NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
NF-3UVOL. IV, NO. 4 . -.-- --
Lunar QrbiIes
BLAZING A TRAIL FOR MAN TO FOLLOW
By the end of this decade, American astronaut-
explorers are scheduled t o land on the moon.
Lunar Orbiter is one of three unmanned space-
craft programs undertaken t o help select sites for
these manned landings and, at the same time, t o
gather and report basic scientific data which cannot
be obtained by observations from earth. The other
two: Projects Ranger and Surveyor. The Lunar
Orbiter project was managed by NASA’s Langley
Research Center, Hampton, Virginia, for the Office
of Space Science and Applications, NASA Head-
quarters.
Lunar Orbiter spacecraft were placed into rela-
tively low orbits around the moon to take sharp
c
!
1Close-up of part of t h e vast Crater Copernicus taken by the camera of Lunar Orbiter 1 1 . Mountains rise as high as 1000
feet f r o m the crater floor. Horizontal distance: about 17 miles. Distance from base of photograph t o horizon: about
150 miles.
J I
close-up photographs of extensive areas. The photo-
graphs are primarily for use in selecting sites for
manned landings and in increasing our scientific
knowledge of the moon’s surface. In addition, the
spacecraft are providing information about the
moon’s size, shape, and gravitational field and
about radiation and micrometeoroids (tiny par-
ticles of matter in space) in the moon’s vicinity.
In a closely coordinated effort, NASA Surveyor
spacecraft were soft-landed on the moon. As an
example, Surveyor I which landed gently in the
Ocean of Storms on June 2, 1966, transmitted
pictures and other information about the lunar sur-
face in its general vicinity. These were coordinated
with the more extensive overhead views from Lunar
Orbiter I launched August 10, 1966. Earlier,
. ..
 Ranger spacecraft had provided our first closeups
of selected lunar areas before crashing as intended
on the moon. The Ranger program was completed
in 1965.

VOYAGE TO THE MOON

A typical Lunar Orbiter voyage t o the moon starts

at Cape Kennedy, Fla. The spacecraft i s mounted
inside of a shroud (nose cone) on top of the 90-
foot-high two-stage Atlas-Agena launch vehicle. The
shroud protects the spacecraft against damage
from wind buffeting and other hazards during
launch.
The Atlas ignites and boosts the spacecraft
through the thicker parts of earth’s atmosphere.
After a little more than five minutes, the Atlas stops
firing and shortly afterward detaches itself and falls
back to earth. Seconds later, the protective shroud
is thrown off.
About 50 seconds after Atlas separation, the
second stage Agena engine ignites briefly to place
itself and the spacecraft into a parking (temporary)
orbit about 100 miles above the earth.
The combined vehicles coast in orbit until reach-
t 1 ing the best point for launch to the moon. At this
point, the Agena’s engine fires a second time,
accelerating the vehicles from 17,500 (orbital
velocity) t o about 24,500 miles per hour (escape
velocity, i.e., the speed needed to pull away from
the earth). Its job done, Agena stops firing, sepa-
rates from Lunar Orbiter, and uses small gas jets
to move out of the spacecraft’s vicinity. This event
occurs about 40 minutes after lift-off.
A few minutes later, Orbiter extends its broad
solar panels that convert sunlight t o electrical
power, and its radio antennas for communication
with earth. The panels lock on the sun. About
11/2 hours later, the final delicate orientation ma-
neuver is conducted. Orbiter locks on Canopus, the
brightest star in the Southern Hemisphere. By
orienting itself on these reference points, Orbiter
remains in a position known to controllers on earth.
The controllers must know the spacecraft’s orien-
tation to send proper commands for maneuvers.
Ground personnel carefully analyze tracking data
from the spacecraft to determine whether the
spacecraft will reach the planned aim point near
the moon. If a slight path adjustment is indicated,
they radio appropriate commands t o the space-
craft. Such commands call for the spacecraft t o
position itself appropriately and then fire its rocket
for a specified period at a certain time, usually
2
2 Lunar Orbiter I photograph of area where
Surveyor I landed. The area was shown by
pictures from both spacecraft t o be relatively
smooth. Center coordinates are 43" W.
Longitude; 2 " 2 0 ' s . Latitude. Note mountains
which appear as white areas at north (top).

3 Two pictures from Surveyor I are pieced

together. I n the background are crests of the
mountains photographed by Lunar Orbiter I in
another illustration on page 2.

4 A large crater is superimposed on part of an

older smaller crater in this Lunar Orbiter I
photograph of the side of the moon never seen
from earth. The larger crater is about 31 miles
across.

5 Possible manned landing sites which Lunar

Orbiters I and II photographed at close range.

3
6 Lunar Orbiter I photographed earth when all but
a crescent was in darkness. To an observer
on the moon, the earth goes through phases as
does the moon, viewed from earth. The
phases in both cases are due to the positions
of the earth and moon relative t o the sun as the
moon revolves around the earth.

7 Typical Lunar Orbiter flight path from earth to

picture-taking orbit around the moon.
8Atlas-Agena launches Lunar Orbiter I from
Cape Kennedy, Florida, on August 10, 1966.

7 APOLUNE
I150 ST M I
ALTITUDE
INJECTION I N T O f
PHOTOGRAPHIC
ORBIT

OF INTEREST

ALTlTllOt

/
JETTISON b t C O N D MIDCOURSE
ATLAS CORRFCTION

SEPARATE
ATLAS A N D
'& r l R S T MIDCOURSE
CORRECTION
NOSF SHROUD

(INJECT I N T O
PARKING ORRITI
7ND AGENA
C O A 5 T IN
PAIlKINC, O l l l l l T
IGNITION
IINJECT I N T O
TRANSLUNAR
/% SOLAR P A N E L
AND ANTENNA
DEPLOYMENT

AGENA S E P A R A T I O N
-- - -~

4
 about ten hours after launch, t o impart the required
velocity change. (One or more mid-course ma
neuvers of this type may be required to speed up
or decelerate the spacecraft so that it reaches the
target point near the moon.)

1 I SATELLITE OF THE MOON

About three days after launch, the spacecraft
arrives at the moon. Calculations are made as to
the requirements for slowing the spacecraft so that
it will orbit the moon rather than sweep by it and
head more deeply into interplanetary space.
Commands are sent from earth across almost a
quarter million miles of space to Lunar Orbiter. The
spacecraft reorients itself and fires its rocket. Lunar
Orbiter’s speed is reduced from about 4500 miles
per hour to about 2200 miles per hour. A t that
speed, it is captured by lunar gravity and becomes
a satellite of the moon. Its orbit ranges from an
apolune (highest altitude) of about 1150 miles t o a
perilune (lowest altitude) of about 1 2 0 miles.
Engineers monitor the spacecraft’s performance
and tracking data for several days while the space-
craft is in its initial orbit around the moon. They
make plans for a maneuver to lower the spacecraft
to its picture-taking orbit.
After several days, the spacecraft is oriented
precisely and its rocket is fired at the right time
for a few seconds. The perilune is lowered t o less
than 30 miles above the moon. (Lunar Orbiter I
had a picture-taking perilune of about 24.7 miles.)
After it takes and sends its photographs to earth,
Lunar Orbiter may be thrust into new orbits t o con-
tinue its studies of micrometeoroids, radiation and
the moon’s gravitational field.

SELF-CONTAINED CAMERA SYSTEM

Unlike Ranger and Surveyor which telecast pic-

tures directly t o earth, Lunar Orbiter is an orbiting
photographic laboratory. Its camera system,
housed in a pressurized and temperature-controlled
container, snaps pictures, develops film, and con-
verts the images on the negatives into electrical
signals for transmission to earth.
The Lunar Orbiter camera system is designed
to provide, from a 25-mile altitude, high-resolution
photographs showing objects as small a s three feet
across and medium-resolution photographs showing
features as small as 27 feet across. The smallest
objects on the moon that can be seen through tele-
scopes on earth are about a half mile across.
Moreover, the medium-resolution photographs of
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 , *-
the same general area may overlap oartially, per-
mitting stereoscopic viewing that indicates slope of
the surface. Such information is important because
too steep a slope-even if the area is smooth-
could overturn a landing spacecraft.
The camera takes its high- and medium-resolu-
tion pictures simultaneously by means of a dual
lens. The high-resolution image is centered within
the area covered by the medium-resolution picture.
(See sketch.) The camera is loaded with a 200-foot-
long roll of 70-mm film. A device called a velocity-
height sensor provides information needed to com-
pensate for the spacecraft's motion and prevent
blurring. It does this by sending appropriate elec-
6
trical signals that regulate the movement of the
film slightly during exposure.
After exposure, the film i s brought in contact
with a web-like material that has been soaked in
developing solution. The processed film is later
dried by passing it before a tiny electrical heater.
GETTING ORBITER'S PHOTOGRAPHS TO EARTH
Transferring the detailed photographs t o earth
involves an exacting piecemeal process in which
some 45 minutes are required for one high- and
medium-resolution exposure. Key t o the process is
an electronic device that projects an intense light
beam about five microns (A micron i s .000039-

inch.) in diameter. The tiny light spot travels back
and forth across the one-tenth inch of film, making
some 17,000 passes (scan lines) to read out the
width of the film. The film is advanced after each
scan, and the process repeated.
The light beam passes through the negative
onto a photomultiplier tube. This converts the light
striking it into a varying electric current that corre-
sponds t o the light and dark areas on the negative.
For example, the darker areas of the negative re-
duce the amount of light that can pass through.
The electrical current is then fed to an amplifier
and t o the spacecraft's radio which transmits the
information t o earth.
HIGH RESOLUTION PHOTO aMEDIUM RESOLUTION PHOTO
9 Orbiter I photograph of rugged area just west
of Crater Landsberg. Area is 25 x 29 miles.
Center coordinates: 30" 45' W. Longitude and
1 " 45' N. Latitude.
io Lunar Orbiter I view of the moon's eastern limb
(edge), which is the right side relative t o an
observer on earth. This region is rarely seen
from earth. Area covered: about 106 x 89 miles.
Approximate location: 90" E. Longitude; 0"
Latitude.
11 Dual-frame photographs taken by Lunar Orbiter
appear as indicated i n sketch above.
PICTURE SIGNALS PICKED UP AND
PROCESSED ON EARTH
The 85-foot-diameter antennas of NASA's Deep
Space Network keep in constant touch with Orbiter:
commanding its maneuvers, monitoring its condi-
tion, tracking it, and acquiring its picture and other
scientific data. The great antennas pick up the
faint signals (down t o about a billionth watt of
power) received from Lunar Orbiter and amplify
them to useful strength. They relay the signals t o
magnetic tape recorders and to kinescopes, which
are somewhat like the picture tubes in home tele-
vision sets.
7
 12 An 85-foot diameter antenna at the
Goldstone, California, Deep Space Network
station.

13 Equipment a t Goldstone, California, for receiving

the pictures from Lunar Orbiter. Note camera,
upper right, pointed at kinescope
picture tube.

14 Naturally occurring protuberances cast long

shadows across the moon's Sea of Tranquility in
this Lunar Orbiter I I photograph taken shortly
after local sunrise, when the sun was about
11" above the horizon. Reference marks (white
crosses) are used for measurements and
represent 25 feet on the moon's surface.

Cameras in front of the kinescopes photograph

the images appearing on them. Each image initially
recorded on Lunar Orbiter film one-tenth inch by
2.4 inches is enlarged t o three-quarter inch by
16% inches. The resulting photograph is called a
framelet.
A number of framelets, properly pieced together
length-wise, makes up a photograph. Medium-
resolution photographs are made up of about 26
framelets. High resolution pictures are made up
of about 86 framelets. It takes approximately 295
weeks t o receive a l l of Lunar Orbiter's photographs
a t stations on earth.
SPACECRAFT DESlGN
At launch, the 850-pound Lunar Orbiter is 5 feet
in diameter and 51/2 feet long. In space, with its
solar panels and radio antennas unfolded, the craft
measures 12 feet 2 inches across the panels and
l81/2 feet to the outer ends of its antennas.
The spacecraft is structurally composed of two
sections. One i s the main equipment mounting
deck. This holds the camera system, radiation
detectors, and electrical and electronic equipment
such as communication and orientation devices.
The other is called the upper module. It holds
the propulsion equipment that enables controllers
on earth to change the spacecraft's flight path.
This equipment includes a 100-pound thrust liquid-
propellant rocket engine, nitrogen gas jets for orien-
tation changes, and storage tanks for propellants. f. ,,1

The spacecraft has two kinds of radio antennas.

One, looking like a dish, i s called a high-gain or
8
I

9
 15 Lunar Orbiter is lowered into a space simulation
chamber during tests preparing it for space
flight.
16 Principal parts of Lunar Orbiter.
17 A large crater whose floor is nearly covered
with a layer of dark material is prominent i n this
Lunar Orbiter Ill photograph of the moon’s far
side. Scientists believe that this dark material is
pushed up from below the surface like lava
from a volcano.
18 The Cordillera Mountain range forms a
concave curve leading off the southwest part of
the moon’s visible face. Sweeping around this
area, Lunar Orbiter I V took a photograph
showing that the mountains formed a vast ring
around the 600-mile-diameter Orientale Basin.
Within this ring are several smaller rings, giving
the effect of a giant bulls-eye. The beautifully
preserved texture of the surface and the
sharpness of the mountain ranges suggest that
this is a relatively young lunar feature.

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16

ICRO METEOROID

I
OMNl DIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA

SOLAR
PANEL

directional antenna. It focusses radio signals for

maximum intensity in a single direction. It is used
primarily for sending picture signals.
The other, shaped like a wand, is a low-gain or
omnidirectional antenna. It sends radio signals in
every direction; although it transmits a weaker
signal, it can be received at any tracking station
regardless of the orientation of Orbiter in space.
The low-gain antenna is used for tracking, receiving
commands, and equipment checks.
~~ ~~~

NASA Lunar Orbiter I, launched August 10,

1966, provided the first occasion in which photo-
graphic transmissions from a United States space-
craft were released to the public at Deep Space
Network stations located at Robledo de Chavela
(near Madrid), Spain; and Woomera, Australia.
A third station is at Goldstone, California.

Lunar Orbiter I is the first picture-taking space-

craft placed in orbit around a body other than earth.
It is the first spacecraft to photograph the earth
from the moon and t o take highly detailed photo-
graphs of the side of the moon perpetually hidden
from earth. These gave mankind perspectives not
available from earth.

11
 19 Lunar Orbiter V snapped this photograph of
0
the Crater Tycho, located a t 1 1 " West
Longitude and 43" South Latitude on the moon.
Tycho is about 50 miles from rim t o rim. Note
the central peak, a characteristic of many
large lunar craters.

While circling the moon, on August 8, 1967

20
Lunar Orbiter V snapped this first picture of
a nearly full earth. Clearly visible are Africa, the
Eastern Mediterranean area, and the Arabian
Peninsula. A part o f the Indian Peninsula may
be seen through the clouds which obscure much
of Asia and the Indian Ocean.

21 The meandering Prinz Valleys I and II,

running downhill, are among the major
features of this Lunar Orbiter V photograph of
the moon's Harbinger Mountain area. Some
scientists attribute these valleys t o volcanic
eruptions and the flow of fluidal material. At
left is Prinz Valley II, 8,000 feet wide at its
head (below) and narrowing t o about 1,500 feet
near its end. To its right is Prinz Valley I.

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