A TECHNICAL SEMINAR REPORT

ON
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
Submitted By

B.L.ASHWIN KUMAR 07261A1403

Dept. of mechatronics engineering

MAHATMA GANDHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(AFFILATED TO JNTU AND APPROVED BY AICTE)

Chaitanya Bharati P.O, Gandipet, Hyderabad - 75, AP.

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 PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

ABSTRACT
The development of the scientific technology has shown its advances in various fields and mainly in
the usage of computer in various fields. The computer being the compact of its size is not applicable
in operation where ever it is needed. Then the next option using of an onboard computer is highly
cheap and automation can be reached by this. The on board computers having the processors, memory
units, input and output units, power supply are used to control mini program based operations in the
place of huge computers. These mini computers are otherwise known as plc’s (programmable logic
devices).

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Introduction to PLCs

What does ‘PLC’ mean?

A PLC (Programmable Logic Controllers) is an industrial computer used to monitor inputs, and
depending upon their state make decisions based on its program or logic, to control (turn on/off) its
outputs to automate a machine or a process.

NEMA defines a PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER as:

“A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programmable memory for the internal
storage of instructions by implementing specific functions such as logic sequencing, timing, counting,
and arithmetic to control, through digital or analog input/output modules, various types of machines
or processes”.

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Traditional PLC Applications

*In automated system, PLC controller is usually the central part of a process control system.
*To run more complex processes it is possible to connect more PLC controllers to a central computer.

Disadvantages of PLC control

 Too much work required in connecting wires.

 Difficulty with changes or replacements.

 Difficulty in finding errors; requiring skillful work force.

 When a problem occurs, hold-up time is indefinite, usually long.

Advantages of PLC control

* Rugged and designed to withstand vibrations, temperature, humidity, and noise.

* Have interfacing for inputs and outputs already inside the controller.
* Easily programmed and have an easily understood programming language.

Major Types of Industrial Control Systems

Industrial control system or ICS comprise of different types of control systems that are currently in
operation in various industries. These control systems include PLC, SCADA and DCS and various
others:

*PLC

They are based on the Boolean logic operations whereas some models use timers and some have
continuous control. These devices are computer based and are used to control various process and
equipments within a facility. PLCs control the components in the DCS and SCADA systems but they
are primary components in smaller control configurations.

*DCS

Distributed Control Systems consists of decentralized elements and all the processes are controlled by
these elements. Human interaction is minimized so the labor costs and injuries can be reduced.

*Embedded Control

In this control system, small components are attached to the industrial computer system with the help
of a network and control is exercised.

*SCADA

Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition refers to a centralized system and this system is composed

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of various subsystems like Remote Telemetry Units, Human Machine Interface, Programmable Logic
Controller or PLC and Communications.

PLC History

PLC development began in 1968 in response to a request from an US car manufacturer (GE). The
first PLCs were installed in industry in 1969.

Communications abilities began to appear in approximately 1973. They could also be used in the 70′s
to send and receive varying voltages to allow them to enter the analog world.

The 80′s saw an attempt to:

standardize communications with manufacturing automation protocol (MAP), reduce the size of the
PLC, and making them software programmable through symbolic programming on personal
computers instead of dedicated programming terminals or handheld programmers.

The 90′s have seen a gradual reduction in the introduction of new protocols, and the modernization of
the physical layers of some of the more popular protocols that survived the 1980′s.

The latest standard “IEC 1131-3″ has tried to merge plc programming languages under one
international standard. We now have PLCs that are programmable in function block diagrams,
instruction lists, C and structured text all at the same time.

PLC Hardware

Hardware Components of a PLC System

Processor unit (CPU), Memory, Input/output, Power supply unit, Programming device, and other
devices.

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Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU – Microprocessor based, may allow arithmetic operations, logic operators, block memory
moves, computer interface, local area network, functions, etc.
CPU makes a great number of check-ups of the PLC controller itself so eventual errors would be
discovered early.

System Busses

The internal paths along which the digital signals flow within the PLC are called
busses.
The system has four busses:
- The CPU uses the data bus for sending data between the different elements,
- The address bus to send the addresses of locations for accessing stored data,
- The control bus for signals relating to internal control actions,
- The system bus is used for communications between the I/O ports and the I/O unit.

Memory

System (ROM) gives permanent storage for the operating system and the fixed data is used by the
CPU.
RAM for data. This is where information is stored on the status of input and output devices and the
values of timers and counters and other internal devices. EPROM for ROM’s that can be programmed
and then the program made permanent.

I/O Sections

Inputs monitor field devices, such as switches and sensors.Outputs control other devices, such as
motors, pumps, solenoid valves, and lights.

Power Supply

Most PLC controllers work either at 24 VDC or 220 VAC. Some PLC controllers have electrical
supply as a separate module, while small and medium series already contain the supply module.

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Programming Device

The programming device is used to enter the required program into the memory of the processor.
The program is developed in the programming device and then transferred to the memory unit of the
PLC.

PLC Operation
Input Relays

These are connected to the outside world. They physically exist and receive signals from switches,
sensors, etc. Typically they are not relays but rather they are transistors.

Internal Utility Relays

These do not receive signals from the outside world nor do they physically exist. They are simulated
relays and are what enables a PLC to eliminate external relays.There are also some special relays that
are dedicated to performing only
one task.

Counters

These do not physically exist. They are simulated counters and they can be programmed to count
pulses.Typically these counters can count up, down or both up and down. Since they are simulated
they are limited in their counting speed.Some manufacturers also include highspeed counters that are
hardware based.

Timers

These also do not physically exist. They come in many varieties and increments.The most common
type is an on-delay type.Others include off-delay and both retentive and non-retentive types.
Increments vary from 1ms through 1s.

Output Relays

These are connected to the outside world. They physically exist and send on/off signals to solenoids,
lights,etc.They can be transistors, relays, or triacs depending upon the model chosen.

Data Storage

Typically there are registers assigned to simply store data. Usually used for temporary storage for
math or data manipulation.They can also typically be used to store data when power is removed from
the
PLC.

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PLC Communications
Extension modules

PLC I/O number can be increased through certain additional modules by system extension through
extension lines. Each module can contain extension both of input and output lines.
Extension modules can have inputs and outputs of a different nature from those on the PLC controller.
When there are many I/O located considerable distances away from the PLC an economic solution is
to use I/O modules and use cables to connect these, over the long distances, to the PLC.

Remote I/O connections

When there are many I/O located considerable distances away from
the PLC an economic solution is to use I/O modules and use cables to
connect these, over the long distances, to the PLC.

Remote PLCs

In some situations a number of PLCs may be linked together with a master PLC unit sending and
receiving I/O data from the other units.

Cables

Twisted-pair cabling, often routed through steel conduit. Coaxial cable enables higher data rates to be
transmitted and does not require the shielding of steel conduit.Fibre-optic cabling has the advantage
of resistance to noise, small size and flexibility.

Parallel communication
Parallel communication is when all the constituent bits of a word are
simultaneously transmitted along parallel cables. This allows data to be transmitted over short
distances at high speeds. Might be used when connecting laboratory instruments to the system.

Parallel standards

The standard interface most commonly used for parallel communication is IEEE-488, and now termed
as General Purpose Instrument Bus (GPIB).Parallel data communications can take place between
listeners , talkers , and controllers. There are 24 lines: 8 data (bidirectional), 5status & control, 3
handshaking, and 8 ground lines.

Serial communication
Serial communication is when data is transmitted one bit at a time. A data word has to be separated
into its constituent bits for transmission and then reassembled into the word when received. Serial
communication is used for transmitting data over long distances. Might be used for the connection
between a computer and a PLC.

Serial standards

RS-232 communications is the most popular method of plc to external device communications. RS

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232 is a communication interface includedunder SCADA applications. Other standards such as RS422
and RS423are similar to RS232 although they permit higher transmission rates and longer cable
distances.

There are 2 types of RS-232 devices:

DTE – Data Terminal Equipment and a common example is a computer.

DCE – Data Communications Equipment and a common example is a modem.
PLC may be either a DTE or DCE device.

ASCII

ASCII is a human-readable to computer-readable translation code(each letter/number is translated to

1′s and 0′s). It’s a 7-bit code, so we can translate 128 characters (2^7 is 128).

Protocols

It is necessary to exercise control of the flow of data between two devices so what constitutes the
message, and how the communication is to be initiated and terminated, is defined. This is termed the
protocol.One device needs to indicate to the other to start or stop sending data.Interconnecting several
devices can present problems because of compatibility problems.In order to facilitate communications
between different devices the International Standard Organization (ISO) in 1979 devised a model to
be used for standardization for Open System Interconnection (OSI).

PLC Communication II
START/STOP Bits
start bit. This is a synchronizing bit added just before each character we are sending. This is
considered a SPACE or negative voltage or a 0.
stop bit. This bit tells us that the last character was just sent.
This is considered a MARK or positive voltage or a 1.

Parity bit
Parity bit is added to check whether corruption has occurred. Common forms of parity are: None,
Even, and Odd. During transmission, the sender calculates the parity bit and sends it. The receiver
calculates parity for the character and compares the result to the parity bit received. If the calculated
and real parity bits don’t match, an error occurred and we act appropriately.

Baud rate
it is the number of bits per second that are being transmitted or received. Common values (speeds) are
1200, 2400, 4800, 9600, 19200, and 38400.

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RS232 data format

RS232 data format (baud rate-data bitsparity-stop bits). 9600-8-N-1 means a baud rate of 9600, 8 data
bits, parity of None, and 1 stop bit.

Software handshaking

Software handshaking (flow control) is used to make sure both devices are ready to send/receive data.
The most popular “character flow control” is called XON/XOFF. The receiver sends the XOFF
character when
it wants the transmitter to pause sending data. When it’s ready to receive data again, it sends the
transmitter the XON character.

STX & ETX

Sometimes an STX and ETX pair is used for transmission/reception as well. STX is “start of text” and
ETX is “end of text”. The STX is sent before the data and tells the external device that data is
coming. After all the data has been sent, an ETX character is sent.

ACK / NAK Pair

The transmitter sends its data. If the receiver gets it without error, it sends back an ACK character. If
there was an error, the receiver sends back a NAK character and the transmitter resends the data.

RS-232 Communications
RS-232 is an asynchronous communications method (a marching band must be “in sync”
with each other so that when one steps they all step. They are asynchronous in that they follow the
band leader to keep their timing).

We use a binary system to transmit our data in the ASCII format. PLCs serial port is used for
transmission/reception of the data, it works by sending/receiving a voltage, With RS232, normally, a
1 bit is represented by a voltage -12 V, and a 0 by a voltage +12 V. (The voltage between +/- 3 volts
is considered There are 2 types of RS-232 devices.)

DTE – Data Terminal Equipment and a common example is a computer.

DCE – Data Communications Equipment and a common example is a modem.
PLC may be either a DTE or DCE device.
When plc and external device are both DTE, (or both DCE) devices they can’t talk to each other. The
solution is to use a null-modem connection.

Usually, The plc is DTE and the external device is DCE.

Using RS-232 with PLC

Some manufacturers include RS-232 communication capability in the main processor. Some use the
“programming port” for this. Others require a special module to “talk RS-232″ with an external
device.

External device may be an operator interface, an external computer, a motor controller, a robot, a
vision system, etc.

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To communicate via RS-232 we have to setup:
1. Where, in data memory, will we store the data to be sent?
2. Where, in data memory, will we put the data we receive from the external device?

ISO/OSI model
Interconnecting several devices can present problems because of compatibility problems. In order to
facilitate communications between different devices the International Standard Organization (ISO)
devised a ISO/OSI model to be used for standardization for Open System Interconnection (OSI).

A communication link between items of digital equipment is defined in terms of:

* physical,
* electrical,
* protocol and
* user standards.

Each layer is self contained and only deals with the interfaces of the layer immediately above and
below. It performs its tasks and transfers its results to the layer above or the layer below.
It enables manufacturers of products to design products operable in a particular layer that will
interface with the hardware of other manufacturers.

ISO/OSI Protocols

ControlNet

The ControlNet network uses the Common Industrial Protocol (CIP) to combine the functionality of
an I/O network and a peer-to-peer network. ControlNet take precedence over program uploads and
downloads and messaging. Supports a maximum of 99 nodes.

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DeviceNet
DeviceNet is mainly used in industrial and process automation. It is based on CAN technology.
It is a low-cost communication link to connect industrial devices to a network and eliminate
expensive hard wiring. Power and communication supplied over a 4-wire bus. Supports up to 62
devices on the same bus network.

ModBus
ModBus is an open, serial communication protocol based on the master/slave architecture. The bus
consists of a master station, controlling the communication, and of a number of slave stations.

MODBUS is an application layer messaging protocol, positioned at level 7 of the OSI model, that
provides client/server communication between devices connected on different types of buses or
networks. MODBUS is used to monitor and program devices; to communicate intelligent devices with
sensors and instruments; to monitor field devices using PCs and HMIs. MODBUS is an ideal protocol
for RTU applications where wireless communication is required.

Modbus offers two basic communication mechanisms:

* Question/answer (polling): The master sends an inquiry to any of the stations, and waits for the
answer.
* Broadcast: The master sends a command to all the stations on the network, and these execute the
command without providing feedback.

Serial Transmission Modes of MODBUS Networks

The transmission mode defines the bit contents of the message bytes transmitted along the network,
and how the message information is to be packed into the message stream and decoded. The mode of
transmission is usually selected with other serial port communication parameters as part of the device
configuration.

Standard MODBUS networks employ:

1. ASCII Mode: Each character byte in a message is sent as 2 ASCII characters. This mode allows
time interval of up to a second between characters during transmission without generating errors.
2. RTU Mode: Each 8-bit message byte contains two 4-bit hexadecimal characters, and the message is
transmitted in a continuous stream. The greater effective character density increases throughput over
ASCII mode at the same baud rate.

PROFIBUS
PROFIBUS-DP purpose is for larger devices like PCs and PLCs to talk with multiple smaller devices
like sensors, drives, valves, etc. It uses RS-485 for transmission of data. It uses a shielded twisted pair
cable and enables data transmission speeds up to 12 Mbit/sec.

A maximum of 9 segments (trunk line) are allowed on a network. The devices are the branches
coming off the trunk line. Up to 32 individual devices can be connected to a single segment. That
number can be expanded up to 126 if repeaters are used. Each PROFIBUS segment can be a
maximum of 1200 meters in length. There are 10 defined communication speeds and each has a
maximum defined cable length that’s permitted.

Master /Slave
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PROFIBUS uses a master/slave configuration for communication. It is usually a single master device
(aPLC) that talks with multiple slave devices (sensors). The master devices poll the slaves when
they have the token. Slave devices only answer when asked a question. They are passive and the
master can be said to be active. The slave devices just collect data and pass it to the master device
when asked to do so.

Ethernet

Ethernet is one of the most widely implemented LAN architecture. It uses a bus, star or tree
topologies. It uses the CSMA/CD access method to handle simultaneous demands. It supports
data transfer rates of 10 Mbps, Fast Ethernet (100 Base-T)- 100 Mbps, and Gigabit Ethernet –
1000 Mbps.

Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)

This is a system where each computer listens to the cable before sending anything through the
network. If the network is clear, the computer will transmit. If some other node is already
transmitting on the cable, the computer will wait and try again when the line is clear.

TCP/IP PROTOCOL
Most manufacturers who offer Ethernet compatibility to implement supervisory functions over
equipment controlling plant floor functions use a transmission control protocol/internet protocol
(TCP/IP) for layers 3 and 4 of the OSI model. Some PLC manufacturers offer programmable
controllers with TCP/IP over-Ethernet protocol built into the PLC processor. This allows the PLC to
connect directly to a supervisory Ethernet network. Note that the PLC can also have a control network
with other PLCs.

Sinking Sourcing I/O

“Sinking” and “Sourcing” terms are very important in connecting a PLC
correctly with external environment. These terms are applied only for DC
modules.
The most brief definition of these two concepts would be:
SINKING = Common GND line (-)
SOURCING = Common VCC line (+)

Most commonly used DC module options in PLCs are:

*Sinking input and
*Sourcing output module

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Sinking I/O circuits on the I/O modules receive (sink) current from sourcing field devices. Sinking
output modules used for interfacing with electronic equipment.

Sourcing I/O: Sourcing output modules used for interfacing with solenoids.

PLC AC I/O circuits accommodate either sinking or sourcing field devices. Solid-state DC I/O
circuits require that they used in a specific sinking or sourcing circuit depending on the internal
circuitry.

PLC contact (relay) output circuits AC or DC accommodate either sinking or sourcing field devices.

PLC Input Units

Example of input lines can be connection of external input device. Sensor outputs can be different
depending on a sensor itself and also on a particular application.

In practice we use a system of connecting several inputs (or outputs) to one return line. These
common lines are usually marked “COMM” on the PLC controller housing.

DC Inputs
DC input modules allow to connect either PNP (sourcing) or NPN (sinking)
transistor type devices to them. When we are using a sensor have to worry about its output
configuration. If we are using a regular switch (toggle or pushbutton) we typically don’t have to
worry about whether we wire it as NPN or PNP.

AC Inputs
An ac voltage is non-polarized. Most commonly, the AC voltage is being
switched through a limit switch or other switch type. AC input modules are less common than DC
input modules, because today’s sensors typically have transistor outputs. If application is using a
sensor it probably is operating on a DC voltage.

Typical connection of an AC device

to PLC input module

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Typically an AC input takes longer than a DC input for the PLC to see.
In most cases it doesn’t matter to the programmer because an AC input device is typically a
mechanical switch and mechanical devices are slow.

It’s quite common for a plc to require that the input be on for 25 ms (or more) before it’s seen. This
delay is required because of the filtering which is needed by the PLC internal circuit.

PLC Output Units

PLC Output units can be:
Relay,
Transistor, or
Triac.

Check the specifications of load before connecting it to the plc output.

Make sure that the maximum current it will consume is within the specifications of the plc output.

Relay Outputs

One of the most common types of outputs available is the relay output. Existence of relays as outputs
makes it easier to connect with
external devices. A relay is non-polarized and typically it can switch either AC or DC.

Transistor Outputs

Transistor type outputs can only switch a dc current. The PLC applies a small current to the transistor
base and the transistor output “closes”. When it’s closed, the device connected to the PLC output will
be turned on.

A transistor typically cannot switch as large a load as a relay. If the load current you need to switch
exceeds the specification of the output, you can connect the plc output to an external relay, then
connect the relay to the large load.

Typically a PLC will have either NPN or PNP transistor type outputs. Some of the common types
available are BJT and MOSFET. A BJT type often has less switching capacity than a MOSFET type.
The BJT also has a slightly faster switching time.

A transistor is fast, switches a small current, has a long lifetime and works with dc only. A relay is
slow, can switch a large current, has a shorter lifetime and works with ac or dc.

Triac Output
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Triac output can be used to control AC loads only. Triac output is faster in operation and has longer
life than relay output.

Inductive loads have a tendency to deliver a “back current” when they

turn on. This back current is like a voltage spike coming through the system. This could be dangerous
to output relays. Typically a diode, varistor, or other “snubber” circuit should be used to protect the
PLC output from any damage.

PLC Networks
As control systems become more complex, they require more effective communication schemes
between the system components. Some machine and process control systems require that
programmable controllers be interconnected, so that data can be passed among them
easily to accomplish the control task.

Other systems require a plantwide communication system that centralizes functions, such as data
acquisition, system monitoring, maintenance diagnostics, and management production reporting, thus
providing maximum efficiency and productivity.

Local Area Networks

The term local area network (LAN) is used to describe a communication network designed
to link computers and their peripherals within the same building or site. A LAN is a high-speed,
mediumdistance communication system.

For most LANs, the maximum distance between two nodes in the network is at least one mile, and the
transmission speed ranges from 1 to 20 megabaud. Also, most local networks support
at least 100 stations, or nodes.

Industrial Network
A special type of LAN, the industrial network, is one which meets the following criteria:
? capable of supporting real-time control.
? high data integrity (error detection).
? high noise immunity.
? high reliability in harsh environments.
? and suitable for large installations.

PLC Programming
Programming Languages
A program loaded into PLC systems in machine code, a sequence of binary code numbers to represent
the program instructions.
Assembly language based on the use of mnemonics can be used, and a computer program called an
assembler is used to translate the mnemonics into machine code.
High level Languages (C, BASIC, etc.) can be used.

Programming Devices
PLC can be reprogrammed through an appropriate programming device:
Programming Console

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PC
Hand Programmer

Introduction to Ladder Logic

Ladder logic uses graphic symbols similar to relay schematic circuit diagrams.
Ladder diagram consists of two vertical lines representing the power rails. Circuits are connected as
horizontal lines between these two verticals.

Ladder diagram features

Power flows from left to right.

Output on right side cannot be connected directly with left side.
Contact can not be placed on the right of output.
Each rung contains one output at least.
Each output can be used only once in the program.
A particular input a/o output can appear in more than one rung of a ladder.
The inputs a/o outputs are all identified by their addresses, the notation used depending on the PLC
manufacturer.

Introduction to Statement list

Statement list is a programming language using mnemonic abbreviations of Boolean
logic operations. Boolean operations work on combination
of variables that are true or false.
A statement is an instruction or directive for the PLC.

Statement List Operations

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* Load (LD) instruction.
* And (A) instruction.
* Or (O) instruction.
* Output (=) instruction.

Function Block Diagrams

Function block is represented as a box with the function name written in.

Example

Pleasenote:
LD:load
O:or
AN:and not (and a normally closed contact)
ALD: AND the first LD with second LD

PLC Instructions
Functions and Instructions
Relay-type (Basic) instructions: I, O, OSR, SET, RES, T, C
Data Handling Instructions:
Data move Instructions: MOV, COP, FLL, TOD, FRD, DEG, RAD (degrees to radian).
Comparison instructions: EQU (equal), NEQ (not equal), GEQ (greater than or equal), GRT
(greater than).
Mathematical instructions.
Continuous Control Instructions ( PID instructions ).
Program flow control instructions: MCR (master control reset), JMP, LBL, JSR, SBR, RET, SUS,
REF
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 Specific instructions:
BSL, BSR (bit shift left/right), SQO (sequencer output), SQC (sequencer compare), SQL (sequencer
load).
High speed counter instructions: HSC, HSL, RES, HSE
Communication instructions: MSQ, SVC
ASCII instructions: ABL, ACB, ACI, ACL, CAN

Internal Relays
Auxiliary relays, markers, flags, coils, bit storage.
Used to hold data, and behave like relays, being able to be switched on or off and switch other devices
on or off. They do not exist as real-world switching devices but are merely bits in the storage
memory.

Internal Relays Use

In programs with multiple input conditions or arrangements. For latching a circuit and for resetting a
latch circuit. Giving special built-in functions with PLCs.

Retentive relays (battery-backed relays)

Such relays retain their state of activation, even when the power supply is off. They can be used in
circuits to ensure a safe shutdown of plant in the event of a power failure and so enable it to restart in
an appropriate manner.

Latch Instructions (Set and Reset)

The set instruction causes the relay to self-hold,, i.e. latch. It then remains in that condition until the
reset instruction is received.
The latch instruction is often called a SET or OTL (output latch).
The unlatch instruction is often called a RES (reset), OTU (output unlatch) or RST (reset).

PLC Instructions II ‘Timers’

Timers
Timer is an instruction that waits a set amount of time before doing something (control time). Timers
count fractions of seconds or seconds using the internal CPU clock. The time duration for which a
timer has been set is termed the preset and is set in multiples of the time base used.

Most manufacturers consider timers to behave like relays with coils which when energized result in
the closure or opening of contacts after some preset time. The timer is thus treated as an output for a
rung with control being exercised over pairs of contacts elsewhere. Others treat a timer as a delay
block which when inserted in a rung delays signals in that rung reaching the output.

Timers Types

On-Delay timer- simply “delays turning on”. It is called TON, TIM or TMR.
Off-Delay timer- simply “delays turning off”. It is called TOF and is less common than the on-dellay
type.
The on/off delay timers above would be reset if the input sensor wasn’t on/off for the complete timer
duration.
Retentive or Accumulating timer- holds or retains the current elapsed time when the sensor turns off
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in mid-stream. It is called RTO or TMRA.
This type of timer needs 2 inputs.

We need to know 2 things when using timers:

1. What will enable the timer?
Typically this is one of the inputs (a sensor connected to one input).
2. How long we want to delay before we react?
Wait x seconds before we turn on a load.

When the instructions before the timer symbol are true the timer starts “ticking”.
When the time elapses the timer will automatically close its contacts.
When the program is running on the plc the program typically displays the current value.
Typically timers can tick from 0 to 9999 (16-bit BCD) or 0 to 65535 times (16-bit binary).

Timer Accuracy

There are software and Hardware Errors when using a timer.

Software Errors

Input error depending upon when the timer input turns on during the scan cycle.
Output error depending upon when in the ladder the timer actually “times out” and when the plc
finishes executing the program to get to the part of the scan when it updates the outputs.
Total software error is the sum of both the input and output errors.

Hardware Error

There is a hardware input error as well as a hardware output error. The hardware input error is caused
by the time it takes for the plc to actually realize that the input is on when it scans its inputs. Typically
this duration is about 10ms (to eliminate noise or “bouncing” inputs).
The hardware output error is caused by the time it takes from when the plc tells its output to
physically turn on until the moment it actually does. Typically a transistor takes about 0.5ms whereas
a mechanical relay takes about 10ms.

PLC Instructions III ‘Counters’

Counters
A counter is set to some preset value and, when this value of input pulses has been received, it will
operate its contacts.
The counter accumulated value ONLY changes at the off to on transition of the pulse input.
Typically counters can count from 0 tto 9999, -32,768 to +32,767 or 0 to 65535.

The normal counters are typically “software” counters – they don’t physically exist in the plc but
rather they are simulated in software. A good rule of thumb is simply to always use the normal
(software) counters unless the pulses you are counting will arive faster than 2X the scan time.

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Counter Types
Up-counters counts from zero up to the preset value. These are called CTU, CNT, C, or CTR.
Down-counters count down from the preset value to zero. These are calllled CTD.
Up-down counters count up and/or down. These are called CTUD.
For CTU or CTD counter we need 2 inputs, but in CTUD we need 3 (up, down and preset).

To use counters we must know 3 things:

1. Where the pulses that we want to count are coming from. Typically this is from one of the
inputs.

2. How many pulses we want to count before we react.

3. When/how we will reset the counter so it can count again.

Counter Formats
Some manufacturers consider the counter as a relay and consist of two basic elements:
One relay coil to count input pulses and one to reset the counter, and the associated contacts of the
counter being used in other rungs.

Others (Siemens for example) treat the counter as an intermediate block in a rung from which signals
emanate when the count is attained.

High Speed Counter

Most manufacturers also include a limited number of high-speed counters (HSC). Typically a high-
speed counter is a “hardware” device. Hardware counters are not dependent on scan time.

Sequencers
The sequencer is a form of counter that is used for sequential control. It replaces the mechanical drum
sequencer that was used to control machines that have a stepped sequence of repeatable operations.

The PLC sequencer consists of a master counter that has a range of presets counts corresponding to
the different steps and so, as it progresses through the count, when each preset count is reached can be
used to control outputs.

Advanced Instructions
Data Handling Instructions
Timers, counters and individual relays are all concerned with the handling of individual bits, i.e.
single on-off signal. PLC operations involve blocks of data representing a value, such blocks being
termed words.

Data handling consists of operations involving moving or transferring numeric information stored in
one memory word location to another word in a different location, comparing data values and
carrying out simple arithmetic operations.

A register is where data can be stored.

Each data register can store a binary word of usually 8 or 16 bits.
21
The number of bits determines the size of the number that can be stored (2n – 1).
4-bit register can store a positive number between 0 and +15.
8-bit: 0 and +255.
16-bit: 0 and +65535.

Data movement instructions

There are typically 2 common instruction “sets“:
The single instruction is commonly called MOV (move) copies a value from one address to another.
The MOV instruction needs to know 2 things:
Source – where the data we want to move is located.
Destination – the location where the data will be moved to.
We write an address here. Allso, the data can be moved to the physical outputs.

Data comparison
The data comparison instruction gets the PLC to compare two data values.
Thus it might be to compare a digital value read from some input device with a second value
contained in a register.
PLCs generally can make comparisons for:
less than (< or LESS),
equal to (= or EQU),
less than or equal to (<= or LEQ),
greater than (> or GRT),
greater than or equal to (>= or GEQ), and
not equal to ( NEQ).

Arithmetic (mathematical) Instructions

PLCs almost always include math functions to carry out some arithmetic operations:
Addition (ADD) – The capability to add one piece of data to another.
Subtraction (SUB) – The capability to subtract one piece of data from another.
Multiplication (MUL) – The capability to multiply one piece of data by another.
Division (DIV) – The capability to divide one piece of data from another.

Overflow
Typically the memory locations are 16-bit locations. If a result is greater than the value that could be
stored in a memory location then we get an overflow. The plc turns on an internal relay that tells us an
overflow has happened. We get an overflow if the number is greater than 65535
(2^16=65536).

Depending on the plc, we would have different data in the destination location. Some use 32-bit math
which solves the problem. If we’re doing division, and we divide by zero the overflow bit turns on.

Advanced Instructions II
Continuous control (PID Instruction)
Continuous control of some variable can be achieved by comparing the actual value of the variable
with the desired set value and then giving an output depending on the control law required. Many
PLCs provide the PID calculation to determine the controller output as a standard routine. All that is
22
then necessary is to pass the desired parameters, i.e. the values of Kp, Ki, and KD, and input/output
locations to the routine via the PLC program.

Control instructions are used to enable or disable a block of logic program or to move execution of a
program from one place to another place.
The control instructions include:
Master Control instruction (MC/MCR)
Jump to label instruction (JMP)
Label instruction (LBL)
Jump to Subroutine instruction (JSR)
Subroutine instruction (SBR)
Return from Subroutine instruction (RET)
Shift Registers

Master Control/ Master Control Reset (MC/MCR)

When large numbers of outputs have to be controlled, it is sometimes necessary for whole sections of
program to be turned on or off when certain criteria are realized. This could be achieved by including
a MCR instruction. A MCR instruction is an output instruction.

The master control instruction typically is used in pairs with a master control reset. Different formats
are used by different manufacturers:
MC/MCR (master control/master control reset),
MCS/MCR (master control set/master control reset) or
MCR (master control reset).

The zone being controlled begins with a rung that has the first MC instruction, which status depends
on its rung condition. This zone ends with a rung that has the second MCR instruction only.

When the rung with the first MCR instruction is true, the first MCR instruction is high and the
outputs of the rung in the controlled zone can be energized or denergized acording to their rung
conditions. When the this rung is false, all the outputs in the zone are denrgized, regardless their rung
conditions.

Timers should not be used inside the MC/MCR block because some manufacturers will reset them to
zero when the block is false whereas other manufacturers will have them retain the current time
state.Counters typically retain their current counted value.

Jump Instructions
The JUMP instructions allow to break the rung sequence and move tthe program execution from one
rung to another or to a subroutine. The Jump is a controlled output instruction.
You can jump forward or backward.
You can use multiple jump to the same label.
Jumps within jumps are possible
There are:
1. Jump to Label. 2.Jump to subroutine

RETURN / END

23
 A Return from Subroutine instruction marks the end of Subroutine instruction. When the rung
condition of this instruction is true, it causes the PLC to resume execution in the calling program file
at the rung following the Jump to Subroutine instruction in the calling program.

When a Return from Subroutine instruction is not programmed in a subroutine file, the END
instruction automatically causes the PLC to move execution back to the rung following the Jump to
Subroutine instruction. A Jump to Subroutine instruction can be used either in a main application
program or a subroutine program to call another subroutine program.

Shift Registers
The shift register is a number of internal relays grouped together (normally 8, 16, or 32) which allow
stored bits to be shifted from one relay to another. The grouping together of internal relays to form a
shift register is done automatically by a PLC when the shift register function is selected. This is done
by using the programming code against the internal relay number that is to be the first in the register
array.

Shift registers can be used where a sequence of operations is required or to keep track of particular
items in a production system. The shift register is most commonly used in conveyor systems, labeling
or bottling applications, etc.

Programming Examples I
Example 1:
Write a program (instruction list) to put the number (4000) in a memory location, and the number (41)
in another location. divide the first one by the second and put the result in a memory location.

solution:

24
Programming Examples II

Example 3:

Put a value in memory location vw200, and using shifting method, move this value to the output of
the PLC.

Solution:

when we press the PLC input button (I0.0), the PLC will put the value (980) inside memory location
vw200, and when the rising edge of the pulse arrives, the contents of memory location will be shifted
to the left for one bit (the instruction SLW = shift left word). we could put 2 after # to shift two bits
to left. If we put 7 after the #, the overflow indicator will be activated (SM1.1=1) which will activate
the output in question.

here is the ladder diagram:

25
Vendor selection
The range of PLC suppliers is vast and many offer a number of alternative product ranges with any
number of modules, boasting special features.
Our choice must meet the application requirements, provide extra capacity for future development and
provide a costeffective solution.

Price is the most commonly stated reason for making a choice, but the true price of a PLC to meet the
requirements of a particular application is often much the same over a wide range of supplier
equipment.

The final choice of supplier for our PLC will depend upon functionality, support available, customer
preferences, user knowledge and price.

These are the issues that must be addressed:

- Functionality: We have to match the application requirements with the features of each of the
contending suppliers’ equipment to identify the one that best meets our requirements.
- Support: Before any purchase is made the following points should be confirmed with any
manufacturer:
*Training;
*Technical support (on site and over the phone);
*Application support to configure and design a system;
*Rapid exchange/repair of failed equipment;
*Guaranteed support for any products for at least 10 years from purchase.

26
Choosing the correct processor
For Selecting Modular Processors the following Criteria examined include:
I/O points (local I/O points and expandable points).
Each PLC processor will only be capable of working with a limited number of each type of I/O
modules.

Memory size (for data storage or program storage) and Performance (scan time depends on the
processor).
The size of program is dependent upon the complexity of the control problem and the skill and style
of the programmer.

The required operating speed for all the I/O must be determined, with a PLC selected to match. This
requires the estimation of the program size and the proportion of slow instructions. The scan speed is
normally expressed in terms of
ms/K for a stated mix of simple and complex instructions. A PLC with an appropriate memory
capacity and speed can be selected.

For any particular application it is essential to ensure that the

PLC selected can handle the required operations.
When a communications facility is required we need to determine whether the built-in port is
adequate for the application, or whether a separate module will be required.

PLC Installation & Commissioning

PLC Installation, Commissioning and Recommendations

Typical installation
• Typical installation (enclosure, disconnect device, fused isolation transformer, master control
relay, terminal blocks and wiring ducts, suppression devices).

• Spacing controllers – follow the recommended minimum spacing to allow the convection
cooling.

• Preventing excessive heat (0–60?) C

• Grounding guidelines.

• Power considerations.

• Safety considerations.

• Preventive maintenance considerations.

Commissioning and testing of a PLC system

• Checking that all cable connections between the PLC and the plant are complete, safe, and to
the required specification and meeting local standards.

• Checking that all the incoming power supply matches the voltage setting for which the PLC is
set.
27
 • Checking that all protective devices are set to their appropriate trip settings.

• Checking that emergency stop button work.

• Checking that all input/output devices are connected to the correct input/output points and
giving the correct signals.

• Loading and testing the software.

Testing inputs and outputs

Input devices can be manipulated to give the open and closed contact conditions and the
corresponding LED on the input module observed. Forcing also can be used to test inputs and outputs.
This involves software, rather than mechanical switching on or off, being used with instructions to
turn off or on inputs/outputs.

Testing Software
Most PLCs contain some software checking program. This checks through the installed program and
provides a list on a screen or as printout with any errors detected.

Fault detection techniques

For any PLC controlled plant, by far the greater percentage of the faults are likelly to be with sensors,
actuators, and wiring rather than with PLC itself. The faults within the PLC most are likely to be in
the input/output channells or power supply than in the CPU.

Case 1
Consider a single output device failing to turn on though the output LED is on.
If testing of the PLC output voltage indicates that it is normal then the fault might be a wiring fault or
a device fault.
If checking of the voltage at the device indicates the voltage there is normal then the fault is the
device.

Case 2

Failure of an input LED to illuminate as required could be because:

*Input device is not correctly operating,
*Input device is not correctly powered,
*Incorrect wiring connections to the input modulle, or LED or input module is defective.

Many PLCs provide built-in fault analysis procedures which carry out self-testing and display fault
codes, with possibly a brief message, which can be translated by looking up code in a list to give the
source of the fault and possible method of recovery.

Applications

Conveyor system

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This simple application is for a conveyor (moving material machine) and how we implement it using
ladder diagram and instruction list.

System requirements:

1. A plc is used to start and stop the motors of a segmented conveyor belt, this allows only belt
sections carrying a copper plate to move.
2. The system have three segmented conveyor belts, each segment runs by a motor.
3. A proximity switch located at the end of each segment to detect the position of the plate.
4. The first conveyor segment is always on.
5. The second conveyor segment turns on when the proximity switch in the first segment detects the
plate.
6. when the proximity switch at the second conveyor detects the plate, the third segment conveyor
turns ON.
7. the second conveyor is stopped, when the plate is out of detection range of the second proximity
switch, after 20 seconds.
8. the third conveyor is stopped after 20 seconds, when the proximity swtch located at the segment
doesn’t detect the plate.

29
PLC LAN Applications
Centralized data acquisition and distributed control are the most common applications of LANs. Data
collection and processing, when performed by an individual controller, can burden the processor’s
scan time, consume large amounts of memory, and complicate the control logic program.

A data highway configuration, in which all data is passed to a host computer that performs all data
processing, eliminates these problems.

Also, distributed control applications allocate control functions, once performed by a

single controller, among several controllers, this eliminates dependence on a single controller and
improves performance and reliability.

To use the distributed processing approach, a LAN and the PLCs attached to it must provide the
functions:
- communication between PLCs
- upload capability to a host computer from any PLC
- download capability from a host computer to any PLC
- reading/writing of I/O values and registers to any PLC
- monitoring of PLC status and control of PLC operation

I/O BUS NETWORKS

This network lets controllers better communicate with I/O field devices, to take advantage
of their growing intelligence. This configuration decentralizes control in the PLC system,
yielding larger and faster control systems.

Three types of I/O bus networks:

?Sensor Bus Networks
?Device-level Bus and
?Process Bus.

Sensor Bus Network

At the lowest level of process automation, the Sensor Busses focus solely on discrete devices. AS-I
(Actuator Sensor Interface) is the most common Sensor Bus Network.
Field devices typically connected to Sensor Bus Networks include on/off valves, limit switches,….

30
Troubleshooting
Program troubleshooting

There are severall causes off alteration to the user

program:
extreme environmental conditions,
electromagnetic Interference (EMI),
improper grounding,
improper wiring connections, andUnauthorized tampering.
If you suspect the memory has been altered, check the program against a previously saved program on
an EEPROM, UVPROM or flash EPROM modulle.

Hardware troubleshooting Tips for troubleshooting control system

If installation and start-up procedures were followed closely, controller will give reliable service.
If a problem should occur, the first step in the troubleshooting procedure is to
identify the problem and its source.
Do this by observing your machine or process and by monitoring the diagnostic LED indicators on the
CPU, Power Supply and I/O modules.

By observing the diagnostic indicators on the front of the processor unit and I/O modules, the
majority of faults can be located and corrected. These indicators, along with error codes identified in
the programming device user manual and programmer’s monitor, help trace the source of the fault to
the user’s input/output devices, wiring, or the controller.

Troubleshooting Controller

In identifying the source of the controller’s operation problem use troubleshooting considerations
table including status indication, trouble description, probable causes and recommended action.
To receive the maximum benefit, follow these steps:
Identify Power Supply and CPU LED status indicators;
Match processor LEDs with the status LEDs located in troubleshooting tables;
Once the status LEDs are matched to the appropriate table, simply
move across the table identifying error description and probable causes;
Follow the recommended action steps for each probable cause until
the cause is identified;
If recommended actions do not identify the cause, contact manufacturer or distributor for assistance.

Troubleshooting Input modules

An input circuit responds to an input signal in the following manner:
An input filter removes false signals due to contact bounce or electrical interference; Optical isolation
protects the backplane circuits by isolating logic circuits from input signals; Logic circuits process the
signal; An input LED turns on or off indicating the status of the corresponding input device.
The processor receives the input status for use in processing the program logic.

31
Troubleshooting Output modules

n output circuit controls the output signal in the following manner:

The processor determines the output status; Logic circuits maintain the output status. An output LED
indicates the status of the output signal, Optical isolation separates logic and backplane circuits from
field signals; The output driver turns the corresponding output on or off.

Troubleshooting II
Power distribution
The master control relay must be able to inhibit all machines motion by removing power to the
machine I/O devices when the relay is de-energized. The DC power supplly shoulld be powered
directly from the fused secondary of the transformer. Power to the DC input, and output, circuits is
connected through a set of master control relay contacts. Interrupt the load side rather the AC line
power. This avoids the additional delay of power supply turn-on and turn-off.

Power LED
The POWER LED on the power supplly indicates that DC power is being supplied to the chassis. This
LED could be off when incoming power is
present when the:
Fuse is blown;
Voltage drops below the normal operating range;
Power supply is defective.

Safety Considerations
Actively thinking about the safety of yourself and others, as well as the condition of your equipment,
is of primary importance.

When troubleshooting, pay carefull attention to these general warnings:

Have all personnel remain clear of the controller and equipment when power is applied.
The problem may be intermittent and sudden unexpected machine motion could result in injury.
Have someone ready to operate an emergency-stop switch in case it becomes necessary to shut off
power to the controller equipment.
Never reach into a machine to actuate a switch since unexpected machine motion can occur and cause
injury.
Remove all electrical power at the main power disconnect switches before checking electrical
connections or inputs/outputs causing machine motion.
Never alter safety circuits to defeat their functions. Serious injury or machine damage could result.

Calling for assistance

If you need to contact manufacturer or local distributor for assistance, it is helpful to obtain
the following (prior to calling):
Processor type, series letter
Processor LED status
32
 Processor error codes
Hardware types in system (I/O modules, chassis)
Revision of programming device (HHT or APS).

System documentation
The documentation is the main guide used by the users and for troubleshooting and fault finding with
PLCs.
The documentation for a PLC installation should include:
A description of the plant.
Specification of the control requirements.
Details of the programmable logic controller.
Electrical installation diagrams.
Lists of all inputs and outputs connections.
Application program with full commentary on what it is achieving.
Software back-ups.
Operating manual, including details of all start up and shut down
procedures and alarms.

Distributed Control Systems

What are Distributed Control Systems (DCS)

Various systems are introduced to automate the processes in the manufacturing industry and minimize
the human interaction with the machines. These systems not only save the cost but also keep the
injuries to minimum. Distributed processes are controlled by decentralized elements in a distributed
control system or DCS.

Routine operations are carried out without the need of user intervention. There is an interface known
as SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) which lets the user interact with the system. A
DCS consists of a remote and a central control panel with a communication medium. Two different
names are given to the remote control panels by different suppliers. The names are

1) Remote transmission Unit or RTU

2) Digital Communication Unit or DCU

The functions of these remote units are same as they contain I/O modules and communication
mediums and processors. These remote control units can be connected to the central control panel or
SCADA with the help of a wireless or wired connection.
The software used to read the I/O command is of specialized nature.

A detailed analysis of network protocols is required before the selection of DCS is finalized. The
systems differ in terms of applications and complexity and the applications depend on the
implementation of the system. A DCS with smaller implementation may only consist of a single
Programmable Logic Controller or PLC. This controller will be connected to a computer in the remote
office.

PLC is also an attribute of the large and complex DCS installations like in electrical grids and in
power generation fields. They are also widely used in water treatment plants and in systems for
environmental control. Petroleum refineries and petrochemical industry also uses these systems on a

33
mass scale as these are intelligent systems and save all the process data necessary to continue the
operations in case of a communication failure.

SCADA

What is SCADA?

Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition or SCADA is a system used to monitor and control a plant
form a central location. This is not frequently used because of the control override possibility.
SCADA itself changes the control set points quite frequently. It is widely used in water treatment
plants and lately it has been used chlorination and pumping stations.

SCADA system is composed of 3 main elements.

• RTU (Remote Telemetry Unit)

• HMI (Human Machine Interface)

• Communications

The function of an RTU is to collect the onsite information and this information is sent to a central
location with the help of the communication element. If system wants to send information back to the
RTU then this communication element take it back too.
The function of the HMI element is to display the information received in an easy to understand
graphical way and also archive all the data received. It is usually a high end computer system capable
of displaying high quality graphics and running advanced and complex software.

Communication happens through various means. It will happen via data cable within a plant or
through a fiber optic. The communication may happen via radio between different regions.

Why is SCADA Popular?

The major reason of its popularity in the manufacturing industry is that it significantly reduces the
labor costs and improves the performance of the plant. Management can save time as well because the
information is gathered by SCADA at a central location so the personnel do not have to go and
wander about on site.

Another feature of this system which is seldom appreciated is its capability of displaying the trends.
When information gathered is displayed graphically, the system shows the developing problems and
helps the management in taking the corrective measures. The SCADA system may be difficult to
configure at first but it is extremely user friendly and easy to use. ?

Industrial Safety Systems

The Industrial Safety Systems and Their Types
Industrial automation has minimized the human interaction with the machines but has not completely
eliminated it. Industrial safety systems are introduced to protect the human who work in hazardous
plants. Some examples of these are oil and gas, chemical and nuclear plants. The industrial safety
systems not only protect the humans but also protect the environment and the plant itself from the
chemical reactions.
34
These systems do not control any process but in fact come into play when it is not possible to control
a process through normal means. They are rather installed as a protective measure and are quickly
becoming the need of every working environment. There are various types of safety systems in place
and their use depends on the type of industry they are used in. Here is a look at some of them.

Process Control Systems (PCS)

They are installed for the monitoring of the manufacturing environment and they control the
manufacturing process electronically. A laser diode is used for the detection of liquid or gas present in
the environment. If the gas or liquid is detected then their particular frequency signature is converted
to a digital signal and the processor identifies the signal received.

Safety Shut-down Systems (SSS)

These systems are particularly helpful in the state of emergency as they automatically shut-down a
system to a safe state whenever they sense a danger. They can be connected to the fir and gas systems
to achieve securer working environment.

Fire and Gas Systems (FGS)

These systems are highly sensitive and intelligent. They sense the inflammable gas, material or liquid
spill at an early stage. They also detect the fire within the working environment and give audible and
visual signals of the threat detected. These systems can be activated automatically or manually.

There are other systems like Pressure Safety Valves (PSV) and Emergency Shutdown Systems (ESS)
that are widely used in the manufacturing industry.

Signature Image Processing (SIP)

It is a technology used to analyze the electrical data collected through a welding process. This data is
usually collected through robotic or automated welding processes. Automated welding plants are used
in almost 50% of the manufactured products in the developed countries.

Certain conditions are necessary for welding to be acceptable and little variation in it can become the
cause of rejection. There was a need of a reliable system that could detect welding fault in real time.
SIP is a system that can identify the smallest of faults in the welding process. Powerful computers
make this real time computing happen and help in optimizing the welding process.

The use of SIP has increased significantly in the automotive industry and it has resulted in the
improved quality and safety of the vehicles. The automatic welding system can eliminate the need to
rework and recall a product and manufacturers can reduce the number of humans in the work place
and can save more on labor costs.

SIP was developed for arc welding with the assistance and help of the grant given by Australian
government. This system has a front end interface and software and gives accurate results as it only
depends on the electrical signals received. It can survive in any industrial welding environment and is
easy to use and install as well.

GM Holden was the first purchaser and user of the technology. Significant improvements were made
in this system depending on the feedback received from GM Holden and these improvements
increased the commercial value of this system. The improvements were made in algorithms and the
system was optimized to achieve accurate fault detection. The interface and installation is simple but

35
the mathematics involved in the working of SIP is complex and the technology has been adopted and
appreciated by the world’s top auto manufacturers.

Programmable Automation Controller

Programmable Automation Controller (PAC)
Programmable Automation Controller or PAC is an easy to configure PLC style device. It has
advanced capabilities and they are already built into its design. It can perform complex functions like
loop control, latching, and data acquisition and delivery. They have other advantages too as open
architectures are used in their manufacturing and they can connect to almost any device or business
system present today.

Characteristics of a PAC
The term PAC was given by ARC and there were two reasons behind it.

1. To help the users of automated hardware define the applications they need.

2. Give the vendors a term to effectively communicate the characteristics and abilities of their
product.

ARC also made and explained a few rules or guidelines for a device to be considered as a
programmable automation controller.

Operate using a single platform: It should be true for single or multiple domains and in drives,
motions and process controls.
Employ a single development platform: It should use single database for different tasks in all the
disciplines.

Functional Benefits
The characteristics used to define a PAC also explain the benefits that can be obtained from its
industrial installation and application. A PAC can meet complex requirements and does not need
additional components like a PLC. Due to high integration of hardware and software, improved
control system performance is experienced. Integrated Development Environment or IDE which is
used in the manufacturing of a PAC uses a tagname database that is used and shared by all the
development tools.

A PAC only needs one software package to cover all the existing automation needs and the ones that
may arise in the future and does not need utilities from different vendors. The control systems can be
upgraded easily and due its compact size, a programmable automation controller uses lesser space
compared to other options.

Common Industrial Protocol (CIP)

Common industrial protocol (CIP) is a set of standards that all the automation companies
should maintain. Automation is the process of replacing human workers with the computer system
and controlling all the machines and processes through the computers. The standards of CIP are
maintained and supported by Open DeviceNet Vendors Association. This networking system is also
based on CIP and other big companies as component and Ethernet are also working on the framework
of CIP.
36
CIP has different sections that are supported by ODVA. The extension of Common Industrial
Protocol (CIP) applications are CIP safety, CIP Sync and CIP Motion. CIP contains a comprehensive
plan for all the features of automation e.g. it provides services for control, and safety, organization
and arrangement, and motion and information.

They also provide messages to users to make it easier for them to understand. If so they can easily
integrate applications with different networks and the Internet. Media does not play a core role in its
progress; this system is supported all over the world. CIP is the only communication architecture in
the manufacturing enterprises around the world.

The common feature of a CIP is that it provides the messaging services within the frame of Netlinx
architecture. It also enables you to connect to any network and enables you to collect data from
anywhere you desire. The advantage of its common routing capabilities is that it saves time and the
system quickly configures with required routing table and more logic. Data can be easily transferred
between the networks.

Common based knowledge within the CIP is time efficient when you are moving from one network to
another because less time is required for training of similar tools and features. CIP has many layers
which enfold many networking levels. For example; Ethernet uses the transmission control
protocol/internet protocol or TCP/IP which is integration between CIP and Ethernet layers.

HART Communications Protocol

People use to think that field networks were the only solution when it came to the use of smart field
devices but HART proved it wrong. HART communication protocol provides the easy installation
that is equipped with 4 to 20mA technique. Today HART is a preferred choice for the smart field
devices.

HART communication protocol is a reliable and globally acknowledged Protocol used for digital
communication between the host and smart devices and enables powerful control and monitoring
system for the user. In simple words, HART provides two dimensional Communication and data
access i.e. from smart device to host and from host to the smart device.

A smart device can be any intelligent field instrument and the host is any software application on a
laptop or other device used by technician which controls the plant processes, enables security features
and is basically the control point of the plant.
HART technology has proven to be efficient in modern technology and is more efficient and provides
reliable results but it can only be used with the intelligent devices that understand digital data. Almost
all the new smart devices accept digital language provided by HART protocol but some may not.

If the smart device is not equipped with 4 to 20mA analog wiring, the benefits of HART digital
communication cannot be achieved because it provides communication along with 4 to 20mA wiring
and signals. So it is important to provide the plant a digital upgrade if it is does not have these analog
wirings.

Hart technology plays a very important and critical role in the device management and operation. It
provides device configuration, device troubleshooting and diagnostics. Its current status of health and
it reads all the extra values provided by the machine and HART technology makes this
communication possible between the host and the smart device.

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PROFIBUS
PROFIBUS or Process Field Bus was introduced in 1989 and it is sometimes confused with
PROFINET. It links plant automation modules with the process control. PROFIBUS uses a multi drop
single cable to connect the devices. This method is cost effective especially for larger sites when
compared to old methods. Its installation cost is low and it is easy to find faults as well because it is a
single cable.

Types of PROFIBUS
There are two types or versions of PROFIBUS commonly known as

1. PROFIBUS DP
2. PROFIBUS PA

Here is a brief introduction to both of these types.

PROFIBUS DP
It runs over two core screened cable that is violet sheathed and its speed varies from 9.6Kbps to
12Mbps. A particular speed can be chosen for a network to give enough time for communication with
all the devices present in the network. If systems change slowly then lower communication speed is
suitable and if the systems change quickly then effective communication will happen through faster
speed. The RS485 balanced transmission that is used in PROFIBUS DP only allows 32 devices to be
connected at once but more devices can be connected and network can be expanded with the use of
hubs or repeaters.

PROFIBUS PA
It is slower than PROFIBUS DP and runs at fixed speed of 31.2Kbps via blue sheathed two core
screened cable. The communication may be initiated to minimise the risk of explosion or for the
systems that intrinsically need safe equipment. The message formats in PROFIBUS PA are identical
to PROFIBUS DP.

Note: PROFIBUS DP and PROFIBUS PA should not be confused with ProfiNet. ProfiNet is an
Ethernet communication standard and it is used for process control and process measurement. It is
basically used to link computer systems in an office or a network.

CoDeSys
CoDeSys is the acronym of Controller Development System. It is a development program which
enables the user to create visualizations of the operations and processes of the applications. CoDeSys
contains an integrated visualization system which is unique and very useful. Its applications of
programiming controllers are built according to the International indsutrial standadrs.
CodeSys software is easy to install and is freely available from the company’s site.

This software enables the operator to draw a visual chart of the controller’s data and can watch and
assess the performance easily. No additional tools are required for this software. A manual comes
with the software which contains all the information and it has integrated visual program.

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The credit of developing CoDeSys goes to the software company located in Germany and its most
recent version was released by the company in 1994. Five programming languages are used in
CoDeSys which enable the programming of different applications.

The five programing languages of CoDeSys software include two textual editors, and three graphical
editors that are comprehensively explained in IEC standards. Textual editors comprise of an
instruction list which is a type of programming language, and a structure test which has similar
programing like PASCAL or C.

The graphical editor has three units, ladder diagram (LD), Function block diagram (FBD,) and
sequential function chart (SFC). The user can combine the contacts and coils with the use of LD and
FBD which will provide ease of rapid programing of analogue and Boolean expressions. Thridly SFC
enables the user to conveniently program the sequential processes of the application.

Function Chart of CoDeSys

Apart from these five, there is another additional graphical editor in CoDeSys which is not included in
IEC standard protocol and it is called the Continues Function Chart (CFC). It can be seen as the
extension of the function block diagram editor. In FBD, the connections are set automatically by the
operators but in CFC they have to be drawn manually by the programmer. It also gives free hand to
the programmer as all the boxes can be placed freely and feedback loops can be programmed without
the use of interim variables.

REFERENCES
Introduction to PLCs by Jay F. Hooper
A Practical Guide to Implementing S7-300/S7-400 Programmable Logic
Controllers by Clarence T. Jones
Programmable Logic Controllers by W. Bolten

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