Writing Report Abstracts

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Types Of Abstracts
There are two types of abstracts: informational and descriptive.

Informational Abstracts
• communicate contents of reports
• include purpose, methods, scope, results, conclusions, and recommendations
• highlight essential points
• are short--from a paragraph to a page or two, depending upon the length of the
report (10% or less of the report)
• allow readers to decide whether they want to read the report

Descriptive Abstracts
• tell what the report contains
• include purpose, methods, scope, but NOT results, conclusions, and
recommendations
• are always very short-- usually under 100 words
• introduce subject to readers, who must then read the report to learn study
results

Qualities Of A Good Abstract

An effective abstract

• uses one or more well-developed paragraphs, which are unified, coherent,

concise, and able to stand alone
• uses an introduction-body-conclusion structure in which the parts of the report
are discussed in order: purpose, findings, conclusions, recommendations
• follows strictly the chronology of the report
• provides logical connections between material included
• adds no new information but simply summarizes the report
• is intelligible to a wide audience

Steps For Writing Effective Report Abstracts

To write an effective report abstract, follow these four steps:
1. Reread your report with the purpose of abstracting in mind. Look
specifically for these main parts: purpose, methods, scope, results,
conclusions, and recommendations.
2. After you have finished rereading your report, write a rough draft
WITHOUT LOOKING BACK AT YOUR REPORT. Consider the main parts
of the abstract listed in step #1. Do not merely copy key sentences
from your report. You will put in too much or too little information.
Do not summarize information in a new way.
3. Revise your rough draft to

• correct weaknesses in organization and coherence,

• drop superfluous information,
• add important information originally left out,
• eliminate wordiness, and
• correct errors in grammar and mechanics.

4. Type your revision and carefully proofread the typed copy.

Adding Emphasis
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Visual Devices for Achieving Emphasis

In the days before computerized word processing and desktop
publishing, the publishing process began with a manuscript and/or a
typescript that was sent to a print shop where it would be prepared
for publication and printed. In order to show emphasis, to highlight
the title of a book, to refer to a word itself as a word, or to indicate a
foreign word or phrase, the writer would use underlining in the
typescript, which would signal the typesetter at the print shop to
use italic font for those words. Even today, perhaps the simplest
way to call attention to an otherwise unemphatic word or phrase is
to underline or italicize it.

Flaherty is the new committee chair, not Buckley.

This mission is extremely important for our future: we must not fail!

Because writers using computers today have access to a wide

variety of fonts and textual effects, they are no longer limited to
underlining to show emphasis. Still, especially for academic writing,
italics or underlining is the preferred way to emphasize words or
phrases when necessary. Writers usually choose one or the other
method and use it consistently throughout an individual essay. In
the final, published version of an article or book, italics are usually
used. Writers in academic discourses and students learning to write
academic papers are expected to express emphasis primarily
through words themselves; overuse of various emphatic devices like
changes of font face and size, boldface, all-capitals, and so on in the
text of an essay creates the impression of a writer relying on flashy
effects instead of clear and precise writing to make a point.
Boldface is also used, especially outside of academia, to show
emphasis as well as to highlight items in a list, as in the following
examples.

The picture that television commercials portray of the American home

is far from realistic.

The following three topics will be covered:

topic 1: brief description of topic 1

topic 2: brief description of topic 2
topic 3: brief description of topic 3
Some writers use ALL-CAPITAL letters for emphasis, but they are
usually unnecessary and can cause writing to appear cluttered and
loud. In email correspondence, the use of all-caps throughout a
message can create the unintended impression of shouting and is
therefore discouraged.

Punctuation Marks for Achieving Emphasis

Some punctuation marks prompt the reader to give a word or
sentence more than usual emphasis. For example, a command with
a period does not evoke the same emphatic response as the same
command with an exclamation mark.

Watch out!

A dash or colon has more emphatic force than a comma.

The employees were surprised by the decision, which was not to

change company policy.
The employees were surprised by the decision--no change in company
policy.
The employees were surprised by the decision: no change in company
policy.

Choice and Arrangement of Words for

Achieving Emphasis
The simplest way to emphasize something is to tell readers directly
that what follows is important by using such words and phrases as
especially, particularly, crucially, most importantly, and above all.
Emphasis by repetition of key words can be especially effective in a
series, as in the following example.

See your good times come to color in minutes: pictures protected by an

elegant finish, pictures you can take with an instant flash, pictures that
can be made into beautiful enlargements.

When a pattern is established through repetition and then broken,

the varied part will be emphasized, as in the following example.

Murtz Rent-a-car is first in reliability, first in service, and last in

customer complaints.

Besides disrupting an expectation set up by the context, you can

also emphasize part of a sentence by departing from the basic
structural patterns of the language. The inversion of the standard
subject-verb-object pattern in the first sentence below into an
object-subject-verb pattern in the second places emphasis on the
out-of-sequence term, fifty dollars.

I'd make fifty dollars in just two hours on a busy night at the restaurant.
Fifty dollars I'd make in just two hours on a busy night at the
restaurant.

The initial and terminal positions of sentences are inherently more

emphatic than the middle segment. Likewise, the main clause of a
complex sentence receives more emphasis than subordinate
clauses. Therefore, you should put words that you wish to
emphasize near the beginnings and endings of sentences and
should never bury important elements in subordinate clauses.
Consider the following example.

No one can deny that the computer has had a great effect upon the
business world.
Undeniably, the effect of the computer upon the business world has
been great.

In the first version of this sentence, "No one can deny" and "on the
business world" are in the most emphasized positions. In addition,
the writer has embedded the most important ideas in a subordinate
clause: "that the computer has had a great effect." The edited
version places the most important ideas in the main clause and in
the initial and terminal slots of the sentence, creating a more
engaging prose style.

Arrangement of Clauses for Achieving

Emphasis
Since the terminal position in the sentence carries the most weight
and since the main clause is more emphatic than a subordinate
clause in a complex sentence, writers often place the subordinate
clause before the main clause to give maximal emphasis to the
main clause. For example:

I believe both of these applicants are superb even though it's hard to
find good secretaries nowadays.
Even though it's hard to find good secretaries nowadays, I believe both
of these applicants are superb.

Sentence Position and Variation for Achieving

Emphasis
An abrupt short sentence following a long sentence or a sequence of
long sentences is often emphatic. For example, compare the
following paragraphs. The second version emphasizes an important
idea by placing it in an independent clause and placing it at the end
of the paragraph:

For a long time, but not any more, Japanese corporations used
Southeast Asia merely as a cheap source of raw materials, as a place to
dump outdated equipment and overstocked merchandise, and as a
training ground for junior executives who needed minor league
experience.

For a long time Japanese corporations used Southeast

Asia merely as a cheap source of raw materials, as a
place to dump outdated equipment and overstocked
merchandise, and as a training ground for junior
executives who needed minor league experience. But
those days have ended.

Varying a sentence by using a question after a series of statements

is another way of achieving emphasis.

The increased number of joggers, the booming sales of exercise

bicycles and other physical training devices, the record number of
entrants in marathon races--all clearly indicate the growing belief
among Americans that strenuous, prolonged exercise is good for their
health. But is it?
Revision in Business Writing
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Few writers are so talented that they can express themselves clearly and effectively in
a rough draft. For short, routine business communications, you may be able to write
quite easily with little or no revision. However, for most business writing--especially
longer, more complex letters and reports--you should expect to revise, sometimes
substantially, to insure that you've said exactly what you meant to say in a manner
that the reader will understand.
Remember: An ineffective message is a waste of everyone's
time

Revision Provides a Service for Your Reader

If you are always satisfied to send out the first draft of your letter or
report, you are not serving your reader well. Not only are you asking
a high payment in terms of your reader's time and attention and
running the risk that the reader may misinterpret or be confused by
what you have to say, but you are also risking your reader's low
opinion: careless, hasty, unrevised writing is always apparent.

Revision Requires a Shift in Your Perspective

To revise effectively, you must first distance yourself from your
writing so that you can respond objectively. In other words, you
need to shift your perspective by assuming the role of the reader.
To accomplish this, you should get away from the paper for a while,
usually leaving it until the following morning. You may not be able to
budget your time this ideally; but you can put the paper aside while
you visit a friend, grab a bite to eat, or work on something else.
Unless you divorce yourself from the paper, you will probably
remain under its spell: that is, you will see only what you think is on
the page instead of what is actually there. And you will be unable to
transport yourself from your role of writer to that of reader.
Such objective distance may at first seem difficult to achieve;
however, the following questions should help you to systematize the
revision stage of your letter and report writing and enable you to
keep your reader in mind as you determine appropriate detail,
language, tone, organization, and mechanical correctness.

Detail: Deciding What to Include

1. What does my reader want or need to know to enable him or her
to understand my message?
2. Does my letter/report answer all the questions my reader has
asked or questions he or she may have in mind?
3. What is my purpose in writing this letter/report?
4. Does my letter/report give all the information needed to
accomplish this purpose?
5. What purpose does this communication serve for my reader?
6. Have I included ONLY the material essential to my reader's
purpose and understanding? Or am I boring or distracting my reader
with unessential and/or obvious information?
7. What do I want my reader to do when he or she finishes reading
my letter or report?
8. Have I included all the information he or she will need to enable
my reader to easily take this action or make this decision?

Language: Aiming for Conciseness and Clarity

1. Have I used ONLY the essential words to get my message across
to my reader?
WORDY CONCISE
Sale of surplus tappers is one We must sell our surplus
of our primary needs. (10) tappers. (6)
This manual of instructions We prepared this instruction
was prepared to aid our manual to aid our dealers in
dealers in being helpful to serving their customers. (13)
their customers. (16)
It is the responsibility of our Our Production Department
Production Department to see must meet the requirements of
that it meets the requirements our Sales Division. (11)
of our Sales Division. (19)
2. Have I used too many words to express simple, unimportant, or
obvious ideas?
WORDY CONCISE
The collision had the effect of The collision destroyed the
a destructive force on the duplicator. (5)
duplicator. (12)
We have enclosed a pamphlet Page four of the enclosed
which shows further details of pamphlet shows further
construction on page four. construction details. (10)
(14)
Three days ago you asked us Too low humidity is apparently
to investigate the problem of the cause of your workers'
discomfort among your office discomfort. Since your building
workers. . . We have made our is steam-heated, your solution
study. Too low humidity is is to . . . (21)
apparently the main cause of
your problem. Your building is
steam-heated; therefore, your
solution is to. . . (41)
3. Have I poured out ideas and facts too rapidly for the reader's
comprehension?
Negative Example
Our deluxe models have chromium, rubber-insulated fixtures for
durability, economy, and easy maintenance, and convenient
controls to cut down on installation costs and necessary
adjustments. They operate on AC or DC current and incorporate the
latest principles of electronic controls which means flexibility in their
use, better adjustment of the thermal units, less chance of error,
and reduced labor costs per unit of production.
4. Have I used vague words instead of more vivid and convincing
specific words?
VAGUE SPECIFIC
contact call, write, visit
slowly about as fast as you normally
walk
soon by March 15
This television set is high All components in this
quality. television set meet or exceed
government specifications for
use in manned satellites
5. Have I keyed the language to my reader's understanding?
EXCESSIVE, OVERWRITTEN ACCESSIBLE, DIRECT
The defendant is renowned as The defendant drinks, chases
a person of intemperate other women, and refuses to
habits. He is known to partake work.
heavily of intoxicating
beverages. Further, he
cultivates the company of
others of the distaff side, and
wholly, regularly, and
consistently refuses and
abstains from earnest
endeavors to gain
remuneration.
The choice of exogenous Supply determines demand.
variables in relation to multi-
collinearity is contingent upon
the derivations of certain
multiple correlation
coefficients.

Tone: Tailoring Language to Your Audience

1. Have I expressed my ideas so that the reader will feel that I am
helpful, courteous, and human?
TACTLESS TACTFUL
You neglected to take care of To enjoy the full benefits. of
the requirements of form 123. your new ABC, simply follow
the procedures outlined on
form 123.
We want our check. To keep your account in the
preferrer Ed customer class,
send our check for $142.33
today.
2. Have I tailored my message to my reader's desires, problems,
circumstances, and probable reactions to the purpose of my
message?
FLAT DETAIL DETAIL ADAPTED TO
READER NEED
This cookware is guaranteed Because Creston cookware can
to with stand temperature withstand extreme changes in
changes. heat and cold, you can safely
move any piece from your
freezer to your microwave.
3. Have I emphasized "you", the reader, instead of "I" or "we"?
"WE" ATTITUDE "YOU" ATTITUDE
We are happy to have your You will receive your solid
order. We shipped it this walnut desk by Tuesday,
morning. October 23.
You were right to ask me about
We regret that you've had so
the troubles you've been
much trouble with our product,
having with your new car.
and we apologize for not
Thank you for this opportunity
solving your problem sooner.
to answer your questions.
4. Have I expressed my ideas so they reflect good public relations
for the company (letters) or good human relations with my
colleagues (reports)?
POOR ATTITUDE GOOD ATTITUDE
You must remember that I've asked Mr. Sanders, a
we've more responsibility here safety consultant from Health
at CEC than worrying about Enterprises, to investigate and
some one's fingers getting suggest possible procedure
caught in some machine. and machine modifications.
It's hardly possible that our To prevent your gun from
trigger could have misfired misfiring again, we will gladly
without some contributing replace the trigger you have.
cause; nevertheless, to help
out hose who lack technical
know-how, a company as
responsible as Creative Guns
can gladly replace the trigger
you have.
5. Have I tactfully avoided words and phrases which imply that my
reader is dishonest, careless, or mentally deficient?
TACTLESS TACTFUL
Obviously, if you'd read your I'm glad to clear up these
policy carefully, you'd be able questions for you.
to answer these questions
yourself.
In order to complete the claim To complete your transaction, .
you made, simply. . . ..
6. Have I stressed the positive and avoided emphasizing ideas my
reader may view unfavorably?
NEGATIVE POSITIVE
I regret to inform you that your Before you are admitted to
admission to candidate status candidate status, you will need
has been delayed until you to complete the following
complete the following requirements.
requirements.
On March 3, we sent you the To receive your check from
accidental injury forms and Student Insurance, please file
requested that you return the accidental injury form we
them to the Health Center. It is sent you on March 3.
now March 27, and we have
not yet received your reply.

Organization: Fitting the Form to Message and

Audience
1. Have I structured my letter or report according to what my
reader's reaction to my message is likely to be?

• Have I used the direct approach (which begins with good news or the main
idea and fills in necessary explanation later) when my reader is likely to
consider my message favorable or neutral?
• Have I used the indirect approach (which begins with a buffer and requires
necessary explanation and detail before the decision is stated) when my reader
is likely to consider my message unfavorably or when he or she will need to
be persuaded?

2. Have I included transitions which will show my reader the

relationships between my sentences and paragraphs?
3. Does one paragraph logically follow the preceding paragraph and
lead into the one which follows?

Correctness: Using Conventional Grammar, Spelling,

and Punctuation
Since most writers have problems with only particular types of
spelling, grammar, and/or punctuation errors, you should read
through your final drafts carefully--looking for those errors which
you frequently commit. Slowly reading through your letter or report
once for EACH of these errors will, in most cases, insure that your
reader's attention will be focused on your message, not on your
mechanical errors.
Business Letters: Accentuating the
Positives
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Your letters will be more successful if you focus on positive wording rather than
negative, simply because most people respond more favorably to positive ideas than
negative ones. Words that affect your reader positively are likely to produce the
response you desire in letter-writing situations. A positive emphasis will persuade the
reader and create goodwill. In contrast, negative words may generate resistance and
other unfavorable reactions. You should therefore be careful to avoid words with
negative connotations. These words either deny--for example, NO, DO NOT,
REFUSE, and STOP--or convey unhappy or unpleasant associations--for example,
UNFORTUNATELY, UNABLE TO, CANNOT, MISTAKE, PROBLEM, ERROR,
DAMAGE, LOSS, and FAILURE.
When you need to present negative information, soften its effects
by superimposing a positive picture on a negative one.
1) stress what something IS rather than what it IS NOT.
2) emphasize what the firm or product CAN and WILL DO rather than
what it CANNOT.
3) open with ACTION rather than APOLOGY or EXPLANATION.
4) avoid words which convey UNPLEASANT FACTS.
Compare the examples below. Which would be more likely to elicit
positive reader response?

Negative Positive
In response to your question about In response to your question
how many coats of Chem-Treat are about how many coats of Chem-
needed to cover new surfaces: I Treat are needed to cover new
regret to report that usually two surfaces: One gallon is usually
are required. For such surfaces you enough for one-coat coverage of
should figure about 200 square 500 square feet of previously
feet per gallon for a good heavy painted surface. For the best
coating that will give you five years results on new surfaces, you will
or more of beautiful protection. want to apply two coats.
Penquot sheets are woven186
Penquot sheets are not the skimpy, threads to the square inch for
loosely woven sheets ordinarily durability and, even after 3-inch
found in this price class. hems, measure a generous 72 by
108 inches.
To keep down packaging costs
We cannot ship in lots of less than and to help customers save on
12. shipping costs, we ship in lots of
12 or more.
In addition, you should reemphasize the positive through embedded
position and effective use of space.
Embedded Position
Place GOOD NEWS in positions of high emphasis: at the beginnings
and endings of paragraphs, letters, and even sentences.
Place BAD NEWS in secondary positions: in the center of
paragraphs, letters, and, if possible, sentences.

Effective Use Of Space

Give more space to GOOD NEWS and less to BAD NEWS.
Evaluate the examples below to determine whether or not they
present negative information favorably.
1. To make the Roanoke more stable than other lamps of this size,
our designers put six claw feet instead of the usual four on the base
and thus eliminated the need for weighting. Claw feet, as you know,
are characteristic of 18th-century design.
2. No special training programs are normally offered other than that
of the College Graduate in Training rotational training period. We do
not expect our employees to continue their education, but we do
have an excellent tuition refund program to assist in this regard
(see Working with General Motors, page 8). Where an advanced
degree is essential, individuals are recruited with those particular
advanced degrees. Both Butler and IUPUI offer courses leading to an
MBA degree.
3. With our rigid quality standards, corrections of Adidas
merchandise run less than .02 percent of our total line. Because of
an oversight in our stitching department, a damaged needle was
inadvertently used and caused the threads to come loose in these
particular bags. Since we now have a check on all our machine
needles before work each day, you can be assured that the stitching
on our Adidas carrying bags will last the lifetime of the bags. Thank
you for calling our attention to the loose stitching.
4. We are sorry that we cannot furnish the club chairs by August 16.
5. I have no experience other than clerking in my father's grocery
store.
6. ABC Dog Biscuits will help keep your dog from getting sick.
Sales Letters - Four Point Action
Closing
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Securing Action
Having convinced your reader that your product or service is worth
the price, you want to get action before the reader has a change of
mind , before forgetfulness defeats you, before the money goes for
something else--before any of the things that could happen do
happen. Therefore, a good persuasive closing is essential.
A good action closing--or clincher--should include the following four
points:
1) clearly state what action you wish the reader to take. 2) make
that action easy through facilitating devices and careful wording. 3)
date the action--if possible and appropriate. 4) provide a reader
benefit as stimulus for action.

1) Clearly State What Action You Wish The Reader To

Take
Should the reader order your product or service? Call your office to
set up an appointment? Fill out a form? Visit a local dealership or
store to see a demonstration? Invite the visit of a sales
representative? On finishing your letter, your reader should know
just exactly what you want done and how it should be done.
At times, you may have to name two actions and ask the reader to
take one or the other. If you possibly can, avoid doing so. Some
people faced with a choice resolve their dilemma by doing nothing.

2) Make That Action Easy Through Facilitating

Devices And Careful Wording
Facilitating devices: order blanks, order cards, and postcards or
envelopes already addressed and requiring no postage--remove
some of the work in taking action. Also, your phone number (with
area code and extension) are useful if you want the reader to call
you. Finally, state your office hours and location if you want the
reader to come to see you in person. References to these facilitating
devices--preferably directing the reader to use them--reassure the
reader that what you are asking is simple and requires little time
and effort.
Careful wording: through careful wording, you can also emphasize
that what you are asking the reader to do is simple. "Write and let
us know your choice" suggests more work than "Check your color
choice on the enclosed card." "Jot down," "just check," "simply
initial" are also examples of wording that suggest ease and rapidity
in doing something. Such wording helps reduce reader reluctance to
take action.

3) Date The Action--If Possible And Appropriate

Name the date whenever you need the reader's response by a
certain time. Tactfully tell the reader why you need it then--perhaps
to meet the deadline for a sale.

4) Provide A Reader Benefit As Stimulus For Action

Always mention some benefit(s) the reader will gain by prompt
action. Such a reminder of the desirability of your product or
service--some- times called a clincher--comes appropriately at the
ending of your letter. It not only provides motivation for the reader,
but it also has decided psychological value as well because it
emphasizes service attitude--rather than the greed stressed if you
end with dollars and cents talk or the mechanics of ordering.
You should always include elements 1, 2, and 4 of the four point
action closing when you are writing a letter relating to sales. You
should use dated action, item 3, ONLY when it is appropriate for
your writing situation.
Some examples of closing paragraphs follow. Determine whether or
not they include all elements of the four point action closing needed
for a tactful, yet persuasive letter ending.
1. Mr. J. B. Nickle, our Memphis representative, will be glad to call at
a time convenient for you. Fill out and mail the enclosed postcard,
and he will come to your home and explain how your Stair Traveler
can make your daily living more pleasurable.
2. You can begin to enjoy the unusual reception of a famous
Foremost set by placing your order now.
3. Call our toll-free number, or mail the enclosed postcard indicating
a day and time convenient for our representative to visit you. He'll
give you a list of SIB users in the Lafayette area and explain
additional advantages of using Superior's Ice Breaker. You can then
order your winter's supply and join more than 150,000 apartment
and industrial firms who have used SIB for ice-free parking lots.
4. If you have any technical questions concerning our products,
please call us toll free at (800) 555-9525 and ask for Technical
Service. Our staff will be pleased to lend whatever assistance they
can.
5. We are enclosing an order blank and postage paid envelope for
your convenience.
Psychological Detail and
Dramatization
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Two types of "you viewpoint" especially important in sales writing-- including
answering inquiries, acknowledging orders, writing unsolicited sales letters, and even
preparing job application letters--are psychological detail and dramatization. Both
strategies put the product/service to work in the reader's life by emphasizing benefits
which the product/service provides.

Psychological Detail
Psychological detail transforms flat, physical detail into description
adapted to reader needs by stressing reader benefits.
This vacuum cleaner has The Electrolux's 20-foot cord a 20-foot
cord. enables you to clean an entire room from one wall plug.
The Pow-R-Pac provides With your Pow-R-Pac, you will protection
from car feel safe even when traveling stalls. alone at night on the
country roads you spoke of.
We sell the Forever cutlery You can reap a nice $2.50 profit set for
the low price of $4.00 on each Forever set you sell at each and
suggest a retail price $6.50, for your cost is only $4. of $6.50.
I have seven years' experience Seven years' practical experience as
a direct-mail copywriter. as as direct-mail copywriter will equip me
to prepare your mail solicitations.
Baker's Dozen is packaged in a Baker's Dozen's new rectangular
rectangular box which has a bright package fits compactly on your
bull's-eye design. shelf, and its bright bull's-eye design is sure to
catch the eyes of your customers.

Dramatization
Dramatization is a particular type of psychological detail which
presents benefits through visual image. It enables the reader to
imagine actually using and enjoying the benefits of the
product/service. Several examples of dramatization follow.
You slide back in the deep plush chair, champagne tickles your
nose, the hills of Georgia float swiftly away 30,000 feet below--and
cares of the week are left behind in the steady whine of the jets.
Or, if you want to sit with your feet on the desk, propped back in
your chair, you can do so without marring the surface or breaking
the welded steel chair.
And don't worry about trying to stuff a six-foot sandwich into your
car because "Let's Munch Out" offers free delivery anywhere in the
greater Lafayette area.
Memo Writing
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Memos have one purpose in life: as the authors of Business Writing Strategies and
Samples put it, "Memos solve problems."
Memos solve problems either by informing the reader about new
information, like policy changes, price increases, etc., or by
persuading the reader to take an action, such as attend a meeting,
use less paper, or change a current production procedure.
Regardless of the specific goal, memos are most effective when
they connect the purpose of the writer with the interests and needs
of the reader. This handout will help you solve you memo-writing
problems by discussing what a memo is, presenting some options
for organizing memos, describing a the parts of memos, and
suggesting some hints that will make your memos more effective.

What Is a Memo?
When you think of a memo, what do you think of? Is it a little piece
of paper with a cute letterhead that says something like:

"From the desk of ..." or "Don't forget ..." or "Reminders ..."

The message itself may be very simple--something like:

"Buy more paper clips" or "Meet with President at 2:30" or "Mom,

we're out of fudge pops."

While these memos are informative or persuasive, and may serve

their simple purposes, more complex memos are often needed in an
office setting. But don't let that worry you. Even though business
memos may be more formal and complicated, the intention in
writing one is still the same. You want to achieve your purpose with
your reader effectively. This handout will show you how.

Basic Memo Plans

Standard office memos can be approached in different ways to fit
your purpose. Here are three basic plans:

1. The direct plan, which is the most common, starts out by stating the most
important points first and then moves to supporting details. This plan is useful
for routine information and for relaying news.
2. The indirect plan makes an appeal or spews out evidence first and arrives at a
conclusion based on these facts. This plan is best used when you need to
 arouse your reader's interest before describing some action that you want
taken.
3. A combination approach can be used for the balanced plan. This plan is
particularly useful when relaying bad news, as it combines information and
persuasion.

Parts of a Memo
Standard memos are divided into segments to organize the
information and to help achieve the writer's purpose.

Heading Segment
The heading segment follows this general format:

TO: (readers' names and job titles)

FROM: (your name and job title)
DATE: (complete and current date)
SUBJECT: (what the memo is about, highlighted in some way)

Troubleshooting hints:

• Make sure you address the reader by his or her correct name and job title. You
might call the company president "Maxi" on the golf course or in an informal
note, but "Rita Maxwell, President" would be more appropriate for a formal
memo.
• Be specific and concise in your subject line. For example, "Rats" as a subject
line could mean anything from a production problem to a personal frustration.
Instead use something like, "Curtailing Rat Extremity Parts in our Product."

Opening Segment
The purpose of a memo is usually found in the opening paragraphs
and is presented in three parts: the context and problem, the
specific assignment or task, and the purpose of the memo.

1. The context is the event, circumstance, or background of the problem you are
solving. You may use a paragraph to establish the background and state the
problem or simply the opening of a sentence, such as, "In our effort to reduce
rat parts in our product...." Include only what your reader needs, but be sure it
is clear.
2. In the task statement you should describe what you are doing to help solve the
problem. If the action was requested, your task may be indicated by a sentence
opening like, "You asked that I look at...." If you want to explain your
intentions, you might say, "To determine the best method of controlling the
percentage of rat extremities, I will...."
3. Finally, the purpose statement of a memo gives your reason for writing it and
forecasts what is in the rest of the memo. This is not the time to be shy. You
want to come right out and tell your reader the kind of information that's in
 store. For example, you might say: "This memo presents a description of the
current situation, some proposed alternatives, and my recommendations." If
you plan to use headings for your memo segments, you can refer to your major
headings in this forecast statement to provide a better guide for your reader.

Troubleshooting hints:

• Include only as much information as is needed by the decision-makers in the

context, but be convincing that a real problem exists. Do no ramble on with
insignificant details.
• If you are having trouble putting the task into words, consider whether you
have clarified the situation. You may need to do more planning before you're
ready to write your memo.
• Make sure your purpose-statement forecast divides your subject into the most
important topics that the decision-maker needs.

Summary Segment
If your memo is longer than a page, you may want to include a
separate summary segment. This segment provides a brief
statement of the key recommendations you have reached. These
will help your reader understand the key points of the memo
immediately. This segment may also include references to methods
and sources you have used in your research, but remember to keep
it brief.
You can help your reader understand your memo better by using
headings for the summary and the discussion segments that follow
it. Try to write headings that are short but that clarify the content of
the segment. For example, instead of using "Summary" for your
heading, try "New Rat-Part Elimination System," which is much more
specific. The major headings you choose here are the ones that will
appear in your purpose-statement forecast.
Troubleshooting hint:

You may want to wait until after the report is drafted and all
conclusions and recommendations have been decided before writing
the summary.

Discussion Segments
The discussion segments are the parts in which you get to include
all the juicy details that support your ideas. Keep these two things in
mind:

1. Begin with the information that is most important. This may mean that you
will start with key findings or recommendations.
2. Here you want to think of an inverted pyramid. Start with your most general
information and move to your specific or supporting facts. (Be sure to use the
same format when including details: strongest--->weakest.)
Troubleshooting hints:

• For easy reading, put important points or details into lists rather than
paragraphs when possible.
• Be careful to make lists parallel in grammatical form.

Closing Segment
Now you're almost done. After the reader has absorbed all of your
information, you want to close with a courteous ending that states
what action you want your reader to take. Make sure you consider
how the reader will benefit from the desired actions and how you
can make those actions easier. For example, you might say, "I will
be glad to discuss this recommendation with you during our
Tuesday trip to the spa and follow through on any decisions you
make."

Necessary Attachments
Make sure you document your findings or provide detailed
information whenever necessary. You can do this by attaching lists,
graphs, tables, etc. at the end of your memo. Be sure to refer to
your attachments in your memo and add a notation about what is
attached below your closing, like this:

Attached: Several Complaints about Product, January - June 1997

Good luck on your memo. If you look at this handout closely, you will
see that, except for the heading segment, it follows the guidelines
and hints presented here. These hints will also help you make your
memo more successful.