Semiconductors

Most of the solids can be placed in one of the two classes:

Metals and insulators. Metals are those through which
electric charge can easily flow, while insulators are those
through which electric charge is difficult to flow. This
distinction between the metals and the insulators can be
explained on the basis of the number of free electrons in
them. Metals have a large number of free electrons
which act as charge carriers, while insulators have
practically no free electrons.
There are however, certain solids whose electrical
conductivity is intermediate between metals and
insulators. They are called ‘Semiconductors’. Carbon,
silicon and germanium are examples of semi-conductors.
In semiconductors the outer most electrons are neither so
rigidly bound with the atom as in an insulator, nor so
loosely bound as in metal. At absolute zero a
semiconductor becomes an ideal insulator.
Theory and Definition

Semiconductors are the materials whose electrical

conductivity lies in between metals and insulator. The
energy band structure of the semiconductors is similar to
the insulators but in their case, the size of the forbidden
energy gap is much smaller than that of the insulator. In
this class of crystals, the forbidden gap is of the order of
about 1ev, and the two energy bands are distinctly
separate with no overlapping. At absolute o0, no electron
has any energy even to jump the forbidden gap and reach
the conduction band. Therefore the substance is an
insulator. But when we heat the crystal and thus provide
some energy to the atoms and their electrons, it becomes
an easy matter for some electrons to jump the small (» 1
ev) energy gap and go to conduction band. Thus at
higher temperatures, the crystal becomes a conductors.
This is the specific property of the crystal which is known
as a semiconductor.

Effect of temperature on conductivity of

Semiconductor

At 0K, all semiconductors are insulators. The valence

band at absolute zero is completely filled and there are no
free electrons in conduction band. At room temperature
the electrons jump to the conduction band due to the
thermal energy. When the temperature increases, a large
number of electrons cross over the forbidden gap and
jump from valence to conduction band. Hence
conductivity of semiconductor increases with
temperature.

INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semi-conductors. In a pure semiconductor,
each atom behaves as if there are 8 electrons in its valence shell and therefore the
entire material behaves as an insulator at low temperatures.

A semiconductor atom needs energy of the order of 1.1ev to shake off the valence
electron. This energy becomes available to it even at room temperature. Due to
thermal agitation of crystal structure, electrons from a few covalent bonds come out.
The bond from which electron is freed, a vacancy is created there. The vacancy in the
covalent bond is called a hole.
This hole can be filled by some other electron in a covalent bond. As an electron from
covalent bond moves to fill the hole, the hole is created in the covalent bond from
which the electron has moved. Since the direction of movement of the hole is opposite
to that of the negative electron, a hole behaves as a positive charge carrier. Thus, at
room temperature, a pure semiconductor will have electrons and holes wandering in
random directions. These electrons and holes are called intrinsic carriers.

As the crystal is neutral, the number of free electrons will be equal to the number of
holes. In an intrinsic semiconductor, if ne denotes the electron number density in
conduction band, nh the hole number density in valence band and ni the number
density or concentration of charge carriers, then

ne = nh = ni

Extrinsic semiconductors
As the conductivity of intrinsic semi-conductors is poor, so intrinsic semi-conductors
are of little practical importance. The conductivity of pure semi-conductor can,
however be enormously increased by addition of some pentavalent or a trivalent
impurity in a very small amount (about 1 to 106 parts of the semi-conductor). The
process of adding an impurity to a pure semiconductor so as to improve its conductivity
is called doping. Such semi-conductors are called extrinsic semi-conductors.
Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types :

i) n-type semiconductor
ii) p-type semiconductor

n-type semiconductor
When an impurity atom belonging to group V of the periodic table like Arsenic is
added to the pure semi-conductor, then four of the five impurity electrons form
covalent bonds by sharing one electron with each of the four nearest silicon atoms,
and fifth electron from each impurity atom is almost free to conduct electricity. As the
pentavalent impurity increases the number of free electrons, it is called donor
impurity. The electrons so set free in the silicon crystal are called extrinsic carriers
and the n-type Si-crystal is called n-type extrinsic semiconductor. Therefore n-type Si-
crystal will have a large number of free electrons (majority carriers) and have a small
number of holes (minority carriers).
In terms of valence and conduction band one can think that all such electrons create a
donor energy level just below the conduction band as shown in figure. As the energy
gap between donor energy level and the conduction band is very small, the electrons
can easily raise themselves to conduction band even at room temperature. Hence, the
conductivity of n-type extrinsic semiconductor is markedly increased.
In a doped or extrinsic semiconductor, the number density of the conduction band (n e)
and the number density of holes in the valence band (nh) differ from that in a pure
semiconductor. If ni is the number density of electrons is conduction band, then it is
proved that
ne nh = ni2

p-type semiconductor
If a trivalent impurity like indium is added in pure semi-conductor, the impurity atom
can provide only three valence electrons for covalent bond formation. Thus a gap is
left in one of the covalent bonds. The gap acts as a hole that tends to accept electrons.
As the trivalent impurity atoms accept electrons from the silicon crystal, it is called
acceptor impurity. The holes so created are extrinsic carriers and the p-type Si-crystal
so obtained is called p-type extrinsic semiconductor. Again, as the pure Si-crystal also
possesses a few electrons and holes, therefore, the p-type si-crystal will have a large
number of holes (majority carriers) and a small number of electrons (minority
carriers).
It terms of valence and conduction band one can think that all such holes create an
accepter energy level just above the top of the valance band as shown in figure. The
electrons from valence band can raise themselves to the accepter energy level by
absorbing thermal energy at room temperature and in turn create holes in the valence
band.
Number density of valence band holes (nh) in p-type semiconductor is approximately
equal to that of the acceptor atoms (Na) and is very large as compared to the number
density of conduction band electrons (ne). Thus,
nh» Na > > ne
 Rectifier

INTRODUCTION
Although in our daily life we use A.C. current devices. But rectifier is
a ‘Electronic device which converts A.C. power into D.C. power’.
The study of the junction diode characteristics reveals that the
junction diode offers a low resistance path, when forward biased, and a high
resistance path, when reverse biased. This feature of the junction diode enables it to
be used as a rectifier.
The alternating signals provides opposite kind of biased voltage at the
junction after each half-cycle. If the junction is forward biased in the first half-
cycle, its gets reverse biased in the second half. It results in the flow of forward
current in one direction only and thus the signal gets rectified.
In other words, we can say, when an alternating e.m.f. signal is
applied across a junction diode, it will conduct only during those alternate half
cycles, which biased it in forward direction.

TYPE OF RECTIFIER
Mainly we have two types of rectifier :
1. Half wave rectifier.
2. Full wave rectifier.
 JUNCTION DIODE AS HALF
WAVE RECTIFIER
When a single diode is used as a rectifier, the rectification of only one-half of
the A.C. wave form takes place. Such a rectification is called half-wave
rectification. The circuit diagram for a half-wave rectifier is shown in Fig.
Principle :
It is based upon the principle that junction diode offers low resistance path
when forward biased, and high resistance when reverse biased.
Arrangement :-
The A.C. supply is applied across the primary coil(P) of a step down
transformer. The secondary coil(S) of the transformer is connected to the junction
diode and a load resistance RL. The out put D.C. voltage is obtained across the load
resistance(RL)
Theory :
Suppose that during the first half of the input cycle, the junction diode gets
forward biased the conventional current will flow in the direction of the arrow-
heads. The upper end of RL will be at positive potential w.r.t. the lower end.
During the negative half cycle of the input a.c. voltage, the diode is reverse biased.
No current flows in the circuit, and therefore, no voltage is developed across (RL).
Since only the positive half cycle of the input appears across the load, the a.c. input
is converted into pulsating direct current (d.c.).

Disadvantage of Half-Wave-Rectifier :
1. Half wave rectification involves a lot of wastage of energy and hence it
is not preferred.
 2. A small current flows during reverse bias due to minority charge
carriers. As the output across (RL) is negligible.
3. The resulting d.c. voltage is not steady enough for some purpose. The
following device is used when a very steady d.c. voltage is required.

JUNCTION DIODE AS A FULL

WAVE RECTIFIER
“A rectifier which rectifies both waves of the a.c. input is called a full wave
rectifier”.
Principle :- It is based upon the principle that a junction diode offers low
resistance during forward biased and high resistance, when reverse biased.

Difference from half-wave-rectifier :- The main difference is that in full wave

rectifier we use two diodes. For this when we apply a.c. current to the rectifier then
the first half wave get forward biased due to first diode. And when the second half
wave comes. Then at that time the second diode comes in action and gets forward
biased. Thus output obtained during both the half cycles of the a.c. input
Arrangement :- The a.c. supply is applied across the primary coil(P) of a step down
transformer. The two diodes of the secondary coil(S) of the transformer are
connected to the P-sections of the junction diodes (D1) and (D2). A load resistance
(RL) is connected across the n-sections of the two diodes and at centre of the
secondary coil. The d.c. output will be obtained across the load resistance (RL).
Theory :-
Suppose that during first half of the input cycle, upper end of (S) coil is at
positive potential. And lower end is at negative potential. The junction diode (D1)
gets forward biased, while the diode. (D2) get reverse biased. When the second half
of the input cycle comes, the situation will be exactly reverse. Now the junction
diode (D2) will conduct. Since the current during both the half cycles flows from
right to left through the load resistance (RL) the output during both the half cycles
will be of same nature.
Thus, in a full wave rectifier, the output is continuous but pulsating in
nature. However it can be made smooth by using a filter circuit.

REVERSE BIASING ON A
JUNCTION DIODE
A P-n junction is said to be reverse biased if the positive terminal of the
external battery B is connected to n-side and the negative terminal to p-side of the p-
n junction. In reverse biasing, the reverse bias voltage supports the potential
barrier VB. (Now the majority carriers are pulled away from the junction and the
depletion region become thick. There is no conduction across the junction due to
majority carriers. However, a few minority carriers (holes in n-section and
electrons in p-section) of p-n Junction diode cross the junction after being
accelerated by high reverse bias voltage. Since the large increase in reverse voltage
shows small increase in reverse current, hence, the resistance of p-n junction is high
to the flow of current when reverse biased.

MATERIAL REQUIRED
1. Transformer :
It is device which is used to increase or decrease the alternating
current and alternating voltage. For the rectifier, it may be step down or step up.
2. Junction Diode :
It is made up of p-type and n-type semiconductor which conducts
when the p terminal of diode to connect to positive terminal of battery and n region
is connected to negative terminal of battery i.e. during forward biased and does not
conduct during reverse biased.

TYPES OF GATES
There are three types of basic logic gates which follows Boolean expression.

i) OR gate

ii) AND gate

iii) NOT gate

THE “OR GATE”

The OR gate is a two inputs and one output logic gate. It combing the input A and B

with the output Y following the Boolean expression.

Y=A+B

The Boolean algebra, the addition symbol (+) is called OR (i.e. OR operation OR

operator).

The various possible combinations of the input and output of the OR gate can be

easily understand with the help of the electrical circuit. In this electric circuit, a

parallel combination of two switches A and B is connected to a battery and a lump

L.
The following interference can be easily drawn from the working of electrical circuit

is :

a) If switch A & B are open lamp do not glow (A=0, B=0)

b) If Switch A open B closed then (A=0, B=1) Lamp glow.

c) If switch A closed B open then (A=1, B=0) Lamp glow.

d) If switch A & B are closed then (A=1, B=1) Lamp glow.

As we see truth table we found same as it is observation.

THE “AND GATE”

The AND gate is also a two inputs and one output logic gate. It combines the input

A and B with the output Y following the Boolean expression.

Y=A.B

The Boolean algebra, the multiplication symbol (. dot or x Gross) is taken to mean

AND.

Y = A . B have Y is equal to A AND B.

The various possible combination of the input and outputs of the AND gate can be

easily found with the help of the electrical circuit. Here a series combination of the

switch A and B is connected to a battery and a lump L.

The following conclusions can be easily drawn from the working of electrical

circuit :

a) If both switches A&B are open (A=0, B=0) then lamp will not glow. (y=0)

b) If Switch A closed & B open (A=1, B=0) then Lamp will not glow. (y=0)

c) If switch A open & B closed (A=0, B=1) then Lamp will not glow. (y=0)

d) If switch A & B both closed (A=1, B=1) then Lamp will glow. (y=1)

As we see truth table we found same as it is observed experimentally.

THE “NOT GATE”

The NOT gate is a one inputs and one output logic gate. It combines the input A

with the output following the Boolean expression.

Y=A

i.e. Y not equal A. The way, the NOT gate gives the output it is also called inverter.

It is represented by the symbol.

The Boolean algebra, the negative sign (-) is called NOT. The equation Y= A called

Boolean expression.

The possible input and output combination of a NOT gate can be easily discussed

with the help of electrical circuit. Here, the switch is connected in parallel to the

lump of the battery. The following conclusion can be easily drawn from the

working of the electrical circuit.

a) If switch A is open (i.e. A=0), the lump will glow (i.e. Y=1)

b) If Switch A is closed (i.e. A=1), the lump will not glow (Y=0).

It follows that in the given electrical circuit, the lump glows (or output is obtained),

when the switch A is not closed. Far this reason, the electrical circuit is called not

gate. The two possible input-output combinations can be written in the form of the

table. It is called truth table of NOT gate.