INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE

ON
SHIP DRAG REDUCTION
(SMOOTH-Ships)

ISTANBUL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

20-21 May 2010
Macka Campus, Istanbul, Turkey

Editors
Mustafa Insel
Ismail Hakki Helvacioglu
Sebnem Helvacioglu

© Copyright 2010, SMOOTH Consortium

 Paper No: 11

Application of Air Cavities on High-Speed Ships in Russia

A.V. SVERCHKOV

Krylov Shipbuilding Research Institute

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON
SHIP DRAG REDUCTION
(SMOOTH-Ships)
20-21 May 2010

Istanbul Technical University

Faculty of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering
ISTANBUL-TURKEY
 International Conference on Ship Drag Reduction
SMOOTH-SHIPS, Istanbul, Turkey, 20-21 May 2010

Application of air cavities on high-speed ships in Russia

A.V. SVERCHKOV
Krylov Shipbuilding Research Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia

ABSTRACT: The paper briefly reviews state-of-the-art research studies in Russia on application of artifi-
cial bottom cavities for reduction of hydrodynamic resistance of high-speed ships. The paper also considers
specific features of different types of ship propulsors used in air cavity ships and provides information about
Russian air-cavity ships, which have been built and successfully operated. Advantages of the air cavity prin-
ciple are demonstrated for a new design of fast motor yacht.

car/passenger ferries, and high-speed sea-going mo-

1 INTRODUCTION
The development of ships with artificially inflated
air cavity was initiated in Russia in 1961 at the Kry-
lov Shipbuilding Research Institute. Initial investiga-
tions were focused on the application of the concept
to slow river vessels and barges. These investiga-
tions included theoretical research based on the lin-
earized 2D theory of cavitation flow, numerous
model tests and finally full-scale trials of three river
ships.
Later, starting from 1965, a series of research
projects have been undertaken aimed at reducing the
drag of planing hullforms like patrol and utility
boats, fast passenger ships. These research efforts
were started with extension of the linearized 2D
cavitation flow theory to planing hullforms. Then a
considerable amount of model tests were carried out
resulting in the design and series construction of
river-going high-speed passenger ships and patrol
boats with air cavities.
In 1985 similar investigations were performed for
fast displacement vessels. These studies revealed
that the 2-D theory was not applicable for this type
of ships, and the 3-D linearized theory and software
were developed to cover these cases. The methods
have been validated by extensive design studies and
at present these techniques are successfully used in
practical design of the air-cavity ships.
In 1993 investigations were expanded to cover
planing and semi-planing catamarans. The next stage
started in 1995 with research extended to application
of artificial cavities to monohulls operating under
transient modes like fast marine passenger or
tor yachts. In 2000 model tests of fast containerships
were started.
For about 50 years researchers have been devel-
oping applicable computation methods and resolving
challenges associated with various types of propul-
sors, sea-keeping performance and specific issues
relevant for ships designed to have several different
operation speeds. Along with the monohulls, cata-
marans and ships with outriggers were examined.
The model tests carried out at the Krylov Institute
have provided the evidence that artificial cavities
could be efficient for the following types of ships:
- River cargo vessels and barges (Butusov et al
1999a);
- Supertankers;
- Bulk-carriers;
- River-sea cargo vessels (Sverchkov 2002);
- Fast conventional monohulls (Butusov et al.
1999b);
- Monohulls operating under transient conditions
(passenger and car/passenger ferries, sea-going
motor yachts, rescue ships) (Butusov et al. 1999,
Sverchkov 2001);
- Fast landing craft (Jane’s 2001-2002);
- Planing craft (passenger, service, utility and patrol
boats, sea-going motor yachts) (Sverchkov &
Poustoshny 2003);
- Planing catamarans with asymmetric demihulls
(Sverchkov 2005);
- Catamarans operating under transient conditions
(passenger and car/passenger ferries) (Butusov et
al. 1999);
- Container ships with outriggers (Anosov et al.
2003).
Full-scale trials have been conducted to confirm
the performance of river cargo ships and barges, fast
passenger boats, fast landing craft, and various util-
ity and patrol boats fitted with systems for producing
artificial cavities.
Other countries followed Russia in the race for
economically more efficient ships. Among the for-
eign companies most actively working on the im-
plementation of air cavity technology we should
mention DK Group, Netherlands, which is focusing
on cargo ships, high-speed containerships and
car/passenger ferries.
Note that the air cavity is quite a sensitive tool
and, as it is seen from the worldwide experience, if
air-cavity ships are tried to be designed without
proper research support failures are very likely.
Along with successful stories of implementing
air-cavity technology reported in Russia it should be
noted that some foreign companies failed to build
efficient air-cavity ships on their own without con-
ducting appropriate scope of R&D. Here we could
mention an Australian company Oceanfast Ferries
PTY LTD with its 45-meter catamaran and a
Ukrainian shipyard that started to build a series of
patrol boats. The image of air cavity technology has
been marred by reluctance of these companies to
obtain solid R&D support.
2 SOME PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF USING AR-
TIFICIAL AIR CAVITIES FOR RESISTANCE
REDUCTION
Artificially inflated cavities have a positive effect on
friction and roughness resistance by isolating a sig-
nificant part of the wetted hull surface from water.
In high-speed and semi-planing craft the air cavities
may decrease the gradient of hydrodynamic pres-
sures and thus somewhat reduce the residual resis-
tance. In this connection, this technology provides
the highest benefit for the ships with a large friction
resistance component. It primarily refers to slow-
speed merchant ships, in particular river-going ves-
sels with a large beam-to-draft ratio. Another type of
vessels with a large friction resistance component is
planing craft. The cavities give maximum effect for
these vessels reaching up to 25~30% reduction. Note
that the air cavity efficiency is growing as ships are
aging because of hull fouling.
For attaining significant reduction in towing re-
sistance the cavity should have optimum characteris-
tics, i.e. have a large plan area, high positive pres-
sure and smooth closure. A large cavity area is re-
quired for isolating the maximum possible wetted
hull surface. Desirably the isolated hull surface area
should be not less than 40-50% of the total wetted
surface. High positive pressure allows the cavity to
carry a large part of the hull weight and ensure the
highest lift to the ship hull. Smooth cavity closure is
required for reducing the air supply under the bot-
tom and save the power consumed by air fans.
Artificial cavities can be applied to reduce full-
speed power or to raise the full speed without in-
creasing the output of the power plant. It should be
noted that in an effort to resolve each of these prob-
lems for the same vessel one may come to somewhat
different technical solutions which has to do with the
fact that the air cavity will be designed for different
ship speeds.
Power reduction is more advisable for displace-
ment vessels and sometimes for planning and semi-
displacement ships since it enhances their economic
performance. This may entail some benefits due to
the opportunity of installing less powerful engines
and saving fuel. Thus, both ship construction and
operation costs can be reduced. Additionally, some
reduction in ship displacement can be expected with
a possibility to increase speed or cargo-carrying ca-
pacity.
Application of air cavities to increase the full
speed is advantageous for planing and semi-planing
craft. In this case it is possible to make the ship more
competitive and increase her range limited by time
considerations.
3 APPLICATION OF ARTIFICIAL AIR CAVI-
TIES TO PLANING CRAFT
The planing craft with artificial cavity look like con-
ventional vessels of similar hull form, especially in
the bow. The main distinction is the bottom recess
where the cavity is to be formed (Fig. 1).
3 1
2
4
1 – bottom in front of step 3 – step
2 – bottom behind step 4 – sideboards
Figure 1. Scheme of the Planing Boat on Artificial Cavity
 On the ship bottom, forward and aft of the cavity,
there are permanently wetted areas. In the forward
the cavity is limited by a transverse bottom step of
an arrow-like shape. On the sides the cavity is lim-
ited by skegs. In the aft the bottom surface between
skegs is specially shaped to ensure smooth cavity
closure. Bottom profile is unique for each design and
depends on hull lines, displacement, trim, operating
speed and type of propulsor. If in the process of ship
series construction it is decided to increase the full
speed by raising the output of main engines then it is
also required to change the bottom profile accord-
ingly.
In the case of planning craft the pressure inside
the cavity is usually not higher than 300-500 mm of
water column (30~50 mbar). With such a low pres-
sure, one can use fans rather than compressors for
air supply, and on some smaller boats (under 40 t) it
is possible to do without fans making use of exhaust
gas from main engines.
The use of air cavities on planing craft makes it
possible to reduce resistance by about 20~35% as
compared to conventional vessels of the same hull
form. This translates into 10~15% increase in full
speed and better economic performance at cruising
speed. Reduction in resistance at intermediate speeds
leads to noticeable improvement of acceleration
characteristics.
The power consumed by air supply into the cavity
accounts for no more than 2~3 % of the main engine
output.
Drag- displacement ratio
0,2
without cavity
with cavity
0,1
ΔR
0,0
1 2 3 4
Volumetric Froude number
(speed-displacement coefficient)
Figure 2. Relative Resistance of Two Options of the Patrol
Boat Tornado versus volumetric Froude Number Fn∇.
Figure 2 compares drag-displacement ratios of a
traditional hull boat and an air-cavity boat of identi-
cal principal dimensions. Figure 2 also shows the
resistance reduction related to the towing resistance
of the traditional boat. In the volumetric Froude
number range of 4.5~5.5 the air cavity gives a
20~25% reduction in towing resistance. The air
pressure in the cavity does not exceed 30~35 mbar,
so it is possible to use main diesel exhaust gas to
inflate the cavity without any loss of power.
Apart from fuel savings the improvement of hy-
drodynamic performance leads to considerable re-
duction of harmful emissions like carbon dioxide
(СO2), sulfur oxide (SOX) and nitrogen oxides
(NOX) with a positive environmental effect.
Apart from reducing resistance, the artificial cav-
ity improves the sea-keeping performance of fast
boats; in particular, it reduces the heave and pitch
amplitudes as well as vertical accelerations. It is
known that even with significant power reserve
heave accelerations and slamming cause speed re-
duction in high sea states.
6
nH
+
without cavity
5
Relative vertical accelerations
4
with cavity
3
2
1
ΔR,
0
% 0 1 2 3 4
Fn∇ 5
30 Volumetric Froude number
Figure 3. Results of comparative model tests of a 32-ton plan-
20
ing craft in head waves in sea state 4.
10
0
5 Fn∇ 6

+
nH
5 SPP placed behind the transom allows designing
Relative vertical accelerations
4
without cavity
3 cially if combined with an Arnison-type drive.
2 as hole in the bottom requires special attention to
with cavity
1
0 Research Institute has developed special shapes of
2 3 4 Fn∇
Volumetric Froude number
Figure 4. Results of comparative model tests of a 32-ton plan-
ing craft in follow waves in sea state 4.
Figures 3 and 4 show the results of comparative
model tests of a 32-ton planing craft in head and
following waves in sea state 4 (significant wave
height 2 m, wave length 35 m). Two options were
tested: model with initial (smooth) hull lines and
model with air cavity. The test data show that the air
cavity provides reduction in heave accelerations by
10 ~ 50%.
The sea-keeping performance of air-cavity boats
is comparable with the fixed-hydrofoil ships. It is
not surprising that the cavity improves sea-keeping
performance because a significant part of the rigid
bottom surface subject to wave effects is covered
with easily compressed air preventing the waves to
impart their energy to hull.
4 SPECIFIC FEATURES ASSOCIATED WITH
THE APPLICATION OF DIFFERENT PROPUL-
SORS ON AIR CAVITY SHIPS
The air cavity concept allows fitting same propulsors
like on conventional ships, viz.: conventional pro-
pellers with inclined shafts, surface-piercing propel-
lers (SPP) with shafts passed through the transom,
conventional or vented waterjets.
In case of conventional screw propeller with an
inclined shaft, there is no need to consider interac-
tion between the cavity and propeller because pro-
pulsors are located below the cavity, but it is re-
quired to put shafts in special fairings in way of its
intersection with the cavity in order to protect the
cavity from disruption.
The most simple and at the same time beneficial
approach is to use surface-piercing propellers. A
special air cavity bottom lines virtually without any
need to adapt them to the propulsor. Surface-
piercing propellers enable the best use of the bottom
cavity effect in terms of resistance reduction, espe-
A conventional waterjet with its intake arranged
protect the intake against the air escaping from the
cavity. It may be protected by a fairing and some
minor modifications in the adjacent portion of the
bottom. For this purpose the Krylov Shipbuilding
fairings for the intake. However, it should be re-
membered that (1) the intake reduces the area which
otherwise could be covered by the cavity and (2) the
extra fairing itself causes some additional resistance.
That is why the cavity effect on ships with waterjet
propulsion is some 20% lower than when choosing
the SPP option (i.e., the required power reduction at
the same speed is 20% instead of 25% with SPP).
Nevertheless, since fast ship waterjets are highly
efficient, sometimes markedly surpassing other pro-
pulsors, this particular drawback may be compen-
sated. At any rate, ship designers should carefully
look into these aspects.
The vented waterjet (ventjet) developed at KSRI
(Ibragimova et al. 1995) are much less sensitive to
air penetration into the propulsor than conventional
waterjets but have somewhat lower efficiency. The
ventjet should be installed at the transom edge. Like
with the SPP option, this enables the best use of the
bottom cavity effect. KSRI is at the moment carry-
ing out a dedicated research program on ventjets for
SAC ships.
5 HIGH-SPEED VESSELS ON AIR CAVITY
DESIGNED IN RUSSIA
More than 40 designs of various air-cavity ships
have been developed by today and seven of these
designs have been used to build over 80 high-speed
ships and boats with a displacement ranging from 14
to 105 tons and speed ranging from 30 to 52 knots.
New developments in these applications are in pro-
gress. The outlook and main particulars of the high-
speed vessels are shown below in Table 1.
Table 1. Main particulars of the high-speed vessels designed in Russia
Fast patrol boat Saigak

Delivery date of first ship 1981

Number of ships in series more than 50
Displacement (t) 13.0
Length, overall (m) 14.05
Beam, overall (m) 3.5
Draft, maximum (m) 0.65
Engine power (kW) 735
Maximum speed (kn) 40
Propulsor water-jet

Fast landing ship Serna

Delivery date of first ship 1992
Number of ships in series 5
Displacement (t) 105
Length, overall (m) 25.65
Beam, overall (m) 5.85
Draft, maximum (m) 1.52
Tonnage (t) 45
Engine power (kW) 2×2430
Maximum speed (kn) 32
Propulsor vented water-jet

River boat for 70 passengers Linda

Delivery date of first ship 1992
Number of ships in series 11
Displacement (t) 24.6
Length, overall (m) 24.1
Beam, overall (m) 4.6
Draft, maximum (m) 0.95
Engine power (kW) 660
Maximum speed (kn) 38
Propulsor SPP

Tug for hydroplanes Muflon

Delivery date of first ship 1992
Number of ships in series 1
Displacement (t) 13.2
Length, overall (m) 15.5
Beam, overall (m) 3.56
Draft, maximum (m) 0.7
Engine power (kW) 1100
Maximum speed (kn) 50
Propulsor SPP
 Fast patrol boat Merkury
Delivery date of first ship 1995
Number of ships in series 4
Displacement (t) 99.0
Length, overall (m) 35.4
Beam, overall (m) 8.3
Draft, maximum (m) 2.0
Engine power (kW) 2×3670
Maximum speed (kn) 52
Propulsor propellers

Frontier boat Sokzhoy

Delivery date of first ship 1996
Number of ships in series 2
Displacement (t) 99.7
Length, overall (m) 35.2
Beam, overall (m) 8.0
Draft, maximum (m) 2.1
Engine power (kW) 2×3670
Maximum speed (kn) 50
Propulsor propellers

Fast patrol boat Tornado

Delivery date of first ship 2000

Number of ships in series 2
Displacement (t) 30.8
Length, overall (m) 19.6
Beam, overall (m) 3.9
Draft, maximum (m) 0.9
Engine power (kW) 2×1220
Maximum speed (kn) 50
Propulsor SPP

The principal difference of this yacht from the ear-

6 NEW ADVANCED DESIGN
Currently the Krylov Shipbuilding Research Institute
is engaged in the hull form optimization of an air-
cavity 60 feet fast motor yacht Barracuda under
contract with an Italian company Giemme S.p.A.
lier tested craft is the application of a very light so-
called sprint system material, which gives a consid-
erable reduction in displacement. The yacht outlook
and main data are shown below in Table 2.
Table 2. Main particulars of the 60 feet fast motor yacht Barracuda
A 3.5 m yacht model of was made to 1:6 scale.
Two hull options were tested in the towing tests. The
first option had smooth traditional hull lines. The
second option was adapted for generation of bottom
air cavity. The results of towing tests are shown in
Figure 5.
In the operating speed range the air cavity has re-
duced the towing resistance by 20-24%. Such resis-
tance reductions have made it possible to raise the
full speed by 5 knots (from 50 to 55 knots) and save
some 20% of fuel at cruise speed. The cavity is gen-
erated using main engine exhaust gases. Sea-keeping
and maneuvering model tests are planned to be per-
formed at further stages of this project.
RT
Towing resistance
without cavity
with cavity %
ΔR
50kn
0 ceedings of International Conference FAST 1995, Hamburg.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Model speed VΜ, m/s
Figure 5. Results of towing tests of Barracuda model
Displacement (t) 20.8
Length, overall (m) 18.4
Beam, overall (m) 5.0
Draft, maximum (m) 0.72
Engine power (kW) 2x895
Maximum speed (kn) 55
Cruise speed (kn) 45
Propulsor SSP
Accommodations 8+1
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