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Low-level Waste is generated from hospitals, laboratories and industry, as well as the
nuclear fuel cycle. It comprises paper, rags, tools, clothing, filters etc. which contain
small amounts of mostly short-lived radioactivity. It is not dangerous to handle, but must
be disposed of more carefully than normal garbage. Usually it is buried in shallow
landfill sites. To reduce its volume, it is often compacted or incinerated (in a closed
container) before disposal. Worldwide it comprises 90% of the volume but only 1% of
the radioactivity of all radwaste.
High-level Waste may be the used fuel itself, or the principal waste from reprocessing
this. While only 3% of the volume of all radwaste, it holds 95% of the radioactivity. It
contains the highly-radioactive fission products and some heavy elements with long-lived
radioactivity. It generates a considerable amount of heat and requires cooling, as well as
special shielding during handling and transport. If the used fuel is reprocessed, the
separated waste is vitrified by incorporating it into borosilicate (Pyrex) glass which is
sealed inside stainless steel canisters for eventual disposal deep underground.
Waste disposal
Final disposal of high-level waste is delayed for 40-50 years to allow its radioactivity to
decay, after which less than one thousandth of its initial radioactivity remains, and it is
much easier to handle. Hence canisters of vitrified waste, or used fuel assemblies, are
stored under water in special ponds, or in dry concrete structures or casks for at least this
length of time.
The ultimate disposal of vitrified wastes, or of used fuel assemblies without reprocessing,
requires their isolation from the environment for long periods. The most favoured method
is burial in dry, stable geological formations some 500 metres deep. Several countries are
investigating sites that would be technically and publicly acceptable. The USA is pushing
ahead with a repository site in Nevada for all the nation's used fuel.
One purpose-built deep geological repository for long-lived nuclear waste (though only
from defence applications) is already operating in New Mexico.
After being buried for about 1000 years most of the radioactivity will have decayed. The
amount of radioactivity then remaining would be similar to that of the naturally-occurring
uranium ore from which it originated, though it would be more concentrated.
Layers of protection
To ensure that no significant environmental releases occur over a long perio after
disposal, a 'multiple barrier' disposal concept is used to immobilise the radioactive
elements in high-level (and some intermediate-level) wastes and to isolate them from the
biosphere. The principal barriers are:
• Immobilise waste in an insoluble matrix, eg borosilicate glass, Synroc (or leave
them as uranium oxide fuel pellets - a ceramic).
• Seal inside a corrosion-resistant container, eg stainless steel.
• Surround containers with bentonite clay to inhibit any groundwater movement if
the repository is likely to be wet.
• Locate deep underground in a stable rock structure.
For any of the radioactivity to reach human populations or the environment, all of these
barriers would need to be breached before the radioactivity decayed.