-access becomes

economical. That is for this kind of link a channel always in connection with satellite is
assigned. Demand assigned multiple access (DAMA) becomes useful fro low-traffic
multipoint routes where it becomes interesting from an economic standpoint. In DAMA,
channel is assigned on the request sent by the earth station to the satellite. The DAMA
method is analogous to a telephone switch. When a subscriber goes off hook, a line is
seized; on dialing, a connection is made; and when the call is completed and there is an
on-hook condition, the voice path through the switch is returned to “idle” and is ready for
use by another subscriber.
 The several RF bands available have a 500MHz (refer to the table showing the uplink
and downlink frequency) bandwidth. A satellite contains number of transponders, each of
which covers the frequency segment of 500MHz bandwidth. With FDMA operation, each
earth station is assigned a segment or a portion of a segment.

TDMA operates in a time domain, and may only be used for digital network connectivity.
The satellite transponder is used on a time-sharing basis. Individual time slots are
assigned to each earth station in a sequential order forming a frame.. Each earth station
has full and exclusive use of the transponder bandwidth during its time assigned segment.
Typical frame periods are 750μs for INTELSAT and 250μs for the Canadian Telesat.

Services Provide by the Satellite:

• FSS-Fixed satellite services.

• BSS-Broadcasting satellite services.
• MSS-Mobile satellite services.
• NSS-Navigational satellite services.
• MeSS- Meteorological satellite services.

*****The End*****