Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
heat in solids
This appendix supports the thennal aspects of Chapters 2, 6 and subsequent chapters. A
more complete description of heat transport in solids is given in Carslaw and Jaeger (1959).
The basic law of heat conduction in an isotropic material is assumed; namely that the rate
q of heat transfer per unit area nonnal to an isothennal surface is proportional to the temper-
ature gradient in that direction and with K the thennal conductivity and T the temperature:
aT
q=-K (A2.1)
an
()2T
(~ )2 (A2.2a)
= ~K +~ d.xdydzdt
()Z2 dT dz
aT
Hconv = ~ uzpCT -UzPC~T+ -f dz~ ~dxdydt = -uzpC d.xdydzt
az
(A2.2b)
352 Appendix 2
Fig. A2.1 (a) A control volume for temperature analysis and (b) dependence of temperature on position and time for
the example of Section A2.2.1 (IC=10 mm2/s)
Internal heat generation at a rate q* per unit volume causes an accumulation, Hint:
Equating the sum of the terms (equations (A2.2a) to (A2.2~))to the product of tempera-
ture rise and heat capacity of the volume:
aT a2T dK aT 2 aT
pC-=K-+-
at az2 dT ( az )
- - u,pc -+ q*
aZ
(A2.3a)
aT
pC-=K(-
at
a2T
ax2
d2T
+-+-)
aY2
a2T
az2 ax
-pc(Ux-+
aT aT
aY + u,
icy--- z
aZ )+ 4*
(A2.4)
Selected problems, with no convection 353
When itx = ity = itz = 0, and q* = 0 too, equation (A2.4) simplifies further, to
where the diffusivity 1(equals K/pC. In this section, some solutions of equation (A2.5) are
presented that give physical insight into conditions relevant to machining.
z2
1 41(t
(A2.6)
C
is a solution of equation (A2.5). It has the property that, at t = 0, it is zero for all z > 0 and
is infinite at z = 0. For t > 0, dT/dz = 0 at z = 0 and
00
f pC(T -T Jdz = H
0
Equation (A2.6) thus describes the temperature rise caused by releasing a quantity of heat
H per unit area, at z = 0, instantaneously at ( = 0; and thereafter preventing flow of heat
across (insulating) the surface z = 0. Figure A2.l(b) shows for different times the dimen-
sionless temperature pC(T -T J/H for a material with 1(= 10 mm2/s, typical of metals. The
increasing extent of the heated region with time is clearly seen.
At every time, the temperature distribution has the property that 84.3% of the associ-
ated ~eat is contained within the~ion z/V4-;t < 1. This res~lt is obtained by integrating
equation (A2.6) from z = ° to y 41((.Values of the error function erf p,
(A2.8)
that results are tabulated in Carslaw and Jaegeill959). Physically, one can visualize the
temperature front as travelling a distance"" V 4/(t in time t. This is used in considering
temperature distributions due to moving heat sources (Section A2.3.2).
2
z
1 -
4Ir(t-t')
(A2.9)
The total temperature is obtained by integrating with respect to t' from O to t. The temper-
ature at z = O will be found to be of interest. When q is independent of time
2
(T- To) = --=- ~V-;t (A2.10)
VIr K
x'+y'+z'
H 1 4Kt
T-To=- -=-: e (A2.11)
4pC (7t1Ct)3/2
Equation (A2.ll) is a building block for determining the temperature caused by heating
over a finite area of an otherwise insulated surface, which is considered next.
A2.2.4 The semi-infinite solid z > 0: uniform heating rate q per unit area
for t > 0, over the rectangle -a < x < a, -b < y < b at z = 0;
ambient temperature To
Heat flows into the solid over the surface area shown in Figure (A2.2a). In the time inter-
val t' to t' + dt', the quantity of heat dH that enters through the area dA = dx'dy' at (x', y')
is qdAdt'. From equation (A2.1l) the contribution of this to the temperature at any point
(x, y, z) in the solid at time t is
. (X-x')2+(y-y')2+Z;
4K(t-t')
(A2.12)
Integrating over time first, in the limit as t and t' approach infinity (the steady state),
(A2.13)
Details of the integration over area are given by Loewen and Shaw (1954). At the surface
Z = 0, the maximum temperature (at x = y = 0) and average temperature over the heat
source are respectively
Selected problems, with convection 355
(b) (c)
z'
Fig. A2.2 Someproblemsrelevantto machining:(a)surfaceheatingof a stationarysemi-infinitesolid;(b) an infinite
solidmovingperpendicular
to a planeheatsource;(c)a semi-infinitesolidmovingtangentiallyto the planeof a surface
heatsource
2qa
b b .a
(T- T O)max = sinh-] + Slnh-l -
nK a a b
(A2.14)
Figures A2.2(b) and (c) show two classes of moving heat source problem. In Figure
A2.2(b) heating occurs over the plane z = 0, and the solid moves with velocity
itz through the source. In Figure A2.2(c), heating also occurs over the plane z = 0, but
the solid moves tangentially past the source, in this case with a velocity itx in the x-
direction.
356 Appendix 2
A2.3.1 The infinite solid with velocity uz:stead heatin at rate 9 per
unit area over the plane z 0 (Figure A .2b); am ient
temperature To
i g
In the steady state, the form of equation (A2.4) (with q* = 0) to be satisfied is
a2T . JT
(A2.15)
lc--
az2 -'Z aZ
The temperature distribution
U,Z
4 4 -
( T - To) = ~ , ~ 2 0 ; (T-To)=- e , 220 (A2.16)
PCU, PCU,
satisfies this. For z > 0, the temperature gradient is zero: all heat transfer is by convection.
For z = - 0, aT/& = q/K: from equation (A2. l), all the heating rate q is conducted towards
-z. It is eventually swept back by convection towards + z.
- = 5 : ( T - Tolmax _.__
a
(A2.17a)
At the other extreme (P, >> I), convection dominates the temperature field. Beneath the
heat source, aTl& >> aTlax or aTlay; heat conduction occurs mainly in the z-direction and
temperatures may be found from Section A2.2.2. At z = 0, the temperature variation from
x = - a to x = + a is given by equation (A2.10), with the heating time t from 0 to 2ulux.
Maximum and average temperatures are, after rearrangement to introduce the dimension-
less group (qalK),
(A2.17b)
Numerical (finite element) methods 357
Because these results are derived from a linear heat flow approximation, they depend only
on the dimension a and not on the ratio b/a, in contrast to p e « I conditions.
A more detailed analysis (Carslaw and Jaeger, 1959) shows equations (A2.16) and
(A2.l7) to be reasonable approximations as long as Uxa/(2K) < 0.3 or > 3 respectively.
Applying them at Uxa/(2K) = 1 leads to an error of ~20%.
h
(T2 -2T oT)dS
"' (A2.18)
where the temperature gradients aT/ax, aT/ay, at/az, are not varied in the minimization
process. The functional does not take into account possible variations of thermal proper-
ties with temperature, nor radiative heat loss conditions.
Equation (A2.18) is the basis of a finite element temperature calculation method if its
volume and surface integrations, which extend over the whole analytical region, are
regarded as the sum of integrations over finite elements:
m
/(1) = L /e(T) (A2.19)
e=l
where Ie(1) means equation (A2.18) applied to an element and m is the total number of
elements. If an element's internal and surface temperature variations with position can be
written in terms of its nodal temperatures and coordinates, Ie(1) can be evaluated. Its vari-
ation tSle with respect to changes in nodal temperatures can also be evaluated and set to
zero, to produce an element thermal stiffness equation of the form
[H]e{T} = {F}e (A2.20a)
where the elements of the nodal F-vector depend on the heat generation and loss quanti-
ties q*, q and h, and the elements of [H]e depend mainly on the conduction and convec-
tion terms of Ie(1). Assembly of all the element equations to create a global equation
358 Appendix 2
1
N.= ~ (ai+ bix + ciy + d,z)
' 6Ve
where
a 1. = 12 :2 I,
x. y j zj
bi=-l]
1
;21
Yj zj
and
(A2.22)
This may be checked by showing that, at the nodes, T e takes the nodal values. Nj, Nk and
N , are similarly obtained by cyclic permutation of the subscripts in the order i, j , k, 1. V, is
the volume of the tetrahedron.
In the same way, temperature T s over the surface ikj may be expressed as a linear func-
tion of the surface’s nodal temperatures:
T = [N,”’N;] { T ] = [N’][ T ] (A2.23)
where
1
N.’ = ~ (u] + bix‘ + ciy’)
2Aikj
and
The other coefficients are obtained by cyclic interchange of the subscripts in the order i, k,
j . x’, y’ are local coordinates defined on the plane ikj. Aikjis the area of the element’s trian-
gular face: it may also be written in global coordinates as
(A2.25)
uxbi + uYci+ uzdi uX b.J + uYc.J + uzdj uxbk+ UYck+ uzdk uxbl+ uYcl+ uzdl
+A[
2 1
hA,' 1 2
uxbi+ u,ci + u,di
uxbi + U,ci + uzdi
uxbi+ uYci+ uzdi
1
1
0
0 ]
uX bJ. + uY c.J + uzdj
U b. + U C. + U d.
X J YJ
uxbj+ Uycj + uzdj
Z J
uxbk+ uYck + uzdk
uxbk+ uYck+ uzdk
uxbk+ UYc k + uzdk
Uxbl+ U,cl + Uzdl
Uxb,+ UYcl+ u,d,
uxb,+ U,cl + u,d, 1
12 1 1 2 0
0 0 0 0 (A2.26)
and
F, sin a + FT cos a
1
F, cos @ - FT sin @
zs = sin @; zf =
fd V
cos a sin @
v, =cos(@- a) 'work; v, = cos(@ - a)
'work
(A2.29)
In general, q, is assumed to be uniform over the primary shear plane, but qf may take on a
range of distributions, for example triangular as shown in Figure A2.4.
2 1 1 1
/ICv, 1 2 1 1
[CI, =~
20 1 1 2 1
1 1 1 2
362 Appendix 2
Over a time interval At, separating two instants tn and tn+l' the average values of nodal
rates of change of temperature can be written in two ways
aT aT 1
-a~ 1 = (I -8) +8 (A2.31a)
at Jay at -at -J n+l
or
Tn+l
(A2.31b)
111
,!i;- ~av= ~~
where (Jis a fraction varying between O and 1 which allows the weight given to the initial
and final values of the rates of change of temperature to be varied. After multiplying equa-
tions (A2.31) by [C], substituting [C] { aT/at} terms in equation (A2.3la) for ( {F}-[H] {T} )
terms from equation (A2.30), equating equations (A2.3la) and (A2.31 b ), and rearranging,
an equation is created for temperatures at time tn+l in terms of temperatures at time tn: in
global assembled form
[C]
(A2.32)
~t
This is a standard result in finite element texts (for example Huebner and Thomton,
1982). Time stepping calculations are stable for (J~ 0.5. Giving equal weight to the start
and end rates of change of temperature ( (J= 0.5) is known as the Crank-Nicolson method
(after its originators) and gives good results in metal cutting transient heating calculations.
Carslaw, H. S. and Jaeger, J. C. (1959) Conduction of Heat in Solids, 2nd edn. Oxford: Clarendon
Press.
Childs, T. H. C., Maekawa, K. and Maulik, P. (1988) Effects of coolant on temperature distribution
in metal machining. Mat. Sci. and Technol. 4, 1006-1019.
Hiraoka, M. and Tanaka, K. ( 1968) A variational principle for transport phenomena. Memoirs of the
Faculty of Engineering, Kyoto University 30, 235-263.
Huebner, K. H. and Thomton, E. A. (1982) The Finite Element Methodfor Engineers, 2nd edn. New
York: Wiley.
Loewen, E. G. and Shaw, M. C. (1954) On the analysis of cutting tool temperatures. Trans. ASME
76, 217-231.
Tay, A. 0., Stevenson, M. G. and de Vahl Davis, G. (1974) Using the finite element method to deter-
mine temperature distributions in orthogonal machining. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Lond. 188,
627-638.