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changing dynamics which is a beauty and a power of a CI transmission delays. The WAC operates at a global level to
approach for system identification. coordinate the actions of local power system controllers
including those on the wind farm. Each local controller
Plant Inputs Plant outputs communicates with the WAC, receives remote control signals
Plant
from the WAC to enhance its dynamic performance, and
therefore helps improve system-wide dynamic and transient
Time delay Time delay performance.
line line
Neural Network
Model −
∑ u3 (t )
8 Δω3(t)
7 9 u3 (t-τ2)
1 5 6 10 11 3
Fig. 4. Identification of power system dynamics of interest.
G1 G3
The increasing complexity and highly nonlinear nature of
Load in Area 1 Load in Area 2
electric power systems today requires a fast and an accurate AREA 1 AREA 2
area controller (WAC). Similar approaches as illustrated in Fig. 5. Two-area four-machine power system with communication delays in
Fig. 4 are suitable for WAM [9, 10]. WAM is essential for WAC [13].
smart grids to the functions mentioned in Section II such as
380 PSS
self-healing, fault-tolerance and dynamic optimization. PSS and WACS for 0.02s delay
379.5
Speed of G1 in rad/s
As several generation sources connect and disconnect to PSS and WACS for 0.5s delay
PSS and WACS for 1.0s delay
a smart grid, it will become necessary to identify the dynamics 379
of the system at any given point in time and adjust the 378.5
parameters, and maybe even the structures, of the local and 378
Furthermore, it has been shown that critic networks based Fig. 6. Speed of generator G1 during a disturbance with different communication
delays.
on advanced neural network architectures, such as
simultaneous recurrent neural network, are capable of
Control of electric power systems relies on the availability
optimizing the performance multiple local controllers on
and quality of sensor measurements. However, measurements
generators and FACT devices to improve system damping
are inevitably subjected to faults caused by broken or bad
[13]. SRNs are powerful neural networks for prediction based
connections, bad communication, sensor failure, or
on recurrence and have been shown to overcome the varying
malfunction of some hardware or software. These faults in
time delays in the communication channels for WAC. The
turn may cause the failure of power system controllers and
real-time implementation of a two-area four machine power
consequently lead to severe contingencies in the power
system shown in Fig. 5 was carried out at the author’s lab -
system. To avoid such contingencies, a sensor evaluation and
Real-Time Power and Intelligent Systems Laboratory at
(missing sensor) restoration scheme (SERS) by using auto-
Missouri University of Science and Technology. Despite
associative neural networks (auto-encoders) and particle
varying time delays, a system damping higher than that
swarm optimization. Based on the SERS, a missing-sensor-
provided by local controllers (see Fig. 6) can be guaranteed
fault-tolerant control (MSFTC) was developed for controlling
with WAC over a significant range of delays [14]. This is
a static synchronous series compensator (SSSC) connected to
possible due to multi-step prediction capabilities of SRNs.
a power network. This MSFTC improved the reliability,
Wide-area coordinating control is becoming an important
maintainability and survivability of the SSSC and the power
issue and a challenging problem especially when large wind
network. The details of this work are presented in [16]. Such
farms are connected to the power grid. An optimal wide-area
fault-tolerant technologies will be needed in a smart grid to
monitor based on a RBF neural network has been developed
improve its reliability and security.
in [15] to identify the input-output dynamics of the nonlinear
The future grid will have the capability where plug-in
power system. Its parameters are optimized through particle
vehicles can charge from it or discharge to it. An intelligent
swarm optimization. Based on the WAM, a WAC is then
method for scheduling optimal usage of energy stored in these
designed by using the dual heuristic programming (DHP)
vehicles is necessary. The batteries on these vehicles can
method and RBFs, while considering the effect of signal
either provide power to the grid when parked, known as
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vehicle- to-grid (V2G) concept or take power from the grid to Climate dioxide (CO2) is now widely accepted as a real
charge the batteries on the vehicles, known as grid-to- vehicle condition that has potentially serious consequences for human
(G2V). Finding optimal times to charge or discharge in order society and industries need to factor this into their strategic
to maximize profits to vehicle owners while satisfying system plans. The power and energy industry represents a major
and vehicle owners’ constraints was studied. In order to do portion of global emission, which is responsible for 40% of
this, binary particle swarm optimization was applied in [17]. the global CO2 production followed by the transportation
Price curves from the California ISO database are used in this sector (24%) [19]. Economic growth does not have to be
study to have realistic price fluctuations. Different fleets of linked to an increase of GHG emissions and can be attained in
vehicles are used to approximate varying customer base and addition to the usage of renewable energy sources by using
demonstrate the scalability of parking lots for V2G. The energy efficiency technologies for power system generation,
results for consistency and scalability are included. Fig. 7 transmission, and distribution. The development of intelligent
shows a typical parking lot for plug-in electric vehicles energy-efficient control technologies will both soften negative
connected to the utility grid. Table I shows the profit made by effects of the climate change on the economy and enhance
the vehicle owners based on a PSO scheduling on a given day. energy security. A summary of the impacts on CO2 reduction
More details on this work are given in [17]. by the applications of intelligent techniques has been reported
in [20]. Furthermore, UC with V2G can take into account
TABLE I besides fuel cost minimization, the reduction of emissions by
RESULTS WITH THE THREE PARKING LOTS SIZED DIFFERENTLY AND THE
PROFITS MADE ON A GIVEN DAY
explicitly factoring cost of emissions in the cost function.
# of Case Power Power out Net Power Profit
Table II shows some typical results on a small 10-unit and 20-
Vehicles Study into Lot of Lot Out (MW) unit systems with 50,000 and 100,000 gridable vehicles.
(MWh) (MWh) Intelligent optimization become very useful as the parameters
50 CS1 0.0089 0.1131 0.1042 $11.41 to optimize grows enormously.
CS2 0.3492 0.3421 -0.0072 $19.09 Maintenance scheduling of generating units and other
500 CS1 0.0984 1.2533 1.1549 $128.42
CS2 3.5167 3.8271 0.3104 $234.22
elements in a power system is an important task, and plays
5000 CS1 1.0359 12.1769 11.1401 $1223.49 important role in the operation and planning activities of the
CS2 31.9632 35.2408 3.2777 $2200.40 electric power utility and the future smart grid. Computational
intelligence tools are excellent for determining optimal
maintenance schedules [21]. In a smart, resources need to be
scheduled including real and reactive power generation, and
energy storage.
Other computational intelligence applications for smart
grid include forecasting dynamic loads and electric energy.
Typically, amount of load is dependent on a number of factors
including time of the day, day type (weekday or weekend),
temperature, humidity, season and location. Neural networks
have been extensively studied and shown to provide accurate
load predictions [22, 23]. Neural networks have also shown to
be promising tools for wind and solar energy predictions [24,
25]. When alternative sources of energy are connected to the
power grid, be it wind farms or plug-in vehicles, dynamic load
and electric energy at a given time needs to be predicted in
order to carry out an efficient and economical operation of a
Fig. 7. A typical parking lot with plug-in electric vehicles [15]. smart grid.
There are several other CI applications for the smart grid
V2G can reduce dependencies on small expensive units in including energy and power flow management algorithms.
the existing and future power systems as energy storage that Adaptive critic designs and PSO-based fuzzy logic have been
can decrease running costs. It can contribute to efficient demonstrated to carry out optimal energy dispatch in a grid
management of load fluctuation, peak load; however, it independent photovoltaic system [26]. Numerous researchers
increase spinning reserves and reliability. As number of have reported on the successful use of CI approaches for
gridable vehicles in V2G is much higher than small units of voltage and reactive power control [27]. Reconfiguration of
existing systems, unit commitment (UC) with V2G is more distribution systems have carried out with PSO and genetic
complex than basic UC for only thermal units. Particle swarm algorithms. CI techniques have the potential to carry out
optimization was proposed in [18] to solve the V2G dynamic reconfiguration and restoration of terrestrial and
scheduling problem, as PSO can reliably and accurately solve industrial power systems [28] after small and large
complex constrained optimization problems easily and quickly disturbances. All these problems and solutions are applicable
without any dimension limitation and physical computer to smart grids.
memory limit.
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TABLE II
RESULTS WITH THE PSO TECHNIQUE FOR UNIT COMMITMENT WITH V2G
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BIOGRAPHY
Ganesh Kumar Venayagamoorthy (S’91,
M’97, SM’02) received the Ph.D. degree in
electrical engineering from the University of
KwaZulu Natal, Durban, South Africa, in 2002.
Currently, he is an Associate Professor of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, and the
Director of the Real-Time Power and Intelligent
Systems (RTPIS) Laboratory at Missouri
University of Science and Technology (Missouri
S&T). He was a Visiting Researcher with ABB
Corporate Research, Sweden, in 2007. His research interests are in the
development and applications of advanced computational algorithms for real-
world applications, including power systems stability and control, power
electronics, alternative sources of energy, sensor networks, signal processing,
and evolvable hardware. He has published 2 edited books, 5 book chapters, 65
refereed journals papers, and over 230 refereed international conference
proceeding papers. He has attracted in excess US $6.75 Million in competitive
research funding from external funding agencies in the last six years.
Dr. Venayagamoorthy is a recipient of several awards including a 2007 US
Office of Naval Research Young Investigator Program Award, a 2004 NSF
CAREER Award, the 2008 IEEE St. Louis Section Outstanding Educator
Award, the 2006 IEEE Power Engineering Society Walter Fee Outstanding
Young Engineer Award, the 2005 IEEE Industry Applications Society (IAS)
Outstanding Young Member Award, the 2003 International Neural Network
Society Young Investigator Award, and a 2008, 2007 and 2005 Missouri S&T
Faculty Excellence Award.
Dr. Venayagamoorthy has involved in the leadership and organization of
many conferences including the General Chair of the 2008 IEEE Swarm
Intelligence Symposium (St. Louis, USA) and the Program Chair of 2009
International Joint Conference on Neural Networks (Atlanta, USA). He is
currently the Chair of the IEEE Power Engineering Society (PES) Working
Group on Intelligent Control Systems, the Chair of IEEE Computational
Intelligence Society (CIS) Task Force on Power Systems Applications, the Vice-
Chair of the IEEE PES Intelligent Systems Subcommittee, Vice-Chair of the
IEEE PES Students Subcommittee and the Chapter Chairs of IEEE CIS and
IEEE Industry Applications Society St. Louis Chapters.
He is a Fellow of the Institute of Engineering and Technology (IET), UK and
the South African Institute of Electrical Engineers.
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