National Art Education Association

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"1
ArrangemenTs TnaTpermit conversations Detween teacner and
student to occur across the corner of a table enable both to
be in comfortable eye contact. Photo credit: Brian Miller.
Distance, often a symbolic barrier between teacher and students,
can be reduced by thoughtful spatial planning. Photo credit:
Rrinn Miller
6 Art Education
Physical Space and
the Teaching of Art
.
Frank D. Susi
f the variousfactorsthat characterizeeffective
teaching,the arrangementand use of classroom
physicalspace are especiallysignificantfor art
educators.Becauseof the tacitrelationship
betweenenvironmentand behavior,the settingwhereart
activitiesoccurmustbe ableto supporta varietyof
distinctiveinstructionalfunctions.Researchersfrom
variousdisciplinesincludingsociology,environmental
physiology,architecture,and educationhavestudiedhow
spatialvariablesaffect attitudes,emotions,and behaviors.
Thisinformationhas implicationsfor arteducators
becauseit influencesworkhabitsand communicative
exchangesbetweenteachersand students.Althoughmuch
awarenessof the impactof thesespatialfactorsexists,
manyartteachersareuncertainabouthow to bestutilize
themin individualclassrooms.
Thispaperwill presenta seriesof spatialarrangement
and usageconceptsthat can be appliedin arteducation
settings.Theseideascan be a basisfor improvingteaching
by expandingthe rangeof instructionalmethodsusedby
artteachers.
The significanceof spatialarrangementand usagein art
roomsstemsfromthe two uniquebut interrelated
dimensionsof artteaching:1) studioactivitythatis
associatedwith expressionthroughartmedia,and2) the
criticaland appreciativeexperiencesinvolvedin response
to art. Eachrequiresdifferentspatialconsiderationsif
theyareto occurwithina physicallyandpsychologically
supportivesetting.
Withinthe scholarlyareasthat examinespatialfactors,
two basicresearchorientationshaveemerged:1) personal
spaceresearchwhichdealswiththe significanceof space
relativeto the effectsthe physicalarrangementof
settings,movementpathways,andterritorieshaveon
individuals,and2) proxemicsresearchwhichdealswith
spatialusageas a culturalmatterand asksquestions
relatedto how responseto crowdingdiffersamong
individuals.Whileeachorientationoffers a unique
disciplinaryperspective,both haveestablishedthatspaceis
an importantdimensionin the learningenvironment.
Manyof theseconceptscan be adaptedto the teachingof
art.
The arrangementand use of spacearepartsof the
complexnonverbalcommunicationsystemthatexistsin
everyclassroom.Nonverbalcommunicationrefersto the
March1986
aspectsof behaviorthat accompanythe act of speaking
and influencethe perceiverwithoutusingwords.These
behaviorstend to operateoutsideof the conscious
awarenessof individualsand includesuchother
dimensionsas facialexpressions,eye movements,gestures,
and visualimages.Nonverbalinfluencesaremorepotent
than spokenwordsin revealingattitudesand feelings.
Territories
A basicconceptin the studyof spatialusageis
territoriality,whereinan organismlays claimto an area
and defendsit againstinvasionby others.Thisbehavioral
characteristicis a traitof all humanbeingsand is often
associatedwith the attainmentof personalstatusand
power(Hall, 1966).
As a dimensionof the classroomphysicalenvironment,
spatialterritoriesdefinethe rolesand relationshipsof
teachersand students,influencebehaviors,and signal
expectations.Duringtheirschooling,studentslearnto
readthesearrangementsas they encounterthe authority
orientedflow of communicationthat tendsto existin
classrooms(Sommer,1977).
The territoryof the teacheris markedby the size and
locationof the desk, file cabinet,storagetables,and other
suchartifacts.Thesearrangements,whilenot centralto the
learningactivitytakingplace, symbolizethe dominant
positionoccupiedby the teacher.Sincethe physicaland
socialsystemof the classroomare interconnected,the
developmentof democraticand studentoriented
environmentsmaybe underminedby an overemphasison
territoryin the front of the room. In addition,this practice
can lessenthe flexibilityof room physicalspaceby
encumberinglargeareasof floor space.Thesefactors
shouldbe consideredas arrangementsthat areplannedto
supportlessongoals and to developdesiredclassroom
atmosphere.
SpatialArrangementand Usage
Spatialarrangementrefersto the physicallayoutof chairs,
desks, tables, and othermovablefeaturesof the classroom
environment.Settingscan be purposefullydesignedto
suggestcertainmeaningsas well as exertcontroloverthe
amountand kindof communicationthat will occurwithin
them. Sommer(1977)statedthat the educational
philosophyof the teacheris reflectedin the layoutof the
classroomand should be justified on the basis of certain
educationalgoals.
Spatialusageinvolvesa varietyof factorsincludingthe
routesand patternsof travelby the teacher,locationsof
the individualsvisited,how frequentlyvisitsoccur,how
long they last, and the provisionsthat aremadefor
studentsto changelocations.Whereand whena teacher
travelsin a classroomsignifiesmeaningjust as the
physicaldistancebetweenteacherand studentsestablishes
the statusof relationships.
In educationalsettings,most teachersdo not explorethe
full potentialof spatialarrangementand usagepossibilities
to supporttheirteachingefforts. In a researchproject,
Weinstein(1977)reportedhow minorspatialchanges
introducedinto classroomsresultedin significantchanges
in behavior.By relocatingsomeworkareasand student
desks, the spatialusagepatternsof studentswere
modified,studentsmovedinto areasof the room they had
previouslyavoided,and the rangeof behaviorswas
Art Education
Inthis article . . . Susi discusses the
effects of the arrangement and use
of physical space in the art
classroom. "Settings can be
purposefully designed to suggest
certain meanings as well as exert
control over the amount and kind of
communicationthat will occur within
them."
broadenedwithincertainlocations.Thesefindingssuggest
that attentionto the physicalenvironmentcan produce
behavioralchangesand maypavethe way for concomitant
increases in learning.
SpatialConsiderationsfor StudioActivities
Studioactivitiesusuallytake placeat desks,easels,tables,
or bencheswherestudentscan study, experiment,and
developideasand artworksindependentlyfromother
classmembers.To providephysicallyand psychologically
supportiveenvironmentsfor studentsto work, a varietyof
decisionsaboutthe room spacehaveto be made. First,
physicalspaceshouldbe plannedso that distributionof
supplies,accessto equipment,storageof projects,
clean-upof workspace,and displayof completedwork
can be accomplishedwithminimumcongestionand
confusion.Oftenthesetaskscan be plannedas partof the
learningactivity.Next, spacesshouldbe arrangedto
supportthe expressivepotentialof the assignmentwhile
minimizingenvironmentaldistractionsand psychicstress.
Travelroutesthroughoutthe roomthat promoteease of
movementfor studentsand teachershouldbe considered.
Suchplanningwill helpeliminateblockedpathwaysand
dead-endrowswherethe teacheris unlikelyto venture
duringindividualconsultationswith students.
Most teachersareawarethat personalattentionto each
studentpaysgreatdividends.Whenplanningspatial
arrangements,one goal shouldbe to permiteachstudent
to be locatedwhereverhe or she will be most comfortable
yet can be visitedby the teacherfor individualconsultation
aboutthe workin progress.Physicalproximityintensifies
messages.For example,whena teacherstandsclose to a
student,scoldingseemsmoresevereor the compliment
moregenuine(Galloway,Note 1).
Studentswho are seatedalongaislesor pathwayswhere
the teachertravelsusuallyreceivepersonaland direct
attention.Thosewho are locatedin less accessibleplaces
often do not receiveteachervisitations.The task of
improvingthesesituationsmay seemdifficultin
classroomswheresize, shape,numberof students,typesof
furnitureavailable,and otherphysicalfactorsrestrict
layoutflexibility.Yet not respondingto the physical
limitationscan resultin classroomswherestudentswho
needthe attentionof the teacherareignoredor neglected.
Addressingtheseproblemsand devisingsolutionsto them
areappropriatechallengesfor creativeteacherswho want
to providethe best possibleinstuctionfor students.
March1986 7
 The spatial usage patterns and behaviors of persons
from various cultures have been studied by Hall (1966).
Results of his studies can be helpful in designing spatial
settings for a variety of art education activities. He
reported that in order for individuals to work and function
with a reasonable amountof psychic comfort, four distinct
zones or distances which people establish and maintain
between themselves and others can be identified. They are
summarized as follows:
Intimate Distance
Close phase: 0-6 inches. For very intimate interactions,
often involving body contact such as touching or
comforting.
Far phase: 6-18 inches. For less intense but still intimate
interactions; usually considered improper in public (except
in impersonal situations where defensive devices
counteract it).
Personal Distance (the usual distance we maintain between
ourselves and others)
Close phase: 1V/-2 /2 feet. For people bonded in some
way such as wife and husband.
Far phase: 2 /2-4 feet. The limit of physical domination;
used for discussing subjects of personal interest.
Social Distance
Close phase: 4-7 feet. For impersonal business; used by
people who work together.
Far phase: 7-12 feet. For formal business, such as in
offices.
Public Distance
Close phase: 12-25 feet. For more formal speeches such
as presentations to small audiences.
Far phase: 25 feet and more. For situations when speech
amplification or shouting are involved.
These zones or distances are unconsciously triggered in
individuals and are mediated by four variables: the setting,
the relationship or task of the persons, the emotions of the
individuals, and the physical space arrangements of the
setting. An awareness of these personal space factors can
be helpful to art teachers as they plan classroom spatial
layouts.
The direction from which the teacher approaches and
talks to individual students while they are working in
studio-type activities suggests another spatial usage
consideration. Arrangements that permit conversations
between the teacher and a student to occur across the
corner of a desk or table enable both individuals to be in
comfortable eye contact with one another while directing
their attention to the work being discussed. Talking with
students from over the shoulder is an approach method
that is often used by art teachers. While allowing both
teacher and student to share a common view of the work,
this method precludes the opportunity for establishing
valuable eye contact during the communication exchange.
Spaces for Responding to Art
A variety of unique spatial needs are suggested by those
experiences associated with responding to art. These
activities may include a variety of instructional methods
such as written assignments, individual presentations,
group discussions, critiques, and demonstrations. In most
cases, spaces intended for written work should be planned
to minimize distractions and focus student attention on the
task while allowing access for visitation by the teacher.
8 Art Education
Arrangements to facilitate written work may be similar to
settings designed for art-making activities. Group
discussions, critiques, and other response oriented
instruction emphasize verbal interactions among class
members and the teacher. In most cases, attention is
directed to a specific individual or part of the room.
Planning spatial arrangements for these activities should
be done while considering the desired levels of
interpersonal communication that will occur.
Research studies have shown that the spatial aspect of
instruction featuring teacher-student interactions most
consistently linked to achievement is pupil seat location
relative to the teacher. Individuals located near the front of
the room and close to the teacher tend to be more attentive
and achieve higher grades than those in more distant
positions (Weinstein, 1979). Exactly why this happens has
not been firmly established although researchers speculate
that the quality of eye contact that occurs is an important
factor in this instructional context. Argyle & Dean (1965)
reported that during verbal interactions, people look at
each other in the eye repeatedly, but for very short periods
of time. Emitters tend to watch the expressions of receivers
so they can obtain feedback and judge the effects of what
they have said. Receivers likewise watch eye behavior for
clues to help in understanding what has been said. Students
located physically close to the teacher, such as in front seat
locations, are able to establish and maintain clear eye
contact with the teacher. Other students, located in more
distant seats or who are at severe angles to the teacher and
out of range for comfortable glance, are less able to
establish eye contact. As a result, those individuals do not
fully participate in the mutual give and take behavior
necessary for obtaining important nonverbal clues about
the information being communciated. Generally, as
distance between teacher and student increases, eye contact
decreases. Close physical proximity and good eye contact
in verbal interaction situations are major factors in the
communication that takes place. This phenomenon is
relative to the specific cultural situation in which it occurs
but may partially explain the relationship between seat
location and student achievement in classrooms.
An example of this principle can be observed in a
classroom where students are directed to gather in close
around a table or easel for a critique or demonstration.
This relocating of students is usually done to assure that
everyone can see the work clearly. An analysis of the
resulting situation shows that the revised arrangements
have altered certain interpersonal behaviors that are parts
of the instruction process. When the class gathers in close
to the teacher, voice volume of the participants adapts
to conversational levels and casual pacing of speech
delivery occurs. Distance, often a symbolic barrier between
the teacher and students, is reduced as class members,
both seated and standing, are within the four foot,
Personal Distance zone. Many of the physical barriers such
as tables and desks that create formal divisions of the
territories within the room are also removed. The close
proximity of the students and teacher permits
unobstructed eye contact and comfortable glance behavior
with most class members.
These arrangement principles can be adapted for use in
a variety of other instructional situations such as lesson
March 1986

Figure 1. This classroom has been arranged for expressive activities.
The four long rows with five desks in each have created a network of
tight passages and disruptive traffic routes. Many students are in
locations that make teacher visits difficult.
Figure 2. In this revised layout, four desks have been removed and
others repositioned. The resulting arrangement provides each student
with an aisle seat location for visitations by the teacher. Restrictive
passageways are reduced and travel routes for obtaining supplies,
storing projects, and visiting the sink are simplified.
Art Education
introductions, reviews, and presentations where eye
contact and physical proximity can help to mediate clear
communication. In many cases these spatial considerations
can be introduced into classrooms that must also
accommodate ongoing studio projects. Spatial changes can
be introduced that do not involve the continual moving of
bulky furniture. The time involved in relocating students
should be minimal. In instances where the entire class
period is devoted to a discussion activity, student chairs
can be arranged into a horseshoe or small circle where eye
contact is encouraged. Such a configuration can be a signal
to students as they enter the room of expected lesson focus
and desired levels of interaction.
Physical changes alone can promote if not guarantee
improved student achievement. The positive aspects of
spatial usage can be a basis for improving the instructional
quality of response activities.
Conclusion
This paper has presented a brief review of information
about the arrangement and use of physical space in art
classrooms. These theories can be a basis for making
decisions about the physical environment so that it can be
designed to support instructional goals and expand one's
range of teaching methods.
Each of the two modes of instruction practiced widely in
art education, self expression and response activities,
requires unique spatial considerations. No single room
layout is best for every learning experience. Planning
classroom arrangements involves an awareness of the
spatial dimension of nonverbal behavior and the expected
or desired levels of interaction that will occur as part of the
lesson.
While attention to the spatial environment is only one
aspect of the instructional process, it is a vital component
in the complex physical and social system that exists in
every classroom. Increased understanding about these
systems is a step toward enhancing the effectiveness of
teaching efforts. Applying these ideas with imagination
and sensitivity can maximize the impact of art experiences
upon our students. i
Frank D. Susi is an Associate Professor of Art at Kent
State University, Ohio.
Reference Notes
Galloway, C.M. Nonverbal: the persistent language of real
communication. Unpublished manuscript, 1981. The Ohio State
University, Columbus, Ohio.
References
Argyle, M. and Dean, N. Eye contact, distance, and affiliation.
Sociometry, September, 1965, 28 (3), 289-304.
Hall, E.T. The hidden dimension. Garden City, New York: Doubleday
& Co., 1966.
Sommer, R. Classroom layout. Theory Into Practice, June 1977, 16
(3), 174-175.
Weinstein, C. Modifying student behavior in an open classroom
through changes in the physical design. American Educational Research
Journal, 1977, 14 (3), 249-262.
Weinstein, C. The physical environment of the school: a review of the
research. Review of Educational Research, Fall, 1979, 49 (4), 577-610.
March 1986 9